UNIT 10 PRODUCTIVITY OF AQUATIC

ENVIRONMENT
•
Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives
10.2 What is Productivity?
10.3 Primary Productivity
Chemistry of Primary Productivity
Factors Influencing Primary Productivity
10.4 Secondary Productivity
10.5 Concept of Productivity
Standing Crop
Material Removed
Production Rate
10.6 Relation between Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Productivity
10.7 Classification of Water Bodies on the Basis of Productivity
10.8 Methods of Measuring Primary Productivity
Pigment Analysis
Light and Dark Bottle Method
Carbon'" Technique
10.9 Summary
10.10 Terminal Questions
10.11 Answers

10.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous units the functional interdependency between the various living and
non-living components of the ecosystem have been discussed. We shall now consider
relations of productivity both for the individual links in the food chain and also for the
ecosystem as a whole.

Objectives
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

• understand productivity, its phenomenon and its chemistry,

• explain different types of productivity,
• elucidate the relationship between different production levels, and
• differentiate between different trophic levels in an aquatic ecosystem.

10.2 WHAT IS PRODUCTIVITY?

Basic or primary productivity of an ecological system, community, or any part
thereof, is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic activity of producer organisms (chiefly green plants) in the form of
organic substances which can be used as food materials. Gross primary
productivity is the total rate of photosynthesis, including the organic matter used up
in respiration during the measurement period. This is also known as "total
photosynthesis" or total assimilation. Net primary productivity is the rate of storage
of organic matter in plant tissues in excess of the respiratory utilization by the plants
during the period of measurement. This is also called "apparent photosynthesis" or net
assimilation. In practice the amount of respiration is usually added to measurements of
apparent photosynthesis as a correction in order to obtain estimates of gross
production. New community productivity is the rate of storage of organic matter not
used by heterotrophs (that is net primary production minus heterotrophic
consumption) during the period under consideration, usually the growing season or a
.•. 82 year. Finally the rates of energy storage at consumer levels are referred to as
secondary and tertiary productivities. Since consumers only utilize food materials Productivity of Aquatic
Environment
already produced, with appropriate respiratory losses, and convert to different tissues
by one overall process, secondary and tertiary productivities are not divided into gross
and net amounts. .•.

In all these definitions the term "productivity" and the phrase "rate of production"
may be used interchangeably. Even when the term production is used to designate an
amount of accumulated organic matter, a time element is always assumed or
understood, for example, a year when we obtained a fish crop production. The key
word in the above definition is "rate", i.e., time element must be considered,
therefore the amount of energy fixed in a given time. Biological productivity thus
differs from "yield" in the chemical or industrial sense. In the latter case the reaction
ends with the production of a given amount of material. In biological communities
the process is continuous in time, in more general terms, productivity of an ecosystem
refers to its "richness". A rich or productive community may have a larger quantity
of organisms th~llla less productive community.

"Standing biomass" or standing crop present at any given time should not be
confused with productivity. Usually one cannot determine the primary productivity
of a system, simply by counting and weighing the organisms present at anyone
moment. Although good estimates of net primary productivity may be obtained from
standing crop data in situations in which organisms are large and living materials
accumulate over a period of time without being utilized. On the other hand since
small organisms "tumover" rapidly, organisms of all size of the standing crop may
bear little direct relation to productivity. The inter-relationships between standing
crop, harvest procedure, and productivity become important considerations in
evaluating, the relative merits of any aquaculture system.

SAQ 1
Define the following:
<:1. Primary productivity

b. Gross primary productivity

............................................................ ~ .

c. Net primary productivity

10.3 PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY

Primary production in the aquatic ecosystem starts with the synthesis of organic
compounds from the inorganic constituents of water by the activity of plants in the
presence of sunlight. The inorganic constituents which form the raw material for this
synthesis are: water, carbon dioxide, nitrate ions, phosphate ions and various other
chemical substances. The products are mainly carbohydrates, proteins and fats in
very small quantities. Organic production by plants is the first step in tapping energy

83
Aquatic Environment for by living beings from non-living natural sources, and hence called primary
Aquaculture productivity .

10.3.1 Chemistry of Primary Productivity

The fundamental process in primary production is expressed by the equation:

light
6C02 + 6H20 • C6H1206 + 602
chlorophyll

The above equation can be written more generally as;

Where H2A stands for a reductant. This reductant may be H20, H2, Na2S203 (Sodium
thiosulphate) or an organic carbon compound. The primary reactionis same in all
organisms, be they are bacteria or algae. In the case of plants (except the bacteria),
the reaction consists of splitting a molecule of H20 to yield a reducing agent or
reductant (H) and an oxidant (OH):

H20 ---- .•• (H) + (OH)

Thus, photosynthesis could be described as a light-driven redox reaction involving

H20. The green plants employ the oxidant (OH) to oxidize water and produce O2:

Implication of this reaction is that the O2 evolved in photosynthesis of green plants is

derived from water and not from CO2•

There is another process by which some organisms fix CO2, called chemosynthesis.
This process is carried out by certain bacteria that can use chemical energy contained
in inorganic compounds, instead of light energy. Chemosynthesis may be important
in certain localized environments, such as deep sea where reduced compounds are
released by geochemical processes, or in coastal environments with reduced layers of
water or reduced sediments. In general, rates of chemosynthetic production are much
smaller than rates of photosynthetic productions.

10.3.2 Factors Influencing Primary Productivity

Rates of photosynthetic primary production by phytoplankton vary greatly in different
waters and at different times. The large variation in photosynthetic rates suggest that
there are factors that differ from place to place and from time to time, which
determine the evident differences in photosynthetic activity. The major influencing
factors are:

Light intensity: The primary mover ofthe ecosystem is the sun. The radiant energy
that reaches the surface (at the rate of 105 kilo calories per m2 per year) reacts with the
dissolved and particulate materials present in the water, and this reaction brings about
absorption and scattering. Illumination of surface layers varies with place, time, light
intensity, water transparency, diurnally, seasonally and latitudinally and also with
cloud condition and atmospheric absorption. Depending on the conditions, about
50% of the incident light is reflected back, about 80% of the total radiation entering
the surface is absorbed within the upper 10m (Fig.1 0.1) and only about 0.1 to 0.2% is
converted into photosynthetic production.

84
 Increasing rate/intensity Productivity of Aquatic
Environment

,,,
,
,
..
,
,,
r

-
..c
Q..
11)
Cl
Light Intensity
,,r
,

,,
,,
,,
" Photos
,,,
,
,,,
,
,,
,
,
,,

Fig. 10.1: Vertical profile of light availability and corresponding rate of photosynthesis in water
columns.

Temperature level: Very high temperatures inhibit photosynthesis since they

damage the enzymes .and cell structure as in photo inhibition. The relatively hotter,
and hence lighter surface layer is more vulnerable to turbulent mixing due to which
the algae can be carried down below the photic zone. At critical depth, which is only
a computed depth, the total primary production in the water column equals the total
loss by respiration in the same column.

Nutrients supply: The fundamental importance of nutrients is that the rate at which
they are supplied may determine the rate of primary production. The applied
importance is that often it is man-originated enrichments that change the nature of
aquatic ecosystems, It is seen that after addition of nutrients, net primary production
increases. The productivity of the system is nutrient-limited regardless of the
changes in species composition that often result from the enrichment.

Grazing rates: Peaks of zooplankton density (biomass) generally coincide with

minima of phytoplankton density on account of grazing .. In some areas of the water
bodies, as much as 99.5% of the net primary production may be grazed. The .
plankton upon death, would liberate phosphorous and nitrogen rapidly in the water,
making it available to phytoplankton growth.

SAQ2
Complete the following:
i) 2H2A + CO2 • +2A+H2O

ii) 2H2A + 4(OH) • +02+

iii) 6C02 + 6H2O • +602

iv) Factors influencing primary production are

a . b , .
c, d.

85
Aquatic Environment for
Aquaculture 10.4 SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY
The animal consumer chain consist of the plant-feeding primary consumers. These
also known as secondary producers and the production at this trophic level is known
as secondary productivity. The division between different trophic levels is however
by no means clear-cut, as shown by omnivores. Most of the primary consumers,
especially the filter feeders and detritus feeders, also feed on zooplankton or bacteria.
In spite of this overlapping, the division between primary and secondary consumer is
useful, because it helps to differentiate in the trophic levels and structure.

In natural waters there can be two different consumer chain, e.g., a pelagic consumer
chain and a benthic consumer chain. Each of these chains are formed by several
separate consumption links. The pelagic consumer chain begins with the
phytoplankton followed first of all by the herbivorous group of zooplankton and then
by predatory zooplankton and both groups of zooplankton are eaten up by pelagic
fishes. Predatory fish in every case is the terminal consumer. The benthic consumer
chain which is typical of the bottom region of the standing water bodies and all types
of flowing water go back to the benthic plant matter (algae and higher plants) and
organic sendiments to bottom dwelling animals to the bottom feeding fish species.
Of course, none of the food chains in natural water bodies are either entirely pelagic
nor entirely benthic. There is always an overlapping between different food chains.

SAQ3
Fill in the blanks
I. The animal consumer chain that consists of the plant feeding primary consumers
is also known as . and the
production at this level is known as .

11. There is always an between different food chains.

111.The pelagic consumer chain begins with the followed
by herbivorous group of .
iv. The division between primary and secondary consumer is useful, because it helps
to differentiate in the and : .

10.5 CONCEPT OF PRODUCTIVITY

The three basic concepts of productivity include:
i) Standing crop
ii) Material removed
iii) Production rate

10.5.1 Standing Crop

The standing crop (Fig.l 0.2) is the abundance of the organisms existing in the area at
the time of observation. It may be expressed as number of individuals, as biomass, as
energycontent, or in some other suitable term. Measurments of the standing crop
reveal the concentration of individuals in the various populations of the ecosystem.
The size of population at any moment is the result of the accumulation of production
minus the amount of destruction which has taken place upto the time of observation.
Size of the standing crop is not limited by factors intrinsic within the population. The
biomass of population will eventually reach the maximum size possible for the
circumstances regardless of the speed of increase. The maximum standing crop that
can maintain itself indefinitely in an area is termed as the "carrying capacity" of the
area.

86
 Productivity of Aquatic
Environment

Herbivores

Green plants

Fig.10.2: Standing crop.

The ultimate limit to the growth of the population is determined by the supply of
nutrient materials and.energy. If the supply of these needs is large and ifno other
factor interferes, thepopulation will grow to a large size. If food and energy continue
, to be provided at a rapid rate, the large population can be continuously maintained. A
clear example of such a situation is found where a continuous upwelling of deep water
supplies nutrients for the growth of the marine organisms of that area.'

The standing crop in marine environments tend to be absolutely larger in high

latitudes than in regions nearerthe equator. For instance, the standing crop of
zooplankton in the Antarctic summer was found to be about 10 times greater than that
in the tropical Atlantic. Under tropical conditions, organisms grow faster and, after
death, their tissue are decomposed and nutrients regenerated at a more rapid. rate.

10.5.2 Material Removed

The second concept of productivity is the material removed (Fig. 10.3) from the area
per unit time, and includes the yield, organisms removed from the ecosystem by
emigration, and material withdrawn as organic deposits.

0 Yield to man

Emigration
0
0 Deposits

Fig. 10.3: Material removed.

Ifa community is to maintain itself, material in some form must be supplied to it in an

amount at least equal to the total amount of material removed from the area in the
various ways. The supply in the form of nutrients and immigrants usually must be
considerably larger than the removal because of the loss of energy and of materials
from the system at each level in the food chain. Ordinarily, man's harvest, which is
only one portion of the total amount of-material removed from the area, is very much
smaller than the total supply to the area from all sources. The ratio of yield to the
supply gives one measure ofthe efficiency of the use of the area. A maintained yield
can never average larger than the supply. For getting better harvest, the degree of
crowding of the desired species may beadjusted to the optimal level, and the
competitors of this species may be removed. A suitable balance must be maintained
among all the members of the ecosystem. The population of the species to be
harvested should also be adjusted to the level of abundance at which its growth rate
will be best without disturbing the equilibrium of the community.

87
Aquatic Environment for The "maximum potential yield" is the largest maintained harvest that can be
Aquaculture removed from an area under the best population and environmental conditions. One
aspect of the yield of great practical importance is the yield per unit effort. This may
be measured in terms of manpower, cost, or other basis and depends upon the size of
the standing crop. Thus one aspect of productivity affects another aspect.

10.5.3 Production Rate

The third concept of productivity is the production rate or the rate at which growth
process are going forward within the area. The standing crop of an area or of the
yield from the area does not give a complete picture of productivity; in addition the
rates at which the different constructive and destructive processes are going on within
the area must be considered. Since the plant producers, herbivores, carnivores, and
other components of the ecosystem are all transforming energy and material
simultaneously, the evaluation of production rates is extremely complex. For an
understanding of the interdependencies of the entire ecosystem we should know the
production rate for each of the trophic levels, that is the amount of material formed by
each link in the food chain per unit oftime per unit area or volume, and we must
distinguish between gross and net production.

SAQ4
State whether true or false
a. The three basic concepts of productivity include (i) carrying capacity,
(ii) maximum potential yield, and (iii) size- of population. (T/F)
b. The standing crop is the abundance of organisms existing in the area at
the time of observation. (T/F)
c. The standing crop of zooplankton in the antarctic summer was observed
to be half than the tropical region. (TIF)
d. The ratio of yield to supply gives one measure of the efficiency of the use
of the area. (T/F)

1'0.6 RELATION BETWEEN PRIMARY, SECONDARY

AND TERTIARY PRODUCTIVITY
Let us consider a pond ecosystem in which no gain or loss of materials occurs during the
period under consideration. The food chain of this ecosystem shows only three links.
The size of the rectangles for the green plants, herbivores, and carnivores are
progressively smaller showing reduced energy content of the standing crop as a pyramid
of biomass. The largest rectangle at the bottom represents the total amount of incident
light reaching the area during the period under consideration. Not all of the radiation is
absorbed by the green plants. Of the light energy actually absorbed by the plants only a
small fraction is used in photosynthesis and appears as carbohydrate. This represents the
. gross plant production and therefore, the gross production of the producer component of
the ecosystem. Not all the energy present in the photosynthetic product takes part in the
realized growth ofthe plant since the growth process also is not 100 percent efficient.
The accompanying catabolism of the plant is measured by the amount of respiration.
Actual plant growth is represented by an amount of energy equal to the total carbohydrate
formed minus the respiration and is designated as the net plant production.

Part of the plant material formed in the ecosystem is consumed by primary consumers
or herbivores, and part dies from other causes and undergoes direct decomposition.
Only a portion of the plants designated as "consumed" is actually assimilated by the
herbivores, whereas a certain amount of food that is eaten remains undigested and
frequently more food is destroyed than is actually eaten. The plant material
assimilated is equal to the gross herbivore production or secondary production. This
amount, minus that is lost in respiration, is a measure.of the actual growth of the
88 herbivores, or the net herbivore production. At the third trophic level the primary
Aquatic Environment for The "maximum potential yield" is the largest maintained harvest that can be
Aquaculture removed from an area under the best population and environmental conditions. One
aspect of the yield of great practical importance is the yield per unit effort. This may
be measured in terms of manpower, cost, or other basis and depends upon the size of
the standing crop. Thus one aspect of productivity affects another aspect.

10.5.3 Production Rate

The third concept of productivity is the production rate or the rate at which growth
process are going forward within the area. The standing crop of an area or of the
yield from the area does not give a complete picture of productivity; in addition the
rates at which the different constructive and destructive processes are going on within
the area must be considered. Since the plant producers, herbivores, carnivores, and
other components ofthe ecosystem are all transforming energy and material
simultaneously, the evaluation of production rates is extremely complex. For an
understanding of the interdependencies of the entire ecosystem we should know the
production rate for each of the trophic levels, that is the amount of material formed by
each link in the food chain per unit of time per unit area or volume, and we must
distinguish between gross and net production.

SAQ4
State whether true or false
a. The three basic concepts of productivity include (i) carrying capacity,
(ii) maximum potential yield, and (iii) size. of population. (T/F)
b. The standing crop is the abundance of organisms existing in the area at
the time of observation. (T/F)
c. The standing crop of zooplankton in the antarctic summer was observed
to be halfthan the tropical region. (TIF)
d. The ratio of yield to supply gives one measure ofthe efficiency of the use
of the area. (T/F)

1"0.6 RELATION BETWEEN PRIMARY, SECONDARY

AND TERTIARY PRODUCTIVITY
Let us consider a pond ecosystem in which no gain or loss of materials occurs during the
period under consideration. The food chain of this ecosystem shows only three links.
The size of the rectangles for the green plants, herbivores, and carnivores are
progressively smaller showing reduced energy content of the standing crop as a pyramid
of biomass. The largest rectangle at the bottom represents the total amount of incident
light reaching the area during the period under consideration. Not all of the radiation is
absorbed by the green plants. Of the light energy actually absorbed by the plants only a
small fraction is used in photosynthesis and appears as carbohydrate. This represents the
. gross plant production and therefore, the gross production of the producer component of
the ecosystem. Not all the energy present in the photosynthetic product takes part in the
realized growth of the plant since the growth process also is not 100 percent efficient.
The accompanying catabolism of the plant is measured by the amount of respiration.
Actual plant growth is represented by an amount of energy equal to the total carbohydrate
formed minus the respiration and is designated as the net plant production.

Part of the plant material formed in the ecosystem is consumed by primary consumers
or herbivores, and-part dies from other causes and undergoes direct decomposition.
Only a portion of the plants designated as "consumed" is actually assimilated by the
herbivores, whereas a certain amount of food that is eaten remains undigested and
frequently more food is destroyed than is actually eaten. The plant material
assimilated is equal to the gross herbivore production or secondary production. This
amount, minus that is lost in respiration, is a measure of the actual growth of the
88 herbivores, or the net herbivore production. At the third trophic level the primary
carnivores often eat only part of the prey that they kill, and only a fraction of the Productivity of Aquatic
Environment
material is digested and assimilated. The gross carnivore production or tertiary
production is equal to the total assimilation, and the net carnivore production is equal
to the actual growth increment of these animals. Since the primary carnivores are at
the top of the production pyramid in this assumed three-link food chain, no part of the-
carnivore production is consumed by predators, but all decomposes and goes back into
the system after death (Fig.1 0.4).

Initial standing crop Energy transformations during period

I-D-[~_-J
•........
(P;)---.
+--(P) -.

H"b;'ore, ',I __ :::~I-_~_-J

+--Growth (P2) -.
••• Assimilation (P J)

.•••••
f-----Plant growth(PZ) •
..••.••
--------Carbohydrate formed(P) --------..

______ E_n_er_gy_US_~_d_in_p_h_ot_o_Sy_n_th_es_is [~~~~~~~~

.•• Absorbedlight
..••
1IIIr------- Incidentlight

Fig. 10.4: Energy transformation in an idealized ecosystem with no net increase or decrease,
PI = Gross production, P2 = net production, R = respired, D = decomposed, U =
unassimilated.

SAQ5
Fill up the blanks
i) The gross carnivore production or tertiary production is equal to the

ii) In a pond ecosystem, in pyramid ofbiomass, the largest rectangle at the bottom
represents .
iii) Of the light energy actually absorbed by the plants only a small fraction is used in

10.7 CLASSIFICATION OF WATER BODIES ON THE

BASIS OF PRODUCTIVITY
,

Many attempts to classify lakes on various limnological bases, related in one way or
another to productivity, have been made during the past three decades. Classification
of water bodies (refer to Unit 6 also) particularly in relation to the bottom fauna is
given as follows:
Oligotrophic
Oligotrophic lakes are deep often with steep sides. Their surface to volume ratio is
low (surface area is small compared to depth). Organic materials in suspension as
well as on the bottom are very low. The lake is characterized by low or variable
89
Aquatic Environinent for electrolytes, relatively poor calcium, phosphorous, nitrogen and humic materials is
AquacuIture very low or absent. -= issolved oxygen content is high at all depths throughout year.
Larger aquatic plants are scanty. .Though many species are present plankton are
quantitatively restricted, and many, water blooms rare, Chlorophyceae dominant. .
Profundal fauna are relatively rich in species and quantity; ~old-water fishesisalmon,
trout) common to abundant. Succession occurs into eutrophic type.

Eutrophic
Eutrophic lakes are relatively shallow; deep, cold water minimal or absent. Organic
materials on the bottom and in suspension abundant. Electrolytes are variable, often
with high calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen abundant; humic materials on bottom and
in suspension abundant. Dissolved oxygen is in deeper stratified water bodies of this
type, minimal or absent in hypolimnion. Large aquatic plants abundant. Plankton
are quantitatively abundant; with quality variable; blooms common; Myxophyceae
and diatoms predominant. In deeper stratified water bodies of this type profundal
fauna is poor in species and quantity in hypolimnion; Chironomus larvae present.
Deep-dwelling cold-water fishes are usually absent; suitable for carps, catfishes, air
breathing fishes perch, pike, bass, and other warm-water fishes. Succession takes
place into pond, swamp or marsh.

Dystrophic
Dystrophic lakes are usually shallow, with variable temperature; located in beg
surroundings or in old mountains. Organic materials in bottom and in suspension are
abundant. Electrolytes are low; calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen very scanty: humic
materials abundant. Dissolved oxygen is almost or entirely absent in deeper water.
Larger aquatic plants are scanty. Plankton are variable; commonly low in species and
quantity; Myxophycease may be very rich quantitatively.Profundal macrofauna poor
to absent, in bottom deposits with very scanty fauna; chiromonus larvae sometimes
present. Deep dwelling cold-water fishes are always absent in advanced dystrophic
water bodies sometimes devoid of fish fauna; when present, fish production usually
poor. Succession occurs into peat bog .

. SAQ6
State whether true or false
a. Oligotrophic water bodies are very deep often with steep sides. (TIF)
b. Eutrophic water bodies have a variable temperature, in bog surroundings
or in old mountains. . (TIF)
c. Dystrophic water bodies show very poor fish production, and succession
into peat bog. (TIF)

10.8 METHODS OF MEASURING PRIMARY

PRODUCTIVITY
,.

There are different methods of measuring primary productivity. We describe the

important methods of measurement through
a) Phe standing crop of phytoplankton
b) Pigment analysis
c) Light and dark bottle method (oxygen technique)
d) Carbon-l 4 technique

Note: Primary productivity is usually expressed as grams of carbon per unit

. volume (gC ~-3 day"),
In the method of standin~ crop of phytoplankton Lmm phytoplankton is
equivalent to 0.1 to 0.125 mg carbon.
90
 Productivity of Aquatic
10.S.1 Pigment Analysis Environment
In this method, plant pigments are measured by spectroscopic technique.
i) For a given volume of sample a (500 ml. to 5 litres) in a polythene bottle, 2 or
3 drops of MgC03' suspension are added as a precaution against the development -
. of acidity and hence pigment degradation.
ii) The bottle is then kept inverted in the funnel of the filtering unit which is fitted
with the Millipore filter. Drain the filter thoroughly under suction.
iii) After filteration, the residue together with the filter is placed in the centrifuge tube
and treated with 8 ml of 90% acetone which acts as a solyent for the extraction of
pigments. '
iv) The tube is closed with the glass stopper; it is agitated thoroughly to dissolve the
filter, and kept in a refrigerator in complete darkness for about 10 to 20 hours
during which the pigments get extracted; frequent agitation ensures rapid extraction.
v) Tube should be restored to room temperature in darkness and the extract made up
to 10 ml by adding 90% acetone; the glass stopper is replaced with a plastic
stopper (to prevent breakage while centrifuging). The contents of the tube are
centrifuged for 10 minutes at 3000 to 4000 rpm. The clear supernatant solution is
transferred to spectrophotometer cell (cuvette).
vi) The extinction ofthe colour ofthe extract (i.e., the optical density) is measured
spectrophotometrically using light in the wave lengths of 6650, 6450, 6300 and
4800 angstrong (A),
vii) From the optical density or extinction values (E), the concentration of different
pigments is measured using the following empirical formulae:

Chlorophyll a = (1 1~6x E at 6650 A) - (1.31 x E at 6450 A) - (0.14 x E at 6300 A)

Chlorophyll b = (20.7 x E at 6450 A) - (4.34 x E at 6450 A) - (4.42 x E at 6300 A)
Chlorophyll c = (55 x E at 6300 A) - (4.64 x E at 6650 A) - (16.3 x E at 6450 A).
Carotenoids (mainly in Chlorophyceae and Cyanophyceae) = 10.0 x E at 4800 A.
viii)From the pigment value for a gvein sample, the pigment per cubic metre of
seawater is estimated from the equation:
mg pigment per m3 = CN x 1000 _
Where C is the pigment value estimated from the formulae in step (vii) and V is the
volume (in litres) of filtered water.
ix) From the pigment estimates per m3 the carbon equivalent is estimated from the
relation:
_ 0.00088 mg. Chlorophyll = 0.0039 to 0.0052 mg. Carbon

.10.S.2 Light and Dark Bottle Method (Oxygen Technique)

This method was introduced by Ggaarder and Gran (1927). Water samples are
collected from the desired depths in suitable samples. The initial O2 concentration is
determined by the Winkler method from a small sample. The samples are then
transferred to lig~ and dark bottles which are then suspended at the same depths where
from the samples were taken. The experiment bottles are recovered after 12 to 24
hours and the final O2 is released as a result of photosynthesis and a part of O2 is used
for community respiration. In the dark bottles only O2 consumption takes place as a
result of respiration. For a particular depth: \
Let the initial O2 level be .... 4.0 mg/I IB
Let the final O2 level in dark bottle be 2.2 mg/I DB
Let the final O2 level in light bottle be 6.5 mg/I LB
Net O2 production = 6.5 - 4 2.5 mg/I LB - IB = 0
O2 consumed for respiration 4 - 2.2 1.8 mg/I IB - DB = P
O+P
Gross production of O2 = 2.5 + 1.8
(or 6.5 - 2.2) 4.3 mg/l o-r
= Q 91
Aquatic Environment for The carbon equivalent of gross oxygen production is calculated from the
Aquaculture formula:

.
Gross prImary pro ducti
uction 02 in mill x 0.536
= -----
1.25

02 in mill x 0.375
1.25

For the example given above: mg C per litre = LB DB(4.3)xO.375 = 1.29

1.25

From this value, the gC/m3/day or gC/m2/day is estimated.

10.8.3 Carbonl4 Technique

This method is very aptly called a tracer technique since you are adding a small amount
of a specific radio-active substance, also called labeled substance (in this case a
compound containing 14Cto a water sample, and tracing its uptake by the plant material
contained in the sample).
i) Fill the water sample in a 300 ml BOD bottle, leaving 5 ml space at the top.
ii) Take an ampoule of 2 ml radiocarbon solution of suitable strength in 5% NaCl
(radioactivity is expressed in units of microcurie or -~c; it should be 1- uc for
water samples. Break the tip of the ampoule with a glass file. Take the
contents in a syringe fitted with a 6-inch hypodermic needle. Insert the needle
to the BOD bottle and empty the contents of the syringe into the sample. Close
the bottle with its ground glass stopper which should be secured by wire.
iii) Mix the contents of the bottle thoroughly by shaking. Expose the bottle to
illumination either in an incubator or in the pond for 2 to 6 hours.
iv) At the end of the experiment, remove the stopper from the BOD bottle and add
1 ml, of neutral formaline from a small hypodermic syringe to kill at the
phytoplankton, and thereby to stop photosynthetic activity.
v) Filter the entire contents of the BOD bottle through the membrane disc in a
millipore filter (25 mm or 47 mm diameter) or a filteration apparatus. Vacuum
suction device is used to ensure rapid filteration in less than 10 minutes.
vi) using forceps, remove the membrane disc containing the radioactive
phytoplankton, keep in a bottle containing rubber cement solvent, and store it in
a desicator. The sample should dry for at least 2 hours so that the rubber
cement solvent is lost completely.
vii) Place the bottle together with the sample into a Geiger counter to measure the
radioactivity. Radioactivity is recorded as counts.
Let R be the counting rate (counts per minute) for this sample.
viii) While proceeding with steps (i) to (vii), subject a sample in a darkened BOD
bottle also to the same steps simultaneously.
This sample is called blank.
Let R, be the counting rate of this standard.
ix) The radiocarbon solution in the ampoule is called the standard.
Let R, be the counting rate of this standard.
x) The amount of carbonate carbon in 1 litre of water sample is derived by
multiplying its carbonate alkalinity (A) by 0.95.
or
mg C/litre = 12 x A x 0.95; (12 is the atomic weight of C).
mg C/m3 = 12 x 1000 x A x 0.95; (1 m3 = 1000 litres)
Let the value of mg/C m3 be = W
xi) IfN is the number of hours the sample was exposed to light, then, the rate of
photosynthesis is given by:

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 3 Productivity of Aquatic
Radiocarbon measured photosynthesis (mg C/m hour)
Environment

(R.. Rb) x W x 1.05

RxN

The factor 1.05 is used to allow for the fact that 14C isotope behaves rather
differently from 12C isotope found in nature. This correction is somewhat
uncertain.

10.9 SUMMARY
You have learnt in this unit that:

• Primary productivity of an aquatic ecosystem is the rate at which radiant energy is

converted into organic substances through the process of photosynthesis and
chemosynthesis'.
• Primary productivity is further differentiated into gross and net primary
productivity. Organic matter so produced is consumed by consumers, and the
rates of-energy storage at"consumer levels are referred to as secondary and tertiary
productivities.
• Productivity of an aquatic ecosystem, is influenced by light intensity, temperature,
nutrients supply; grazing rates etc.
• The three concepts of productivity includes (i) standing crop; (ii) material
removed; and, (iii) production rate.
• On the basis of productivity natural water bodies are classified into (a)
Oligotrop~ic; (b) Eutrophic; and (c) Dystrophic.

10.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Write equation for the fundamental process into the primary production .

.....................................................................................................

2. What is standing crop? How is it related to productivity?

....................................................................... , .

3. What is the relation between primary, secondary and tertiary production?

,
.............. ~ .

.. .. .. ..... ... . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . ...

4. What are the factors that influence primary productivity?

...................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
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Aquatic Environment for ...................................................................................................
Aquaculture
...................................................................................................
Q

10.11 ANSWERS
1. a. The rate at which radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic activity of producer organisms in the form of organic
substances which can be used as food materials.

b. It is the total rate of photosynthesis, including the organic matter used up in

respiration during the measurement period.

c. It is The=-rateof storage of organic matter in plant tissues in excess of the

respiratory utilization by the plants during the period of measurement.

2. I. HCOH
ii. 4H20
iii. C6H1206
IV. a. Light intensity b. Temperature level
c. Nutrients supply d. . Grazing rates

3. i. Secondary producers, Secondary productivity

11. Overlapping
iii.Phytoplankton, zooplankton
iv. Trophic levels, structure

4. a. F, b. T, c. F, d. T

5. I. Total assimilation
11. Total amount of incident light
iii. Photosynthesis

6. a. T b. F c. T

Terminal Questions

1. 6C02 + 6H20 Light C6H1206 + 602

chlorophyll

2. One of the three basic concepts of productivity Include 'standing crop'. It is the
abundance of the organisms existing in the area at the time of observation.

3. Refer section 10.6 and fig. 10.6 and 10.7.

4. Refer section 10.3.

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 Productivity of Aquatic
GLOSSARY E!1vironment

Amphibious Adapted for both land and water.

Barnacle Small sea animal that fastens itself to objects under water,
rocks, the bottom of ships, the timbers of wharves etc.

Benthic Refers to the bottom layer of any body of water and the
organisms therein.

Biomass The total weight of living organisms per unit area.

Corals Hard, red, pink or white substances built on the sea bed by
small creatures (polyps).

Clay Stiff, sticky earth that becomes hard when baked.

Clayey Covered with clay.

Carnivore Animals that feed upon other animals.

Crustaceans Any of a numerous class of animals, mostly living in water

(and popularly called shellfish) with a hard shell e.g., prawns,
crabs, lobsters.

Diptera The insect of this group have a single' pair of transparent

wings e.g., mosquitoes, gnats, houseflies, blowflies, etc,

Detritus Fresh or decaying organic matter of plants and animal origin.

Epilimnion This forms the upper layer of the lake and consists of freely
circulating warm water which is well lighted through poor in
nutrient. Most of the phytoplankton grow in the epilimnion
which is well aerated both due to photosynthetic oxygen
production by plants and mixing by winds,

Eutrophic Eutrophic lakes are shallow and their surface to volume ratio
is high (surface area is large relative to depth).

Flocculent Small feather like solid particles.

Foraminiferans They are largely benthic protozoans having multichambered

calcareous tests of shells with numerous pores. The name
foraminifera or pore bearer.

Gross Production Production before respiration losses are subtracted,

photosynthetic production for plants and metabotizable
production foranimals.

Habitat The natural abode of an organism including its total environment.

Herbivore Animals that eat plants.

Homing Having the instinct to fly/go home (when released a long way
from home).

95
 Hypolimnion This zone forms the bottom layer of a lake which deep, cold
Aquatic Environment for
Aquaculture and non-circulating. The hypotimnion is generally, rich in
nutrient through its oxygen content is low due to its
utilization by decomposition process. Temperature fall is
gentle. .•.

Host Organisms that furnish food, shelter, or other benefits to

another organism of a different species.

Implosion Bursting inward.

Lentic Means still water (standing water) and is an obscure way of

saying "still water".

Littoral Pertaining to the shore of the sea or of a large lake; a shallow

water zone with light penetration to the bottom and often
occupied with rooted aquatic plants.

Lotic Means "running water" and is a closure way of saying

"running water".

Limiting factor The ecological influence that limits or controls the abundance
and/or distribution of a species.

Molluse One of a class of animals with soft bodies (and often hard
shells) e.g., Oysters, mussels, cuttlefish, snails, slugs etc.

Nektons Animals of sea such as fish, which can control their position
by swimming, sea animals other than plankton.

Net Primary Organic synthesis in a plant in excess of that used in

Production respiration of the plant.

Neuston Organisms supported on water surface.

Niche The ecological role or 'Profession' of an organism in its

ecosystem; its activities and relationships to its community
and total environment.

Nutrient A chemical substance that contributes to the growth of an

.organism.

Olfaction Concerned with smelling.

Oligotrophic Oligotrophic lakes are deep often with steep sides. Their
surface to volume ratio is low (surface area is small compared
to depth).

Pelagic Refers to the open ocean.

Phytoplankton Microscopic animals (chiefly algae) are known as

phytoplankton.

Plankton Floating or weekly swimming organism in aquatic

environment, primary microscopic.

Prokaryotic Organism whose cell does not contain a true nucleus but
contains only nucleoid.
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 Productivity of Aquatic
Porifera Comprises sponges. These are pore bearing organisms.
Environment

Protozoa Animals of this group are eukaryotes (containing true

nucleus) that form 'a group of about 80,000 single celled
organisms. ..
Sedge Forms of grass like plants growing in marshes or near wet
places.

Shoaling Great number of fish swimming together.

Sublittoral Lower division in the sea from a depth of 40 to 60 m to about

200 m; below the littoral zone.

Succession The changes in vegetation and animals life by which one kind
of population or community is replaced by others; it
collimates into climax.

Swamp Soft wet land.

ThermocIine The subsurface layer of a lake characterized by significant

temperature changes or thermocline is the plane at which the
temperature drops most rapidly atleast I.O°C for each meter
of depth.

Thermoregulation Maintenance or regulation of a particular temperature of the

living body.

Trophic level, One stage in a nutritive series including producers or various

levels of consumers.

Zooplankton Microscopic animals (primarily crustaceans and protozoans)

are known as zooplankton.

97