EE326 – Power System Analysis 1

Lecture 1: Introduction
What is Power System?
Power systems analysis is a field of electrical engineering that deals with the study and analysis of
electrical power systems, which are networks of electrical components and devices that supply, transmit,
and distribute electrical energy. The goal of power systems analysis is to ensure the safe, reliable, and
efficient operation of power systems while meeting the demands of users.
Power systems are composed of generators, transformers, transmission lines, distribution lines, and
various other electrical components. Power systems analysis uses mathematical and computational tools
to model, analyze, and optimize the behavior of these components and the system as a whole. The
analysis helps to determine the best strategies for operating, protecting, and maintaining the power
system, and for planning new power systems or upgrading existing ones.
Power systems analysis includes a wide range of topics such as power flow analysis, transient stability
analysis, fault analysis, harmonic analysis, load flow analysis, and optimization techniques. These
analyses help to understand the behavior of power systems under different operating conditions and to
identify potential problems that may arise.
Power systems analysis is essential for ensuring the reliability and security of power systems, especially
as the demand for electricity continues to grow. It plays a critical role in the design and operation of
power systems, which are vital for modern society's functioning. Power systems analysis also helps to
optimize the utilization of power system resources, including the efficient use of renewable energy
sources, and to reduce the environmental impact of power generation.
Power systems analysis is a constantly evolving field, with new technologies, regulations, and operational
practices continually emerging. As such, power systems analysts must stay up-to-date with the latest
developments in the field to ensure that power systems remain safe, reliable, and efficient

Energy Production in the Philippines

The Philippines is a developing country in Southeast Asia that has been facing increasing energy demands
as its population and economy continue to grow. The country's energy mix is currently dominated by
fossil fuels, particularly coal and oil, but there have been efforts to increase the use of renewable energy
sources in recent years.
According to the Department of Energy, the Philippines' total installed power capacity as of 2021 is
around 26.5 GW, with coal accounting for approximately 55% of the total, followed by natural gas at
20%, hydroelectricity at 14%, and other renewable sources such as geothermal, wind, and solar power at
around 11%.
Coal remains the largest source of electricity generation in the country, primarily due to its low cost and
abundant availability. However, coal has been criticized for its environmental impact, particularly its
contribution to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
To address these issues, the Philippine government has set targets for increasing the use of renewable
energy sources, such as wind, solar, and geothermal, in the country's energy mix. In 2020, the Department

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of Energy issued a moratorium on new coal power plant projects, which will last until the end of 2022.
The moratorium aims to promote the use of cleaner and more sustainable energy sources and to align with
the country's commitments to the Paris Agreement on climate change.
The Philippines has significant potential for renewable energy, particularly in the areas of wind and solar
power. The country is located in the so-called "Pacific Ring of Fire," which makes it an ideal location for
geothermal energy production. The Philippines is currently the second-largest producer of geothermal
energy in the world, after the United States.
The country has also been making strides in the development of wind and solar power. As of 2021, there
are several large-scale wind farms and solar power plants operating in the Philippines, with more in the
pipeline. The government has set targets for renewable energy to account for 35% of the country's energy
mix by 2030.
In conclusion, while the Philippines' energy mix is still largely dependent on fossil fuels, efforts are being
made to increase the use of renewable energy sources. The country has significant potential for
geothermal, wind, and solar power, and the government has set targets to increase their use in the
country's energy mix.
Transmission and Distribution
Transmission and distribution of electricity involves the transfer of electrical power from power
generation sources, such as power plants or renewable energy sources, to the end-users. The transfer of
power involves several voltage levels, starting from the voltage level of the generators, which are stepped
up using transformers for transmission over long distances and stepped down again using transformers for
distribution to end-users.
The voltage levels in the power system are classified into several categories, including:

 Generation voltage level: This is the voltage level of electricity generated by the power plant. In
the Philippines, the generation voltage level is typically 13.8 kV or 69 kV.
 Transmission voltage level: The transmission voltage level is higher than the generation voltage
level and is used to transfer power over long distances. In the Philippines, the transmission
voltage level is typically 230 kV, 345 kV, or 500 kV.
 Distribution voltage level: The distribution voltage level is lower than the transmission voltage
level and is used to deliver power to end-users, such as households, commercial establishments,
and small industrial customers. In the Philippines, the distribution voltage level is typically 34.5
kV, 13.8 kV, or 4.16 kV.
 Utilization voltage level: The utilization voltage level is the voltage level used by the end-users,
such as 220 volts or 440 volts.
To transfer power from generators to end-users, the voltage is stepped up or stepped down using
transformers. Transformers are used to increase the voltage level for transmission over long distances,
which reduces the energy losses due to resistance in the transmission lines. Transformers are also used to
step down the voltage level for distribution to end-users.
In the Philippines, the transmission lines are operated by the National Grid Corporation of the Philippines
(NGCP), while the distribution lines are operated by several distribution utilities, such as Manila Electric
Company (Meralco). The transmission lines are typically high-voltage lines, such as 230 kV, 345 kV, or
500 kV, while the distribution lines are typically low-voltage lines, such as 34.5 kV, 13.8 kV, or 4.16 kV.

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In summary, transmission and distribution of electricity in the Philippines involves the transfer of power
at different voltage levels, starting from the generation voltage level, stepping up the voltage level for
transmission, stepping down the voltage level for distribution, and delivering the power to end-users at
the utilization voltage level. Transformers are used to step up or step down the voltage level, while
transmission lines are typically high-voltage lines, and distribution lines are typically low-voltage lines.
Load Studies
Load studies in power systems involve the analysis of the electrical loads connected to the power grid,
with the aim of determining the characteristics of the loads, such as the magnitude, type, and pattern of
the electrical demand. Load studies are important for power system planning and design, as they provide
information on the expected future load demand and help in the selection and sizing of power system
components, such as transformers, generators, and transmission lines.
Load studies can be divided into two categories: static load studies and dynamic load studies.

 Static load studies: Static load studies involve the analysis of the steady-state electrical loads
connected to the power system, without considering the dynamic behavior of the loads. The aim
of static load studies is to determine the magnitude and pattern of the electrical demand, as well
as the diversity factor of the loads. The diversity factor is the ratio of the maximum demand of a
group of loads to the sum of the individual maximum demands of the loads.
 Dynamic load studies: Dynamic load studies involve the analysis of the time-varying electrical
loads connected to the power system, taking into account the dynamic behavior of the loads. The
aim of dynamic load studies is to determine the transient and dynamic responses of the power
system to changes in the electrical demand, as well as the stability of the power system under
various operating conditions. Dynamic load studies are important for power system control and
protection, as they help in the design and selection of control and protection devices, such as
relays, breakers, and voltage regulators.
The daily load curve of a utility is a composite of demands made by various classes of users. The greatest
value of load during a 24-hour period is called the peak load or maximum demand. Smaller peaking
generators may be commissioned to meet the peak load that occurs for only a few hours. In order to
assess the usefulness of the generating plant the load factor is defined. The load factor is the ratio of
average load over a designated period of time to the peak load occurring in that period. Load factors mat
be given for a day, a month, or a year.
The daily load factor is
average load
Daily L . F .=
peak load
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of the daily load factor equation by a time period of 24 hour,
we have
averageload x 24 hr energy consumed during24 hr
Daily L . F .= =
peak load x 24 hr peak load x 24 hr
The annual load factor is

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 total annualenergy
Annual L. F .=
peak load x 8760 hr

Load studies can be conducted using various methods, including direct measurements, surveys, and
computer simulations. Direct measurements involve the installation of meters and recording devices at
various points in the power system to measure the electrical demand. Surveys involve the collection of
data on the electrical loads from end-users, such as households, commercial establishments, and industrial
customers. Computer simulations involve the use of mathematical models to simulate the behavior of the
power system under various operating conditions and load demand scenarios.
In conclusion, load studies in power systems involve the analysis of the electrical loads connected to the
power grid, with the aim of determining the characteristics of the loads and their impact on the power
system. Load studies are important for power system planning, design, control, and protection, and can be
conducted using various methods, including direct measurements, surveys, and computer simulations.
Economic Load Dispatch
Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) is a method used in power system operation to optimize the generation
dispatch of power plants to minimize the overall cost of generating electricity while meeting the system's
demand. The ELD problem involves finding the optimal output levels of each generator in the power
system that satisfy the load demand while minimizing the total cost of generating power.

The cost of generating power from different power plants varies depending on the type of fuel, efficiency,
and other factors. For example, thermal power plants using coal have different operating costs compared
to hydroelectric power plants. In an ELD problem, the objective is to minimize the total cost of generating
power by allocating the power output of each generator in the most cost-effective way while maintaining
a balance between the supply and demand of electricity.
The ELD problem is typically formulated as an optimization problem that involves minimizing the total
cost of generating power subject to a set of constraints. The constraints typically include limits on the
power output of each generator, transmission line capacity constraints, and minimum and maximum
power demand requirements. The optimization problem can be solved using various techniques, such as
linear programming, dynamic programming, and heuristic methods.
Solving the ELD problem can lead to several benefits, including reduced operating costs, increased
efficiency, and reduced emissions. The optimal dispatch of power can also help in maintaining the
stability and reliability of the power system, ensuring that the power supply is adequate to meet the
demand, and reducing the need for load shedding or blackouts.
In conclusion, economic load dispatch is a method used in power system operation to optimize the
generation dispatch of power plants to minimize the overall cost of generating electricity while meeting
the system's demand. The ELD problem involves finding the optimal output levels of each generator in
the power system that satisfy the load demand while minimizing the total cost of generating power,
subject to a set of constraints. The optimal dispatch of power can lead to several benefits, including
reduced operating costs, increased efficiency, and reduced emissions.
Fault Calculations

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Fault calculations in power systems involve the analysis of electrical faults, such as short circuits and
ground faults, that can occur in the power system. Faults can cause damage to power system components,
disrupt the supply of electricity to customers, and even result in safety hazards for personnel. Fault
calculations are important for power system design, operation, and protection, as they provide
information on the expected behavior of the power system under fault conditions.
The basic principle behind fault calculations is to determine the flow of electrical current and voltage
during a fault in the power system. The calculations involve analyzing the electrical parameters of the
power system, such as the impedance, reactance, and resistance of the components, and applying various
mathematical techniques, such as Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's laws.
One of the key outputs of fault calculations is the fault current, which is the amount of current that flows
through the power system during a fault. The fault current can be used to determine the current rating of
circuit breakers and other protective devices, as well as the fault level of the power system. The fault level
is a measure of the ability of the power system to withstand a fault without damage and is typically
expressed in terms of the short-circuit power or the fault MVA (mega volt-ampere).
Fault calculations can also be used to determine the voltage and current distribution in the power system
during a fault, which can help in the design and selection of protective devices, such as relays, fuses, and
circuit breakers. The calculations can also be used to determine the transient and steady-state responses of
the power system to faults, as well as the stability of the power system under various fault conditions.
Fault calculations can be conducted using various methods, including analytical methods, such as
symmetrical components and per-unit analysis, and numerical methods, such as computer simulations.
The choice of method depends on the complexity of the power system, the type of fault, and the accuracy
and speed required for the analysis.
In conclusion, fault calculations in power systems involve the analysis of electrical faults, such as short
circuits and ground faults, that can occur in the power system. Fault calculations are important for power
system design, operation, and protection, and can be used to determine the fault current, fault level, and
voltage and current distribution during a fault. Fault calculations can be conducted using various methods,
including analytical methods and numerical methods.
System Protection
Power system protection refers to the measures and devices used to detect and isolate faults in power
systems and prevent damage to equipment and interruption of power supply. The main purpose of power
system protection is to ensure the safety and reliability of the power system by detecting and isolating
faults as quickly as possible while minimizing the impact on the power system operation.
Power system protection typically involves the use of protective devices such as fuses, circuit breakers,
relays, and protective relaying systems. These devices are designed to detect and isolate faults in the
power system by interrupting the flow of current or isolating the faulty section of the power system. The
protective devices are designed to operate quickly and selectively to prevent unnecessary tripping of
healthy equipment.
The selection and coordination of protective devices is a critical aspect of power system protection.
Protective devices must be selected based on the fault level, load characteristics, and other system
parameters to ensure that they are effective in detecting and isolating faults. The protective devices must
also be coordinated to ensure that the device closest to the fault operates first, while minimizing the
impact on the rest of the power system.

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In addition to the protective devices, power system protection also involves the use of protective relaying
systems. Protective relays are devices that detect and measure abnormal conditions in the power system,
such as overcurrent, overvoltage, and undervoltage, and send signals to the protective devices to operate.
Protective relaying systems are designed to be reliable and accurate, and must be tested and maintained
regularly to ensure their proper operation.
Power system protection also involves the use of ground fault protection systems to detect and isolate
faults to ground, which can pose a safety hazard to personnel and damage equipment. Ground fault
protection systems typically use current transformers to detect ground faults and send signals to protective
devices to operate.
In conclusion, power system protection is an important aspect of power system operation and involves the
use of protective devices, protective relaying systems, and ground fault protection systems to detect and
isolate faults in the power system. The selection and coordination of protective devices is critical for
ensuring the reliability and safety of the power system, and protective relaying systems must be regularly
tested and maintained to ensure their proper operation.
Stability Studies
Power system stability studies are conducted to analyze the dynamic behavior of the power system and
ensure that the system can maintain its stability under various operating conditions. Power system
stability refers to the ability of the power system to maintain its synchronous operation in the face of
disturbances, such as faults, sudden changes in load, or generator tripping.
There are three main types of power system stability: transient stability, small-signal stability, and steady-
state stability.

 Transient stability refers to the ability of the power system to maintain its synchronous operation
after a large disturbance, such as a fault or generator tripping. Transient stability studies are
conducted to determine the stability of the power system under such disturbances and to identify
any critical faults or contingencies that may lead to system instability.
 Small-signal stability refers to the ability of the power system to remain stable under small
disturbances, such as minor fluctuations in the power system parameters or loads. Small-signal
stability studies are conducted to analyze the damping characteristics of the power system and
identify any oscillatory modes that may cause instability.
 Steady-state stability refers to the ability of the power system to maintain its synchronous
operation under steady-state conditions, such as changes in load or generation. Steady-state
stability studies are conducted to ensure that the power system can handle these changes and
maintain its stability without any significant deviation from the desired operating conditions.
Power system stability studies are typically conducted using computer simulation tools, such as the
transient stability analysis (TSA) and the eigenvalue analysis (EVA). These tools use mathematical
models of the power system components, such as generators, transformers, and transmission lines, to
simulate the behavior of the power system under various operating conditions.
The output of power system stability studies includes stability margins, which indicate the ability of the
power system to maintain stability under different disturbances, and the identification of critical faults or
contingencies that may cause instability. The results of these studies can be used to optimize the operation
and control of the power system and to design appropriate protective measures, such as automatic
generation control (AGC) and load shedding, to maintain system stability.

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In conclusion, power system stability studies are essential for ensuring the reliability and safety of the
power system. These studies involve analyzing the dynamic behavior of the power system and its ability
to maintain synchronous operation under various disturbances. The studies can be conducted using
computer simulation tools and can provide important information for optimizing the operation and control
of the power system and designing protective measures to maintain system stability.

Additional Reading
Gonen, T., “Modern Power System Analysis,” 2nd ed., CRC Press, New York, 2013
Saadat, H., “Power System Analysis,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1999.
Stevenson, W., “Elements of Power System Analysis,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1999

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