1.Distinguish between 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Generation Cellular Networks.

Answer:

Comparison 2G 3G 4G 5G
Introduced year 1993 2001 2009 2018
Technology GSM WCDMA LTE, Wimax MMO, mm waves
Access system TDMA,CDMA CDMA CDMA OFDM, BDMA
Internet service Narrowband Broadband Ultra broadband Wireless world
wide web
Bandwidth 25 MHz 25 MHz 100 MHz 30 GHz to 300
GHz

2.Describe GSM architecture overview.

Answer:

The GSM architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems that interact with themselves
and with users through certain network interface. The subsystems are Base Station Subsystem (BSS),
Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operational Support Subsystem (OSS). Mobile Station (MS) is
also a subsystem but it is considered as a part of BSS.
1. Mobile Station (MS): Mobile Station is made up of two entities.
A. Mobile equipment (ME):

 It is a portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device.

 It is uniquely identified by an IMEI number.
 It is used for voice and data transmission. It also monitors power and signal quality of
surrounding cells foe optimum handover. 160 characters long SMS can also be sent using Mobile
Equipment.
B. Subscriber Identity module (SIM):

 It is a smart card that contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number.
 It allows users to send and receive calls and receive other subscriber services. - It is protected by
password or PIN.
 It contains encoded network identification details. it has key information to activate the phone.
 It can be moved from one mobile to another.

2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): It is also known as radio subsystem, provides and manages radio
transmission paths between the mobile station and the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC). BSS also
manages interface between the mobile station and all other subsystems of GSM. It consists of two parts.
A. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

 It encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signal to the antenna.
 It consists of transceiver units.
 It communicates with mobile stations via radio air interface and also communicates with BSC via
Abis interface.

B. Base Station Controller (BSC):

 It manages radio resources for BTS. It assigns frequency and time slots for all mobile stations in
its area.
 It handles call set up, transcoding and adaptation functionality handover for each MS radio power
control.
 It communicates with MSC via A interface and also with BTS.

3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): it manages the switching functions of the system and allows
MSCs to communicate with other networks such as PSTN and ISDN. It consist of
A. Mobile switching Centre:

 It is a heart of the network. It manages communication between GSM and other networks.
 It manages call set up function, routing and basic switching.
 It performs mobility management including registration, location updating and inter BSS and
inter MSC call handoff.
 It provides billing information.
 MSC does gateway function while its customers roam to other network by using HLR/VLR.

B. Home Location Registers (HLR): - It is a permanent database about mobile subscriber in a large
service area. - Its database contains IMSI, IMSISDN, prepaid/post-paid, roaming restrictions,
supplementary services.
C. Visitor Location Registers (VLR): - It is a temporary database which updates whenever new MS
enters its area by HLR database. - It controls mobiles roaming in its area. It reduces number of queries to
HLR. - Its database contains IMSI, TMSI, IMSISDN, MSRN, location, area authentication key.
D. Authentication Centre: - It provides protection against intruders in air interface. - It maintains
authentication keys and algorithms and provides security triplets (RAND, SRES, Ki).
E. Equipment Identity Registry (EIR):
  It is a database that is used to track handset using the IMEI number.
 It is made up of three sub classes- the white list, the black list and the gray list.

4. Operational Support Subsystem (OSS): It supports the operation and maintenance of GSM and
allows system engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of GSM system. It supports one
or more Operation Maintenance Centres (OMC) which are used to monitor the performance of each MS,
Bs, BSC and MSC within a GSM system. It has three main functions:

 To maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations with a particular market.
 To manage all charging and billing procedures
 To manage all mobile equipment in the system.

Interfaces used for GSM network : (ref fig 2)

1)UM Interface –Used to communicate between BTS with MS
2)Abis Interface— Used to communicate BSC TO BTS
3)A Interface-- Used to communicate BSC and MSC
4) Singling protocol (SS 7)- Used to communicate MSC with other network .

3.The authentication and ciphering functions in GSM showing the detail steps
of procedures.
Answer:

a. Authentication of GSM mobiles:

Authentication in the GSM system is achieved by the Base Station sending out a challenge to the mobile
station. The MS uses a key stored on its SIM to send back a response that is then verified. This only
authenticates the MS, not the user.
To request for a call or to receive a call, the MS has to get authenticated. The process is as follows:

 A unique subscriber authentication key is programmed on every SIM card. The authentication
center (AuC) has a list which maps Ki number with the SIM card.It is a secure database.
 When a SIM card requests for a call, a 128 bit random number is instantaneously generated by the
AuC and transmitted to the SIM card.
 The A3 algorithm which is programmed inside the SIM card processes the RAND number and Ki
number and generates a 32 bit output called the Signed RESponse number (SRES).
 The same process is done on the AuC side.
 The SIM card transmits this SRES number to the AuC.
 The AuC compares the received SRES with the SRES that’s generated on the network side.
 The SIM is authenticated if and only if the two SRES are same.

The authentication centre contains a database of identification and authentication information for
subscribers including IMSI, TMSI, location area identity (LAI), and authentication key (Ki). It is
responsible for generating (RAND),response (RES), and ciphering key (Kc) which are stored in HLR /
VLR for authentication and encryption processes. The distribution of security credentials and encryption
algorithms provides additional security.

b. Encryption in GSM:

GSM uses information stored on the SIM card within the phone to provide encrypted communications
and authentication. GSM encryption is only applied to communications between a mobile phone and the
BS. The rest of the transmission over the normal fixed network or radio relay is unprotected, where it
could easily be eavesdropped or modified. In some countries, the base station encryption facility is not
activated at all, leaving the user completely unaware of the fact that the transmission is not secure. GSM
encryption is achieved by the use of a shared secret key. If this key is compromised it will be possible for
the transmission to be eavesdropped and for the phone to be cloned (i.e., the identity of the phone can be
copied). A 64-bit key is divided to provide data confidentiality. It is not possible to encrypt all the data;
for example, some of the routing information has to be sent in clear text. The detailed process of
Encrypting the data is as shown in Figure 16.

 The AuC generates a random number (RAND ) of 128 bits and sends it to the MS.
 The RAND and the Ki number is processed by the A8 algorithm on both the sides.
 The A8 algorithm produces a 64 bit ciphering key (Kc). Ciphering means scrambling or
randomizing the data.
 The A5 algorithm takes Kc key and data to be transmitted as input and and accordingly encrypts
the data.
 A5 algorithm is different for each service provider and is highly secretive.

c. GSM Token-based challenge

The security-related information consisting of triplets of RAND, signature response (SRES), and Kc are
stored in the VLR. When a VLR has used a token to authenticate an MS, it either discards the token or
marks it used. When a VLR needs to use a token, it uses a set of tokens that is not marked as used in
preference to a set that is marked used. When a VLR successfully requests a token from the HLR or an
old VLR, it discards any tokens that are marked as used. When an HLR receives a request for tokens, it
sends any sets that are not marked as used. Those sets shall then be deleted or marked as used. The system
operator defines how many times a set may be reused before being discarded. When HLR has no tokens,
it will query the authentication centre for additional tokens. The token-based challenge can be integrated
into various call flows (e.g., registration, handoff). It is described separately here for clarity. Figure 17
shows the call flows of token-based challenges.

 The serving system sends a RAND to the MS.

 The MS computes the SRES using RAND and the authentication key (Ki) in the encryption
algorithm.
 The MS transmits the SRES to the serving system.
 The MSC sends a message to the VLR requesting authentication.
 The VLR checks the SRES for validity.
 The VLR returns the status to the MSC.
 The MSC sends a message to the MS with a success or failure indication.

Both GSM and North American systems use the international mobile equipment identity (IMEI) stored in
the equipment identity register (EIR) to check malfunctions and fraudulent equipment. The EIR contains
a valid list (list of valid mobiles), a suspect list (list of mobiles under observation), and a fraudulent list
(list of mobiles for which service is barred).

4.GSM Speech Processing describing all steps like First and second level of
interleaving.
Answer:
1. Speech coding:

 GSM speech coder is RELP (Residually Excited Predictive Coder), which is enhanced by
including a Long Term Predictor (LTP).
 The coder provides 260 bits for 20ms blocks of speech, which yields a bit rate of 13kbps.
 GSM system operates in Discontinuous Transmission mode (DTX) by incorporating a Voice
Activity Detector (VAD) in speech coder. This mode provides a longer battery life and reduces
instantaneous radio interference since GSM transmitter is not active during silent periods.
 A Comfort Noise Subsystem (CNS) is used at receiver which adds background acoustic noise to
compensate for the annoying switched muting which occurs due to DTX.

2. Channel coding:

 The outputs of thee speech coder are ordered into for error protection, based upon their
significance in contributing groups to speech quality.
 Out of 260 bits in a frame, the most important 50 bits called type Ia bits, have 3 parity check
(CRC) bits added to them to detect non-correctable errors at the receiver.
 The next 132 bits with first 53 are appended by 4 trailing zero bits, thus providing a data block of
189 bits. This block is then encoded for error protection using a rate ½ convolution encoder with
constant length K=5, thus providing a sequence of 378 bits.
 The least important 78 bits do not have error protection and concatenated to existing sequence to
form a block of 456 bits in 20ms frame, data rate of speech signal becomes 22.8kbps.
3. Interleaving:

 To minimizee the effect of sudden fades on the received data, the total of 456 encoded bits within
each 20ms speech frame or control message frame are broken into eight 57 bits sub blocks and
they are numbered even odd according to block number. These eight consecutive consecuti blocks are
spread over eight consecutive TCH time slot.
 If a burst is lost due to interference or fading, channel coding ensures that enough bits will still be
received correctly to allow the error correction to work.
 Each TCH time slot carries two 57 bbits its blocks of data from two different 20ms speech blocks.
Time slot of first 4 frames contains even data blocks of present speech frame and odd data block
of previous speech frame. Time slot of next 4 frames contains odd blocks of present speech frame
and even data block of next speech frame.

4. Burst formatting:

Burst formatting adds binary data to the data block to help synchronization and equalization of the
received signal.

5. Ciphering:

 Ciphering modifies the contents of the eight interleaved blocks by encryption techniques known
only to the particular mobile station and base transceiver station.
 The A3 ciphering algorithm is used to authenticate each mobile by verifying the user password
within the SIM with the cryptographic key at the MSC.
 The A5 ciphering
ering algorithm is used for encryption. It provides scrambling for 114 coded bits sent
in each TS.
 The A8 is used for ciphering key.

6. Modulation:

 The modulation scheme used by GSM system is 0.3GMSK where 0.3 describes 3db bandwidth of
the Gaussian pulse shaping filter.
 The channel data rate of GSM is 270.833 kbps which is four times the RF frequency shift. This
minimizes bandwidth of the modulation spectrum and hence improves channel capacity.
  MSK modulated signal is then passed through Gaussian filter to smooth the rapid frequency
transitions which would otherwise spread energy in adjacent channels.

7. Demodulation:

 The portion of the transmitted forward channel signal which is of interest to a particular user is
determined by the assigned TS and ARFCN. The appropriate TS is demodulated with aid of
synchronization data provided by the burst formatting.
 After demodulation the binary information is deciphered, de-interleaved, channel decoded and
speech decoded.

5.Overview of GSM Timing Structures.

Answer:

1. Each user transmits a burst of data during the time slot assigned to it. These data bursts may have one
of five specific formats. Normal bursts are used for TCH and DCCH transmissions on both the forward
and reverse link. FCCH and SCH bursts are used in TS0 of specific frames to broadcast the frequency and
time synchronization control messages on the forward link. The RACH burst is used by all mobiles to
access service from any base station, and the dummy burst is used as filler information for unused time
slots on the forward link.
2. A frame is one where no time slot is repeated. A frame contains eight time slots TS0 to TS7. One time
slot duration= 576.92 μsec
Number of bits transmitted during 1 time slot= 156.25 bits
Thus duration of one frame = 576.92 μsec ×8=4.6153 msec
Each bit duration= 576.92μsec156.25bits576.92μsec156.25bits=3.6922 μsec
Transmission rate= 56.25bits576.92μsec56.25bits576.92μsec =270.833kbps
One user’s transmission rate = 270.833 kbps / 8=33.854 kbps

6.UMTS Network Architecture.

Answer:
The main UMTS network blocks

 User Equipment (UE): The User Equipment or UE is the name given to what was previous
termed the mobile, or cellphone. The new name was chosen because the considerably greater
functionality that the UE could have. It could also be anything between a mobile phone used for
talking
king to a data terminal attached to a computer with no voice capability.
 Radio Network Subsystem (RNS): The RNS also known as the UMTS Radio Access Network,
UTRAN, is the equivalent of the previous Base Station Subsystem or BSS in GSM. It provides
and manages
anages the air interface fort he overall network.
 Core Network: The core network provides all the central processing and management for the
system. It is the equivalent of the GSM Network Switching Subsystem or NSS.

The core network is then the overall entity that interfaces to external networks including the public phone
network and other cellular telecommunications networks.

7.OFDMA
OFDMA Based WiMAX Network
Network.
Answer:

The WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a technology in broadband

wireless access, which employs OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) as an
alternative transmission to enable high speed data in communication system. This research aim is to
analyze the performance system of the OFDM
OFDM-Based
Based WiMAX, which used the cyclic prefix. The
model was designed in four schemes of simulation method, the BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying,
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying), 16 QAM (Quadrature Ampl Amplitude
itude Modulation) and 64 QAM.
Each scheme was investigated BER (Bit Error Rate) on AWGN (Additive White Gaussian Noise)
channel and multipath Rayleigh fading channel, which had applied the cyclic prefix. By simulation of
the cyclic prefix was produced the modulation measurement of the BPSK, QPSK, 16 and 64 QAM.
The performance result of Eb/No 15 dB was obtained the BER of BPSK and QPSK of 1.11E-11,
1.11E the
BER of 16 QAM and 64 QAM of 8.69E 8.69E-06
06 and 0.00333 respectively. Those results indicated much
smaller BER valuelue than EbNo 0 dB which BPSK and QPSK of 1 BER, 1.5 and 1.75 BER for 16 QAM
and 64 QAM respectively. In conclusion, a higher value of EbNo, hence the BER value would be
lower.
8.Architecture of LTE, 4G Mobile Communications (WiMAX and LTE).
Answer:

Architecture of LTE:
The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main components:
 The User Equipment (UE).
 The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).
 The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).
The evolved packet core communicates with packet data networks in the outside world such as the
internet, private corporate networks or the IP multimedia subsystem. The interfaces between the
different parts of the system are denoted Uu, S1 and SGi as shown below:

Architecture of4G Mobile Communications

4G Architecture

1. 4G stands for fourth generation cellular system.

2. 4G is evaluation of 3G to meet the forecasted rising demand.
3. It is an integration of various technologies including GSM, CDMA, GPRS, IMT-2000, Wireless
LAN.
WiMAX:

WiMAX network architecture

The overall WiMAX network comprises a number of different entities that make up the different major
areas described above. These include the following entities

 Subscriber Station, SS / Mobile Station, MS: The Subscriber station, SS may often be referred
to as the Customer Premises Equipment, CPE. These take a variety of forms and these may be
termed "indoor CPE" or "outdoor CPE" - the terminology is self-explanatory. The outdoor CPE
has the advantage that it provides better performance as a result of the better position of the
antenna, whereas the indoor CPE can be installed by the user. Mobile Stations may also be used.
These are often in the form of a dongle for a laptop, etc.
 Base Station, BS: The base-station forms an essential element of the WiMAX network. It is
responsible for providing the air interface to the subscriber and mobile stations. It provides
additional functionality in terms of micro-mobility management functions, such as handoff
triggering and tunnel establishment, radio resource management, QoS policy enforcement, traffic
classification, DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol) proxy, key management, session
management, and multicast group management.
 ASN Gateway, ASN-GW: The ASN gateway within the WiMAX network architecture
typically acts as a layer 2 traffic aggregation point within the overall ASN.

The ASN-GW may also provide additional functions that include: intra-ASN location
management and paging, radio resource management and admission control, caching of
subscriber profiles and encryption keys. The ASN-GW may also include the AAA client
functionality(see below), establishment and management of mobility tunnel with base stations,
QoS and policy enforcement, foreign agent functionality for mobile IP, and routing to the selected
CSN.
 Home Agent, HA: The Home Agent within the WiMAX network is located within the CSN.
With Mobile-IP forming a key element within WiMAX technology, the Home Agent works in
 conjunction with a "Foreign Agent", such as the ASN Gateway, to provide an efficient end-to-end
Mobile IP solution. The Home Agent serves as an anchor point for subscribers, providing secure
roaming with QOS capabilities.
 Authentication, Authorization and Accounting Server, AAA: As with any communications
or wireless system requiring subscription services, an Authentication, Authorization and
Accounting server is used. This is included within the CSN.

9.Some important features of WiMAX, and LTE.

Answer:

WiMAX - Salient Features

 Two Type of Services. WiMAX can provide two forms of wireless service −
 OFDM-based Physical Layer.
 Very High Peak Data Rates.
 Scalable Bandwidth and Data Rate Support.
 Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC).
 Link-layer Retransmissions.
 Support for TDD and FDD.
 WiMAX Uses OFDM.
LTE features

 Audio and video streaming. LTE has faster download and upload speeds than 2G and 3G.
 Real-time connection to services. With voice over LTE (VoLTE), users can talk to others without
experiencing lag or jitter.
 Even faster speeds with LTE-Advanced.
 Carrier aggregation.

10.5G Network Architecture.

Answer:

Architecture of 5G is highly advanced, its network elements and various terminals are characteristically
upgraded to afford a new situation. Likewise, service providers can implement the advance technology
to adopt the value-added services easily.

However, upgradeability is based upon cognitive radio technology that includes various significant
features such as ability of devices to identify their geographical location as well as weather, temperature,
etc. Cognitive radio technology acts as a transceiver (beam) that perceptively can catch and respond radio
signals in its operating environment. Further, it promptly distinguishes the changes in its environment
and hence respond accordingly to provide uninterrupted quality service.

Architecture of 5G
As shown in the following image, the system model of 5G is entirely IP based model designed for the
wireless and mobile networks.

11. Explain security risks and additional “attack surfaces” exposed within the
5G security architecture.
Answer:

Increased attack surface: With millions and even billions more connected devices, 5G makes it possible
for larger and more dangerous attacks. Current and future vulnerabilities of the existing internet
infrastructure are only exacerbated. The risk of more sophisticated botnets, privacy violations, and faster
data extraction can escalate with 5G.

More IoT, more problems: IoT devices are inherently insecure; security is often not built-in by design.
Each insecure IoT device on an organization’s networks represents another potential hole that an attacker
can expose.
Decreased network visibility: With 5G, our networks will only expand and become more usable by
mobile users and devices. This means much more network traffic to manage. But without a robust wide
area network (WAN) security solution like Secure Access Service Edge (SASE) in place, companies may
not be able to gain the network traffic visibility required to identify abnormalities or attacks.

Increased supply chain and software vulnerabilities: Currently and for the foreseeable future, 5G
supply chains are limited. Vulnerabilities exist — particularly as devices are rushed to market —
increasing the potential for faulty and insecure components. Compared to traditional mobile networks, 5G
is also more reliant on software, which elevates the risk of exploitation of the network infrastructure.

12.Mention Current Gaps and 5G System Enhancements.

Answer:

We have done a gap analysis on the consolidated view coming from the literature, the work of the
relevant fora, consortia, SDOs, and 5G-PPP Phase 1 projects along with 5G-PPP working groups (WGs).
A summary of the gap analysis is outlined as follows (for a thorough gap analysis, the interested readers
are referred to [16]).

(#1) Interdependencies between Network Functions (NFs) Colocated in the Same Node. Traditional
protocol stacks have been designed under the assumption that certain NFs residing in the same node, i.e.,
fixed location and NF placement; while they work close to optimality as long as such NFs are colocated
in the same node, they do not account for the possibility of placing these NFs in different nodes. The
logical and temporal dependencies between NFs should be relaxed and (as much as possible) removed to
provide a higher flexibility in their placement. An example of such relaxation is to loosen such strict
timing dependency as described in [17]. In particular, [17] proposes to opportunistically send ACKs based
on the estimated channel quality instead of performing the complete decoding of the frame and then
sending the corresponding N/ACKs. By decoupling the HARQ from the complete decoding, the latter can
be executed in a more centralised manner in cloud data centres. This, in turn, translates into higher
multiplexing gains and fewer constraints (in terms of minimum bandwidth and maximum latency)
imposed by the links that connect those functions.

(#2) Orchestration-Driven Elasticity Not Supported (Lack of Slice-Aware Resource Elasticity). It is

necessary for the architecture to flexibly shift NFs to nodes that better fit the specific requirements of
each covered service; when doing so, we need to take elasticity considerations into account.

In the 5G systems, where each slice is composed of multiple virtual NFs (VNFs), the elastic allocation
available resources (either radio resources or computational resources) to different network slices based
on their demands, requirements, and Service Level Agreements (SLAs) are essential. The architecture of
5G networks should provide the required elements and flexibility to implement elastic slice-aware
resource elasticity while preserving the isolation of each network slice [18].

(#3) Fixed Functional Operation of Small Cells. In the current networks [19], the functional operation
of small cells does not change relative to service requirements or the location of the small cell, which can
be, e.g., unplanned and dynamic. That is, the functional operation and the associated operation mode of
the small cells based on the predetermined functional operation remain fixed. For instance, a fixed relay
can be typically deployed as radio frequency (RF) amplify-and-forward /repeater or layer 3 (L3) decode-
and-forward (DF) node. This can also incur higher operational expenditure (OPEX), when the network is
planned for the highest or peak service requirements [20]. However, slice awareness and 5G tight KPIs
can necessitate on-demand flexible small cell operation.

(#4) Need for Support for Computational Offloading. Current architectures do not fully support
delegating costly NFs beyond the network edge towards RAN (e.g., for cases like group mobility in D2D
context). Addressing this gap can result in saving energy consumption, signalling overhead, or offload
resource demanding tasks when needed. Some further enhancements to architecturally support such
offloading scenarios started in Release 15 specifications [21] to improve remote UE reachability and to
support efficient traffic differentiation, signalling, and service continuity at a controlled level of device
complexity and power consumption on UEs.

(#5) Need for Support for Telco-Grade Performance (e.g., Low Latency, High Performance, and
Scalability). Most of management and orchestration technologies are inherited from IT world. Adopting
such technologies in the telco domain without key performance degradation is a great challenge as the
added functionality in the control and M&O layer, as well as the more modular NFs, should still offer the
same telco-grade performance, without degradation [22].

(#6) E2E Cross-Slice Optimisation Not Fully Supported. Architecture should allow for the
simultaneous operation of multiple network slices with tailored core/access functions and functional
placements to meet their target KPIs [23].

(#7) Lack of Experiment-Based E2E Resource Management for VNFs. Current 5G systems are
missing E2E resource management of VNFs that takes advantage of E2E software implementations on
commodity hardware in a dynamic manner. To design resource management algorithms that perform well
in reality, we need to rely on more elaborate models that build insights (e.g., a quantification of the
resource consumption profile per VNF) gained from E2E experiments. In this direction, the work in [24]
investigates the computational consumption of state-of-the-art open source software solutions for the
RAN stack. Analogously, the authors of [25] measure the computational requirements of a video server.

(#8) Lack of a Refined 5G Security Architecture Design. There are various critical gaps in the
literature and architectural deployments related to management and orchestration, accountability,
compliance, and liability, as well as performance and resilience. For example, there is no established
security architecture for network slice deployment models which include 3rd-party-owned network
infrastructure to implement highly secure mobile communication services across public and private
infrastructure domains [26].

(#9) Lack of a Self-Adaptive and Slice-Aware Model for Security. E2E network slicing demands a
revaluation and research on various aspects of traditional security (e.g., privacy, integrity, zoning,
monitoring, and risk mitigation) [26].

(#10) Need for Enhanced and Inherent Support for RAN Reliability. RAN reliability should be a
built-in solution/element of the architecture, through the application of mechanisms such as multi-
connectivity and network coding, e.g., as proposed in [27].

(#11) Indirect and Rudimentary Support of Telco Cloud Resilience Mainly through Management
and Control Mechanisms. The architecture should address resilience in a structured way taking into
account different aspects (e.g., individual network elements (NEs)/NFs, telco cloud components, fault
management, and failsafe mechanisms) [28].

(#12) Need for (Radio and Computational) Resource Sharing Strategy for Network Slices. While
basic mechanisms for multi-slice resource management have been studied in 5G-PPP Phase 1 projects,
elastic mechanisms need to be devised which improve the utilization efficiency of the computational and
radio resources by taking advantage of statistical multiplexing gains across different network slices [29,
30]. Furthermore, inter-slice radio resource sharing has been investigated in literature [31] where slice-
aware RAN clustering, scheduler dimensioning, and adaptive resource coordination is discussed are a first
attempt towards filling this gap. Furthermore, for self-backhauling RAN scenarios, inter-slice resource
sharing solutions [32] can be incorporated in order to allocate backhaul/access resources optimally among
slices.