Index

Abdel-Gayed correlation, 364 procedures, 454

Accelerating rate calorimeter (ARC), 498 in United Kingdom, 447-448
Active devices, explosion isolation, 78-81 Ballal's theory, 284-287
Agglomeration B AM. See Bundesanstalt ftir Materialpriifung
dispersion of, 232-234, 333 Biological self-heating, 388
effects of, 32, 33, 34 Biot number, 397, 402
formation by liquid additives, 113, 115 Blast effects, 98, 99-101
ion generator and, 483 Blast waves generated by burning dust clouds,
of particles, electrostatic, 203 583,586, 609-610
Airflows Borghi diagram, 330
parallel, 221-229 Bradley and Mitcheson three-zone flame
upwards, 230-232 propagation theory, 297-298
Aluminum dust Brush discharges, 16, 17
choice of suppressant for, 109 hybrid mixtures and, 53
computer model, 364 propagating, 16, 18-19, 564, 637
experiments with, 344, 357, 370, 422 research on, 594, 617
explosions involving Bucket elevators
Anglesey 1983, 195-198 design, 612-613
Gullaug 1973, 192-195 location, 116
literature survey, 138-139 process industry and, 355,465
particle size, 30 risk in, 132, 134, 168
rotary locks and, 76 venting experiment in, 627
suppressing, 109 Building construction and layout, 116-118
Aluminum flake, risk reduction, 127 Bulk strength
Aluminum particles, ignition and combustion, measurement of, 208-212
251-253 theories, 206-208
Aluminum spheres, heat conductivity, 396 Bundesanstalt fur Materialprtifung, 474
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) furnace, 420, 423,424, 501-502, 504, 518
20 liter closed-bomb test apparatus, 310, 530, test method, 491-492
533, 640 Burning particles and ignition of dust clouds,
dispersibility test methods, 482 618
drop hammer tests, 514 Burning velocity, 266-267
flammability test, 492 coal dusts, 273-275, 277, 291,292-293
Hartmann bomb, 526, 535 electric spark ignition and, 417
minimum explosive dust concentration explosible dust concentrations, 307, 308, 312
determination, 640 flame versus, 321
test methods standards, 637 laminar flame propagation in closed vessels
Anemometers, use of, 238, 239, 338, 339, 585, and, 294, 296, 297, 299, 300, 301
599, 603 laminar flames in dust clouds and, 597, 598, 599
Area classification magnesium dust clouds, 283
combustible dusts and, 553-557 metal dusts, 270-272
standards, 574-575 organic materials, 277-280
"Atex 100a" Directive, 549, 550, 551-552, 554, particle size and, 290
565, 566, 567, 574, 635, 636 turbulent dust flames and, 335,339, 340, 345,
Automatic explosion suppression, 101-109, 346, 363,366, 601
630-633. See also Suppression systems, zero gravity theory and, 284, 286
automatic Bursting panels, 88-90

Bag filter experiments Capacitance-to-ground values, 17

dust deposits in steel works, 404 Capacitors, direct discharge of high voltage (HV),
in Norway, 448-451 509-511
706 Index
Carbon and coal particles, ignition and
combustion, 256-264
Cassel/Das Gupta/Guruswamy theory, 283-284
Cassel/Liebman theory, 424
Cereals, thermal behavior, 403
Chapman-Jouguet theory for detonation, 368,
369, 370-371
Chemical process industry and selecting
prevention scheme, 127-132
background, 127-129
conclusions, 132
crushing and milling equipment, 128, 129,
130-131
dryers for powders and granular materials, 128,
131
dust removal equipment, 130, 132
powder and dust conveyors, 130, 132
powder and dust mixers, 129,131-132
Clark/Smoot model, 366
Closed-circuit systems (for dust cloud
generation), 244
CMI (Chr. Michelsen Institute) discharge circuit,
510, 511-512
Coal dust. See also Pulverized coal
in air theories, 290-294
burning velocity, 273-275,277
computer models, 366-367
experiments, 321,347, 348, 357, 417, 420
explosions
Elkford (1982), 187-188
Haswell mine (1844), 20-21
L~igerdorf (1980), 189
other, 189-190
San Bernardino (1984), 188
underground roadway configurations and, 634
flame studies, 273-277, 318, 597
ignitability and explosibility properties, 348
ignition and combustion, 29, 256-264
inert dust addition, 73
literature survey, 136-137,401-403
particle size, 29, 42
pressure influence on, 47, 48, 49
research, 593
self-heating, 136, 401-402
temperature of dust clouds and, 46
Coal grinding plant, sensor system, 109-111
Coal mine gallery experiments, 351-363
Coal piles
heat conductivity in, 395
inhibitors to self-heating, 403
spontaneous combustion risks, 402
storage periods and size, 403
Codes of practice, 141
Combustible dusts
areas containing, classification of, 553-557
electrical apparatuses for areas containing,
549-579
electrically conductive, 559
electrically nonconductive, 558-559
hazard classification, 543
Combustible gas/dust cloud mixtures, 50-55
Combustion of single particles, 587-589
aluminum, 251-253
carbon, 256-264
coal, 256-264
magnesium, 253-255
wood, 264-265
zirconium, 255
Computer model by Continello, 301-303
Computer models, theories of flame propagation
in turbulent dust clouds, 363-367
background, 363-364
Clark-Smoot, 366-367
Kj~ildman, 364-366
Ogle, Beddow, Chen, 364
Computer simulation models, use of, 397-401,
402, 587
Computer-based decision-making tools, 643-645
Control and interlocking systems (explosion
prevention systems), 109-111
Cooling procedures, 59
Cork dust
experiments, 325,398
heat conductivity, 395, 396, 398, 399
Corona discharges, 16, 17-18
Cost comparisons, protection systems, 122, 123
Costs of explosion prevention and mitigation, 635
Coulomb's equation, 203
Critical mass, suppressant, 104
Crushing and milling equipment, protection
selection, 128, 129, 130-131
"Cube-root-law," 299, 340-341, 461
Cyclone experiments, 444--447, 454, 465
DamkOhler number, 257, 385,387
Deagglomeration, 226, 232, 444, 586
Deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT),
369, 372
Detonation(s)
defined, 367
experiments, 367-370
research, 607-608
theories, 370-373
Chapman-Jouguet, 368, 369, 370-371
dust cloud(s), 372-373
ZND theory, 372
Development. See Research and Development
Devolatilization process, 29, 32, 50, 260, 263,
268, 275, 276, 277, 284, 290, 292, 293,
302
dust cloud detonation and, 373
peat/air turbulence computer model, 365
turbulent mixing and, 331

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC),
391,498
Differential thermal analysis (DTA), 498, 614
Dispersibility, 200-201,480-485
Dispersion
behind shock wave, 587
mushroom design, 522, 523
Donat vent sizing method, 434
Doors, hinged explosion, 90, 91
Drag coefficient, viscous, 215, 216, 228
Drag on a particle, 215-218
Drag velocity, 224, 229
Drop hammer tests, 513-515
Dryers, protection selection, 70, 128, 131
Drying process, 264-265
Duct flow devices, explosion isolation,
77-81
Ducts, detonation experiments in, 367-369
Dust accumulation, removal of, 112-113
Dust chemistry, 25-29
Dust clouds, 25-56
blast waves generated by burning, 583, 586,
609-610
characterizing structures, 584-585
detonation experiments, 367-370, 607-608
detonation theories, 370-373
detonations, 367-373
electric spark ignition energy, 508-513
experimental generation of, 239-246
background, 239-240
in closed circulation system, 244
in open circuit system, 244-246
by short air blast, 240-243
explosibility, 4
industrial, 557-558, 613
structure of problem, 200-202
factors influencing ignition sensitivity and
explosion violence of, 4
flame propagation processes in, 583
formation of, 199, 200, 583
generation, 199-250, 583-587
hybrid mixtures with, 50-55
ignitability, 4
by hot surfaces, 423-426
industrial, 557-558
processes, 583
research on, 592-595
industrial processes generation of, 584
inerting by inert dust, 55-56
initial pressure effects, 47-50, 540
maximum experiment safe gap, 346-351
minimum ignition energy, 415-4 16, 505-508,
571-572
minimum ignition temperatures, 499-504
BAM furnace, 501-502
Godbert-Greenwald furnace, 499-501
industrial, 499
Index 707
laboratory tests, 499-504
predictions, 424-426
U.S. Bureau of Mines furnace, 502-503
pressure of, initial, 47-50
prevention of explosible, 67-73
addition of inert dust, 67-69, 73, 619-620
addition of noncombustible dust, 620-621
hazardous mass, minimum, 621-622
limitation of dust concentration, 69-73, 621
research, 619-622
propagation of large-amplitude pressure waves
in, 221
safe gap, experimental, 346-351
sensitivity to ignition from mechanical impact
industrial, 515-516
laboratory tests, 516-518
sound speed in, 219-220
temperature, initial, 44-46
tests at other than normal atmospheric
conditions, 540
turbulence defining, 584-585
Dust concentration, 34-36, 234-239
controlling, 69-73
explosible, 7-10, 303-318
laboratory tests, 519-525
maximum, 35, 312-313
minimum, 35, 304-311, 316, 317, 518-525
problem, 303-304
theories, 314-318
keeping outside explosible range, 69-73
measurement of, 71
Dust control
by addition of liquids, 113, 114-116
by vacuum removal, 112-113
Dust deposits/layers, ignition of
attraction forces between particles, 202-206
constant heat flux ignition source in, 391-392
on hot surface at constant temperature, 391
industrial, 493
laboratory tests, 493-498
smoldering combustion, 393-394
Dust dispersion/diffusion
degree of, 32-34
mechanisms for, 242-243
pressure, 53, 54
in turbulent gas flow, 234-239
Dust explosions
aspects of, 583
case histories, 641-643
definition, 1-2
generating for research, 239-246
nature of. See Nature of dust explosions
preventing and mitigating, 57-120, 610-636
research on, status and outstanding problems
in, 582-610
statistical records, 20-25
in Federal Republic of Germany, 22-25
708 Index

Dust explosions (continued) design criteria, 557-560

grain dust explosions in United States, 25 enclosing, 560-568
in United States, 21-22 introduction, 549-552
Dust fineness, convenient measure of, 2-3 minimum ignition energy and design of,
Dust fires and area classification standards, 571-574
557 research, 641
Dust flames in closed vessels, 602-604 safe, 568-574
Dust free zone, 411 standards design of enclosures, international,
Dust ingress 564-565
enclosing ignition sources to prevent, 560-568 summary and conclusions, 574-576
internal protection (IP)code for prevention, thermal hazards, 558-560
560-562 Electrical resistivity, 487-488
Dust layers Electrostatic discharges, 15-20
dispersion of, 586-587 brush, 17, 53, 617
ignition and propagation, 589-592 corona, 17-18
sensitivity ignition prevention, 65-66, 616-618
industrial, 513 lightning-type, 19
laboratory tests, 513-515 mixing plants and, 24-25
thickness experiments, 362 from powder heap, 19
Dust particles movement and inertial forces propagating brush, 16, 18
influence, 557-558 research, 593, 594
Dust removal equipment, 112-113 situation, practical, 16
protection selection, 130, 132 spark, 16
Dust ridges, 227 turbulence and, 38
Dust sampling (for testing), 477-479 types, 16
Dustability, 231 Electrostatic forces, 203
Dustiness of a material definition, 586 Electrostatic powder coating, 137-138
Dusts, combustible electrically conductive and Electrostatic spark hazard, 15-20
nonconductive, 558-559 Enclosing ignition sources, 560-568
Dusts versus gases, 550-551 Entrainment experiments, dust, 584
by parallel air flow on dust surface, 224-
229
Electric spark energy equivalent, 420 by parallel air flow on particle monolayer,
Electric spark ignition energy 221-223
dust clouds, 404-419 by upwards air flow, 230-232
CMI discharge circuit, 510, 511-512 Equivalent energy concept (spark discharge),
direct discharge, 509-511 19
historical background, 404 Event Tree Analysis, 125
industrial, 508 Expert systems, 643-645
international standard, 512-513 Explosible dusts, hazard classification, 543
laboratory tests, 508-513 Explosible range, dust concentration outside,
minimum, 508-513 69-73
research, 593 Explosibility assessment
theories, 416--419 dispersibility, 480-485
dust layers electrical resistivity, 487-488
industrial, 505 historical background, 473-475
laboratory tests, 505-508 laboratory tests, 491-492
Nordtest Fire 16, 505-508 context of, 476
Electric sparks purpose, 475
hazards from, 15-20 types, 477
historical background, 404 measurement of physical characteristics of
ignition, 404-4 19, 476-477, 569 dusts, 479-488
ignition prevention, 65-66 moisture content, 485-487
ignition theories, 416--419 oxygen content influence in oxidizing gas,
Electrical apparatuses for areas containing 540-542
combustible dusts, 549-579 particle size distribution and specific surface
classifications, 553-557 area, 479-480
 Index 709

powder mechanical properties, 485 Extinguishing agents, 106, 108-109. See also
prevention, 619-622 Suppression systems, automatic
relationship between test result and real hazard, water, 64
475-477 injection of, 80
test data tables. See also KSt values
BIA, 681-685,686-701
testing problems, 636-641 Factor3' Mutual Research Corporation (FMRC)
U.S. Bureau of Mines, 495, 505, 685, lift-off apparatus, 483,484
702-703 settling velocity apparatus, 482, 483,484
Explosion(s) Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA), 124
accidental, legislation for, 635-636 Fault Tree Analysis, 124-125
case histories, 641-643 Federal Republic of Germany dust explosions
definitions, 1-2, 303 (1965-1985), 22-25
primary, 7-10, 11, 80-81 Feed dust literature survey, 133-134
secondary, 7-10 Ferromanganese, 139
Explosion isolation, 73-81,623-625 Finite element design techniques, 83
by active devices, 75, 78-81 Fire extinguishing systems. See Suppression
background, 73-74 systems, automatic
literature survey, 75 Fish meal
method overviews, published, 75 explosion in Norway (1975), 173-177
objectives, 623 literature survey, 134
by passive devices, 75, 77-78 thermal behavior, 403
by rotary locks, 75-76 Flame acceleration experiments, 352-355,
by screw conveyors, 75-76 601-602
Explosion kinetics, 25, 26, 27 Flame jet ignition, 73-74, 347, 595
Explosion pressure, maximum, Flame propagation, 251-384
525-533 determining limits of, 639-640
data, 683, 702-703 detonations, 367-373
in hybrid mixtures, 539-540 ignition and combustion of single particles,
industrial, 525 251-265
laboratory tests, 526-533 aluminum, 251-253
Explosion pressure, maximum rate of rise carbon and coal, 256-264
(explosion violence), 533-536 magnesium, 253-255
further development, 535-536 wood, 264-265
industrial, 533-534 zirconium, 255
laboratory tests, 534-535 laminar, 265-318
Explosion-pressure-resistant equipment, in closed vessels, 294-303
81-84 coal dusts, 273-277
background, 81-82 in dust clouds, 283-294
confinement by using, full, 622-623 in dust clouds versus premixed gas, 268-
dynamics of explosion load, influence of, 84 270
process unit "explosion strength," 82-83 explosible dust concentrations, 303-318
Explosion prevention and mitigation costs, 122, gas/dust mixtures, 283
635 metal dusts, 270
Explosion risks, 467 organic materials, 277-282
screening tests, 488-490 in premixed gas, 265-267
"worst-case," 468-469 research, 596-599
Explosion suppression systems. See Suppression stationary burner studies, 270-283
systems, automatic limiting dust cloud compositions for, 599-
Explosion thermodynamics, 25, 26 600
Explosion tube facility, 304-305 in long tubes and pipelines, 604
Explosion venting. See Venting nonlaminar in vertical ducts, 318-325
Explosion violence. See also Explosion pressure, preventing, 74
maximum rate of rise; Kst values processes in dust clouds, 583, 626
data, 683 research, 595-609
moisture content and, 28 tests, 493-494
Explosive atmosphere definition, 551-552 theories, 283-303, 363-367
710 Index
Flame propagation (continued)
turbulent, 325-367
acceleration, 351-363
in closed vessels, 332-341
models, 325-329, 363-367
overview, 330-332
research, 600--602, 604-606
safe gap for dust clouds, 346-351
systematic comparative studies, 344-346
in unconfined geometries, 341-344
zero gravity conditions, theory of, 284-287
Flame stability systems, 385,387, 388
Flame stretch phenomena, 598
Flame types
Nusselt, 268
in premixed gas, 268-270
volatile, 268
Flameproof enclosures, 567-568, 576
Flammability
data, 685
tests, 493-498
Flexible big bags, 617-618
Flour dusts
explosion in Turin (1785), 157-160
literature survey, 133-134
Fluidized bed experiments, 226, 268, 280, 465,602
Frank-Kamenetskii's constant, 386, 389, 390,
397, 402
Friction
definition, 14
as hazard, 13
as ignition source, 592
tests, 515
wall, 355
"Friction sparks," 13, 64, 419, 515,592
Frictional heat, 60
Galleries, experiments in, 367-369
Gas explosions
risks from heated dust, 490--492
smoldering, 12
Malm6 (1989), 181-182, 183
Stavanger (1985), 177-178
Tomylovo (1987-1989), 178-180
turbulent studies, 344-346
Gas flow, turbulent, 234-239
Gas inerting systems, 68-69
for aluminum and magnesium powder or dust,
139
partial, 69
Gaseous product generation risk, 491
Gases versus dusts, 550-551
German and Swiss closed bombs, 521
Glow temperature, 684
Godbert-Greenwald furnace, 424, 425,426,
499-501,504, 541
Grain dust
experiments, 306, 393,420
explosions
Iowa (1980), 169-171
Kambo (1976), 163-165
Minnesota (1980), 168-169
Missouri (1980), 166-167
Oslo (1976), 165, 166
Oslo (1987), 165, 166
recent, 25
Stavanger (1970), 160-162
Stavanger (1988), 162-163
Texas (1981), 171-172
literature survey, 133-134
use of liquid additives, 114-115
Grewer-furnace flammability test, 496
Gruber et al. venting theory, 463-464
Gutterman and Ranz gas velocity gradient,
225-226
Halons (as suppressants), 106, 108
Harmonized gas and dust standards, 550, 551,
556, 565,567
Hartmann apparatus/bomb
American Society for Testing and Materials
and, 535
bag filters experiments and, 450
closed vessels laboratory tests and, 534, 535
description of, 241
dispersion air valve, 336
dispersion system of, 480, 481
dust concentration and, 35, 36, 243, 308
dust explosion venting and, 460, 461
explosibility tests and, 489
explosion pressure, 337
explosion violence and, 638
fixed vent ratio and, 431
laboratory test, 526-529
laminar flame propagation in closed vessels
theories and, 296, 297
oxygen content in atmosphere, 541
particle size and, 30, 31, 33, 34
Rust method and, 437
tests, 336, 433
turbulent dust flames in closed vessels studies
and, 334, 337
vent sizing methods and, 434, 450
Haswell coal mine explosion, 20-21,256
Hazard analysis/surveys, 124-127
classification system, 543
minimum mass of dust, 621-622
reduction possibilities, 61-62, 67-68
research, 61 0-611,634
Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP), 124,
125
 Index 711

Hazardous materials, 5-7 defined, 385-388, 542

Heat conductivity, 394-397 of dust clouds, 385--430, 587-595
Heat flux ignition sources, 391-392 by electric spark, 404--419, 476-477
Heats of combustion, 6 by hot surfaces, 391, 423426, 562-563
Heats of various solids, specific, 220 by mechanical rubbing or impact, 419-423
Heinrich and Kowall venting theory, 460--462, research on, 592-595
463 of dust layers by hot surfaces, 563
Hinged explosion doors, 90, 91, 92 process of, 385,583
Hot particle detection system, 63-64 self-heating and self-ignition in powder
Hot-plate test, 494-495, 560 deposits, 388--404
Hot spots of single particles, 587-595
accidental impacts and, 419, 421,422-423 aluminum, 251-253,588
as ignition hazard, 14 carbon, 256-264
generation of, 516 coal, 256-264, 589
from rubbing, grinding, and multiple impacts, magnesium, 253-255,588
420-421 wood, 264-265
Hot surfaces zirconium, 255
enclosed, apparatus design for, 562-563 Ignition delay, 28, 335-336
as ignition hazard, 13, 61-62, 391,423-426, Ignition energy, minimum. See Minimum ignition
615-616 energy
research on, 590 Ignition sensitivity, 4, 34, 349, 414, 422
Human motivation (in explosion prevention), Ignition sources, 10, 11-20, 24, 475
118-120 background, 10, 11
Hybrid mixtures electric sparks and arcs, 15-20, 65-66, 475
effect of, 50-55 electrical apparatuses, 549
explosive properties test, 539-540 electrostatic discharges, 15-20, 65-66,
616-618
elimination of, 57-66, 475
ICI Dessicarb (suppressant), 105, 109 enclosing, 560-568
Ignitability assessment heat from mechanical impacts, 13-14, 64-65
dispersibility, 480--485 hot spots, 419-423
electrical resistivity, 487-488 hot surfaces, 13, 61-62, 391,475,493-498,
historical background, 473-475 615-616
by laboratory tests, 491-492 laser beam, 618-619
context of, 476 mechanical sparks, 23
flammability tests, 493-498 miscellaneous, 618-619
purpose, 475 open flames, 13, 61,475
types, 477 preventing, 57-66
measurement of physical characteristics of self-heating, 493-498
dusts, 479-488 smoldering nests, 62-64
moisture content, 485-487 smoldering or burning dust, 11-13, 58-61,475
oxygen content influence in oxidizing gas, Ignition temperature, 291,292, 385-388, 411
540-542 determination, 391,494--495
particle size distribution and specific surface self-heating in powder deposits, 388-404
area, 479-480 Impact hazard, mechanical, 13-14, 64-65,
philosophy of, 475-477 419-423
powder mechanical properties, 485 Inert dust
relationship between test result and real hazard, adding, 73
475-477 in clouds, 55-56
test data tables influence of, 542
BIA, 681-685,686-701 uses of, 73
U.S. Bureau of Mines, 495, 505,685, Inert gases, uses of, 59, 60, 139
702-703 Inerting, intrinsic, 131
testing problems, 636-641 Inerting by adding inert gas to air, 67-69,
Ignition 619-620, 625-626
curves, 572-574, 576 Inerting by adding noncombustible dust, 620-621
712 Index
Inerting system (coal grinding plant), 110
Integrated process plants, explosion prevention,
109-111
International Protection (IP) code for prevention
of dust ingress, 560-562, 564
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
area classification standards, 553, 554
electrical apparatuses, 549, 564-565
Ex"iD" standard for dusts, 570-571
Ex"p" standard for gases, 565, 568
Ex"pD" standard for dusts, 565,566, 567
harmonizing dust with gas standards, 551,556,
565, 567
Hartmann bomb, 526
hazard classification system, 543
hot-plate test, 494--495, 560
ignition temperature experiment, 391,563
IP (International Protection) code, 560-562,
564
minimum ignition energy test, 499, 500,
512-513,571,572, 576, 637, 640
molding standards, 576
pressurized electrical equipment enclosures
standards, 565-567, 575
resistivity test, 487
scope of standards on dusts, 552
standards, 141,523, 550, 562, 563, 572
test methods, 63
three-zone concept, 553-554
International Standardization Organization (ISO)
Bartnecht system, 241,357
codes and standards, 87, 141
explosion suppression system test, 536, 539
Kst value, 340, 356-357, 359, 431,447, 534,
535, 637
1 m 3 closed vessel test, 87, 310, 311,356, 431,
450, 461,534, 585, 603, 639, 640
maximum explosion pressure at constant
volume, 529-530
MEC results, 310, 521,523,525
test methods, 637
turbulence index, 536
Interparticle forces, 224
categories, 202
due to liquids, 204-206
electrostatic forces, 203
and strength of bulk powder, 206-212
measurement of, 208-212
shear cells, 209-210, 211
tensile strength testers, 210-212
theories, 206-208
van der Waals' forces, 202, 207
Intrinsic inerting, 131
Intrinsically safe electrical apparatus, 568-574
Iron, corrosion of direct-reduced, 403
Isoperibolic experiments, 389-390, 397
Jaeckel theory of explosive concentrations,
314-315
Jenike cell, 209-210
Jost theory of ignition in premixed gases, 417
k-E theory, 327, 328-329
Kst values (measurement of inherent
explosibility), 97, 340-341,356-357, 459,
534, 535, 637
Kj~ildman computer models, 364-366
Kolmogoroff energy spectrum law, 327
Lagrangian formulation, 301,329
Lambert-Beer's law, 71
Laminar flame propagation. See Flame
propagation, laminar
Liftoff apparatus, 483, 484-485
Light attenuation measurement systems, 71,
72, 73
Lightning type discharges, 16, 19
Lignite dust. See Coal dust
Limiting oxygen content (LOC)
in atmosphere, 619--620
for inerting, 639
Linen flax dust explosion
Harbin (1987), 182, 184-187
research, 617
Liquid additives, dust control, 113, 114-116,
204-205
Liquid bridge regimes, 205, 206
Liquids, interparticle forces due to, 204-206
Literature surveys
aluminum, 138-139
bag filters in steel works, self-ignition, 404
cellulose, 135-136
coal dust, 136-137, 401-403
corrosion of direct-reduced iron, 403
dust explosion hazards, 4, 133-141
explosion mitigation/prevention, 57, 133-141
fish meal, 134
grain and feed dusts and flour, 133-134
magnesium, 138-139
metal dusts, 139-140
milk powder, 134, 403
miscellaneous powders/dusts, 140-141
organic materials, natural, 403
peat dust, 135-136
powder for electrostatic coating, 137-138
research and development, 580-582
self-heating of powders/dusts, 388, 401-404
silicon, 139-140
sugar, 134
wood dust, 135-136
Liitolf's method, 492, 514

Lycopodium
burning velocities, 277,278-279, 281,335
duration of electric spark, effect on MIE of,
413
explosion pressure tests, 535
ignitability and explosibility properties, 348
ignition of, 269, 334, 408,409, 411,423,572
ignition temperature, 411
investigating burning velocity of laminar
flames of, 245, 597, 598
use of, 213,215, 408, 412
Mach number, 217,229
Mach-Zehnder interferometry, 319
Mache-Hebra nozzles, 270
Magnesium
burning velocities, 283
ignition and combustion, 253-255
literature survey, 138-139
Magnetic separators, 65
Maisey venting theory, 460
Maize starch experiments
bag filters, 448451
dispersion, 485
dust concentration, 35, 36
dust clouds, 72, 361,373
ignition, 480, 518, 522, 595
laminar flame, 597
particle size, 29, 33, 34
on peak pressures of incident shock waves, 586
suppression systems, 632
turbulent flame propagation, 600, 605,606
Mallard-le Chatelier thermal diffusion theory,
266, 267, 283, 290, 298, 300, 314, 416
Malted barley dust explosion
Norway (1976), 165, 166
Norway (1987), 165, 166
Markstein length of dust/air flame, 599
Materials that can cause dust explosions, 5-7
Maximum experimental safe gap (MESG), 76,
346-351,568, 594
Maximum explosion pressure
at constant volume, 525-533
data, 683,702-703
in hybrid mixtures, 539-540
industrial, 525
laboratory tests, 526-533
Mechanical accidental impact ignition hazard,
13-14, 64-65, 515-518
Mechanical bulk properties, powder, 485
Mechanical impact and friction sensitivity,
513-515
Metal dust, 6
burning velocity, 270-272
combustion of, 7
Index 713
dust concentrations, 35
flame studies, 270-273, 317
literature survey, 139-140
particle size, 30
United States versus Federal Republic of
Germany, 23
Metal sparks
generation of, 420-421, 516
ignition hazard, 404-419, 593
Methane
explosion in coal silo at Elkford (1982),
187-188
explosion in coal silo at San Bernadino (1984),
188
in hybrid mixtures with dust, effect of 52-53,
54-55
Milk powder
literature survey, 134
research on, 591
smoldering nests of, 63
thermal behavior, 403
Milling equipment, protection selection for, 128,
129, 130-131
Minimum electric spark energy. See Minimum
ignition energy (MIE)
Minimum explosive dust concentration (MEC),
35,304-311, 518-525
below, 621
data, 683,702
experimental determination, 304-311,640
flame propagation and, 639
hybrid mixtures, 51-52
industrial, 518-519
laboratory tests, 519-524
German/Swiss closed bombs, 521
international standard, possible, 523-524
Nordtest Fire 011,522-523
in United States, 519-521
and particle size, 31-32
Minimum ignition energy (MIE), 420, 505-508,
619
data, 684, 702
of dust clouds, 17, 45-46, 415-416, 571-572
electrical apparatus design and, 571-574
flame propagation velocities and, 598
gas ignition curves and, 572
in hybrid mixtures, 52-53
laboratory tests, 505-513
moisture content and, 28
particle size and, 32, 33
in premixed gases, 415, 416
research, 593,594, 637, 638
Minimum ignition temperature, 499-504, 559
comparison in different test furnaces, 504
dust cloud data, 45,420, 421,683,685
dust layer data, 702
714 Index
Minimum ignition temperature (continued)
industrial situation, 499
laboratory tests, 499-504
research, 641
theories for predicting, 424-426
Moisture content
data, 681
influence of, 28
role of, 28-29, 336, 485-487
Molding, encapsulation by, 567
Monosized particles theory,
288-290, 294
Nagy and Verakis venting theory, 463
Nagy/Conn/Verakis theories, 294-297
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
dust explosions in United States (1900-1956)
per, 21-22
gases versus dusts, 558
nomograph method, 431,446
standards, 141,553
vent scaling procedure, 455-456, 627
vent sizing, 453,455
vented dust explosions and, 461
Nature of dust explosions, 1-20
ignition sources, 10, 11-20
materials that can cause, 5-7
phenomenon, 1-5
range of dust concentrations, 7-10
Nomograph
maximum experimental safe gap and, 351
self-ignition, 390
vent sizing method, 431-433,437, 446, 453
vented dust explosions and, 461,462
Nomura and Tanaka laminar burning in closed
vessels, 298-299, 318
Nomura and Tanaka monosized particles theory,
288-290
Nomura and Tanaka venting theory, 462-463
Nordtest Fire 011 method, 310, 311
MEC results, 522-523,524
Nordtest Fire 016 method, 505-508
Norwegian vent sizing method, 434, 438
Nozzle(s)
cyclone experiments and, 445
Dahoe, circular, 585
dispersal of agglomerates by, 232-234, 241,
242, 333
Mache-Hebra type, 270
nomograph method and, 432
perforated annular, 585
rebound design, 531,532, 585
turbulence intensity experiment and, 457
Nusselt number, 258, 261
Nusselt type flames, 268, 290
Ogle/Beddow/Vetter theory, 287-288, 299-301
Ohmic energy dissipation, 404-406
Oil shale, 140
Open flame hazards, 13, 61
Open-circuit systems (for dust cloud generation),
244-246
Optical flame detectors/sensors, 102
Organic materials. See also under specific names
burning velocity, 277-280
combustion of, 7, 29
flame studies, 277-282
particle size, 29
rates of pressure rise, 26-27
self-ignition, 403
thermal behavior, 403
Oxidation reaction, cooling of, 59-60
Oxidizer gas, oxygen content of, 39-44
Oxygen concentration
data, maximum, 703
for inerting, 599
Oxygen content influence in oxidizing gas,
540-542
Oxygen detectors/sensors, 69
Partial inerting, 69, 625-626
Particle dislodgment/entrainment
in parallel airflow, 221-229
in upwards airflow, 230-232
Particle size, 2-3, 29-34
analysis, 479--480
data, 681,682
distribution, determining, 232, 233,234
dust clouds and, 199
Particles, flow pattern of, 584
Particles movement and inertial forces influence,
557-558
Particles suspended in a gas, 213-221
drag on, 215-218
movement of, 218-219
propagation of large-amplitude pressure waves
in dust clouds, 221
speed of sound in dust cloud, 219-220
terminal settling velocity, 213-215
Passive devices, explosion isolation, 75, 77-78
Peat dust
bag filters experiments, 448-451
computer model, 364-366
literature survey, 135-136
Personal motivation (in explosion prevention),
118-120
Perspex
cylinder, 541
glass tube, 488, 542
window, 313
Pipelines, experiments in, 443-444, 604

Pneumatic pipelines, 443-444
Pneumatic separators, 65
Polyester/epoxy powders, literature survey,
137-138
Powder deposits, self-heating and self-ignition in,
388-404
Powder/dust conveyors, protection selection, 130,
132
Powder/dust mixers, protection selection, 129,
131-132
Powders/dusts. See also under specific types
attraction forces between particles in, 202-206
discharge along surface of, 16, 19
ignition prevention, 66
literature survey, 140-141
mechanical properties, 208-212, 485
pressure influence on, 47
propagating brush discharges and, 18-19
storage in heated atmosphere, 497
as suppressants, 108, 109
Prandtl-Karman relation, 224, 225
Pressure detectors/sensor, 101-102
Pressure of dust cloud, initial, 47-50
Pressure piling, 74, 525
Pressure pulse, 100
Pressure vessel design, 82-83
Pressure waves, large-amplitude, 221
Pressurized enclosures, 575-576
Preventive means, 57-120
construction and layout of buildings, 116-118
control and interlocking systems for integrated
process plants, 109-111
cost considerations, 122, 123
for dust accumulations, 112-113
evaluating, 121-122, 123
explosible dust cloud elimination, 81-84
explosion isolation, 73-81
explosion transfer avoidance, 73-81
explosion venting, 84-101
explosion-pressure-resistant equipment, 81-84
hazard analysis, 124-127
human factors, 118-120
ignition source avoidance, 57-66
by liquid addition, 113-116
outside process equipment, 112-113
overview, 57
safety audits, 125-127
selecting, 121-141
suppression of dust explosions, automatic,
101-109
working routines, enforcing adequate, 58
Primary dust clouds, 584
Primary explosions, 7-10, 11, 80-81
Process equipment
design for specified internal explosion loads,
633
Index 715
dust accumulations prevention and removal
outside, 112-113
eliminating explosions in, 540
leaks, 112
pressure-resistant design, 82
pressure-shock-resistant design, 82, 83
preventing secondary explosions outside of,
633-634
protection selection, 127-132
Process variables, monitoring
example, 109-111
objectives, 109
Propagating brush discharges, 16, 18-19
Properties that influence ignitability and
explosion violence, 25-56
combustible gas or vapor, 50-55
concentration of dust, 34-36
concluding remarks, 56
degree of dust dispersion, 32, 33-34
dust chemistry, 25-29
hybrid mixtures, 50-55
inerting by mixing dust with combustible dust,
55-56
oxygen content of oxidizer gas, 39-44
particle size or specific surface area, 29-32,
33
pressure of dust cloud, initial, 47-50
temperature of dust cloud, initial, 44-46
turbulence, 36-39
Protection by enclosures, 575-576
Protection selection, 121-141. See also
Preventive means
Publications. See Literature surveys
Pulverized coal, 136-137, 256
PVA flame studies, 278
PVC behavior, 27, 28
Pyrolysis, 268, 301,307
Ballal's theory for zero gravity conditions and,
284
char particles and, 259
coal dust in air and, 293
discoloration due to, 394
dust chemistry and, 28
of organic dust particles, 606
peat/air turbulence computer model and,
365
process, 265
single particle rates and, 276
Q-pipe, 629
Quantitative Risk Analysis (QRA), 634
Quasi-detonations in dust clouds, 608
Quenching distances, 273, 277, 280, 281-282,
346, 349, 350, 598, 600
Quenching tube, 97-98, 122, 612
716 Index

Radandt scaling law, 434, 437-438, 441-442 Screening tests, explosibility, 488-490
Radioactive heat transfer, 268-270 Screw conveyors, 65-76
Reaction forces, 98, 99-101 Secondary explosions, 7-10, 12
Recording dust explosions, 20-21 Selecting means for preventing and mitigating
Reentrainment (of dust), 199, 224 dust explosions, 121-141
Removal and prevention of dust accumulations chemical process industry, 127-132
outside process equipment, 112-113 cost considerations, 122, 123
Research and development (1990-2002), 580-679 evaluating, 121-122, 123
books and conference proceedings, 580-582 hazard analysis, 124-127
conclusions, 646 powders and dusts literature survey, 133-141
dust explosion case histories, 641-643 standards, recommendations and guidelines,
expert systems, 643-645 141
introduction, 580-582 Self-heating, 505
joint efforts in Europe, 645 in bag filter dust, 404
in People's Republic of China, 646 coal powder or dust in bulk and, 136
status and outstanding problems computer models, 397-401
in fundamental research on dust explosions, experiments, 389-397
582-610 deposit on hot surface, 391
in preventing and mitigating dust explosions heat conductivity, 394-397
in industry, 610-636 heat flux ignition source, 391-392
in testing dust ignitability and explosibility, isoperibolic, 389-390
636-641 smoldering combustion, 393-394, 614-615
Resistivity, electrical, 487-488 literature survey, 401-404
Reynolds number, 225, 258, 320, 410 milk powder and, 134
accelerating coal dust flames turbulence powder types, 388-404
computer model, 366 prevention of, 58-59
drag on a particle and, 215, 216, 217 research on, 589-590
for flow of burning cloud, 464 theoretical work, 397-401
laminar-to-turbulent transitions, 344 Self-ignition. See Self-heating
peat/air turbulence computer model and, 366 Separators, use of, 65
special, 228, 344 Settling velocity apparatus, 482-483,484, 485
turbulence and, 327, 328, 329, 330, 339, 342, Shear cells, 209-210, 211,225
364 Shock waves, 221,595
Richardson-Zaki equation, 231 Silicon/alloys dust, literature survey, 139-140
Risk analysis, 125, 634 Silicon particle size, 31
Risk and safety management, 634-635 Silicon powder explosion, Bremanger (1972),
Risk definition, 467 190-192
Roots blower, 439 Silos, experiments in, 465
Rosin-Rammler charts, 425 large, 435-438, 453
Rotary locks, 493,568 slender, 438-493
design diagram, 83 smoldering fires in, fighting, 615
effectiveness of, 350 venting, 626-627, 630
explosion isolation, 75-76 Single impact ignition risks, 64
Rust venting theory, 437, 450, 462 Siwek test (20 liter sphere), 683, 703
development of, 242
International Electrotechnical Commission and,
St classification (explosion violence), 87 523
Safe process design, inherently, 611 MEC results, 311, 521
Safety, intrinsic, 576 test, 530-531
Safety analysis, 634 Smoldering combustion, 11-13
Safety audits, 125-127 experiments, 393-394, 401
Safety management, 120, 634-635 explosion in Norway (1985), 177-178
Safety in Mines Research Establishment (SMRE), explosion in Sweden (1989), 181-182
473 explosion in Tomylovo (1987-1989), 178-180
Saltation, 226, 227 extinction, 59, 60
Sampling techniques, dust, 477-479 in fabric filter plants in steel works, 404
Schuber experimental work, 347-351 ignition of, 493

prevention of, 59, 614-615
research on, 591-592
Smoldering nests, 11-12, 13, 23, 60, 62-64, 131,
132
Sodium dithionite experiments, 391
Sound, speed of, 219-220
Spark gap length, 415-4 16
resistance, 405-406
Spark ignition/discharges, 16, 404-419
accidental impacts and, 421,422-423
background, 404
duration effect, 407-414
dust cloud theories, 416-4 19
electric, 15-20
hot spots, 420-421
movement/turbulence of dust clouds, 415
ohmic resistance, 404--406
optimum duration, 412-4 14
preventing electrical, 65-66
time effect, 407-414
Spark kernel, hot, 409, 417
Specific heats data, 220
Specific surface area, 29-32
Spinning riffler, 478-479
Spontaneous combustion, 614-615
Spontaneous ignition, 24
Standards, regulations and guidelines, 141
Statistical records, 20-25
Federal Republic of Germany (1965-1985),
22-25
grain explosions in United States, 25
recording dust explosions, 20-21
in United States (1900-1956), 21-22
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 261
Stokes' theory for laminar flow, 213, 215,
218,237
Stone dust, inerting effect of, 55
Stored capacitor energy criterion,
408-409
Structural response analysis, 83
Sugar, literature survey, 134
Suppressant agents, types of, 106, 108-109
Suppression systems, automatic, 101-109
advance inerting, 106
design, 106, 107-108
efficacy of, 536-538
extinguishing agent, 106, 108-109
general concept, 101-105
literature survey, 103, 104-105
local suppression, 106
research and development, 630-633
self-contained, 102, 103, 104
solar panels as, 632
total suppression, 106
type influence, 106, 108-109
unacceptability situations, 122
water as, 631
Index 717
Swedish vent sizing method, 433,438
Swift venting theory, 464
Systems reliability analysis, 124-125
Tchen theory of diffusion, 237
Temperature, effect of initial, 44-46, 594
Tensile strength testers, 210-212
Terminal settling velocity, 213-215
Test results (for ignitability and explosibility),
correlation with real hazards, 475-477
Thermal
endurance, 564
explosion, 587
runaway, 587
Thermal hazards and dust layers, electrical
apparatus enclosures and, 558-560
Thermite reaction, 14, 64, 421,423,433
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), 614
Three-element flame propagation theory, 299-301
Three-zone area classification concept, 553-554
Three-zone flame propagation theory, 297-298
Titanium experiments, 421,422
"Top events," 124-125
Tramp metal, risks of, 174-175
Turbulence, 36-39
anisotropic, 326
definition, 36, 326, 584-585
domains of, 326-327
in dust clouds, 17, 36-39
explosion studies, 344-346
flame propagation, 325-367
acceleration, 351-363
models, 325-329, 363-367
overview, 330-332
research, 600-602
safe gap, maximum experimental, 346-351
studies in closed vessels, 322-341
systematic comparative studies, 344-346
in unconfined geometries, 341-344
ignition energy, 415
inducing, 422
initial, 37
isotropic, 326, 327, 340
mixing effect, 237
shear-flow, 326
three-dimensional energy spectrum function,
327, 328
venting and flow-induced, 84
Turbulence intensity experiment, 457-458
Turbulent dust explosions in large diameter
enclosures, 351-363
Turbulent dust flames, 38, 330-332
experiments with, 332-341
mathematical models, 604-606
Turbulent fluid flow, 326
Turin warehouse explosion, 20, 157-160
718 Index

Ural venting theory, 464---465 large silos, 435-438

U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) others, 451-452, 627
20 liter vessel, 308, 520-521,532 pneumatic pipelines, 443-444
circuit, 510 slender silos, 438-443
drop hammer tests, 514 probabilistic nature of problem, 465-469
explosible dust concentration criterion and, procedures, 452-457
minimum, 308 Ventex valves, 78, 624, 625
flammability test, 495, 496 Venting, 84-101
furnace, 425,502, 503 defining, 84-85
ignitability and explosibility studies, 473, 637 explosion, 626
laboratory test methods, 685, 702-703 hazards, 92, 93
spark ignition tests blast effects, 98, 99-101
for dust clouds, 508-509 unacceptability of, 92, 93, 122
in dust layers, 505 methods
test data applicability, 685-703 flame free, 122
quenching tube, 97-98, 122
vent covers, 87-92
Vacuum cleaners vent ducts, 93-97
explosion-proof, 112-113, 114 principle of, basic, 85
protection selection, 132 processes, 84
Valves quenching tube, 97-98
fast-closing, 78-81 reaction forces and blast effects, 98, 99-101
Ventex, 78, 624, 625 research, 626-630
van der Waals forces, 202, 207, 234 theories, 458--465
Vent covers, 87-92 concluding remarks, 465
bursting panels, 88-90 Gruber et al., 463-464
clips to hold, 88 Heinrich and Kowall, 460-462, 463
hinged explosion doors, 90, 91, 92 introduction, 458-460
reversible, 90, 91, 92, 93 Maisey, 460
Vent ducts, 93-97, 629 Nagy and Verakis, 463
Vent sizing Nomura and Tanaka, 462-463
area, 85-87, 626 Rust, 437, 450, 462
current developments Swift, 464
bag filters, 454 Ural, 464-465
basic approach, 452-453 thermal radiation effects, 629
concluding remarks, 456-457 Venting system in coal grinding plant, 109-111
cyclones, 454 Verein deutscher Ingenieure (VDI), 445
elongated enclosures, 455 bag filters experiments and, 447, 448, 450, 451
intermediate enclosures, 454 drop hammer test, 514
large empty enclosures, 453 dust cloud generation, 442, 632
large slender enclosures, 453 explosion pressure guidelines, 452
limitations of, 452-453 flammability test and, semiquantitative, 493
mills, 455 nomographs, 431,432
NFPA scaling procedure, 455-456 pressurized bottles, dust discharge from, 442
other shapes and dusts, 455-456 recommendations, 443,444
small slender enclosures, 453-454 standards, 141
European and U.S. methods, 431-434 symposiums, 582
modified Donat method, 434 vent sizing, 86, 87, 437,444, 453,454, 455
nomograph, 431-433 vented dust explosions, 446, 461,630
Norwegian method, 434, 438 venting code, 644
Radandt scaling law, 434, 437-438, 441-442 Volatile flame type, 268
Swedish method, 433,438
vent ratio, 431,437
full scale experiments, 435-452 Weiss-Longwell criterion, 236
bag filters, 447-451 Wheat flour/dust experiments, 357, 358, 370, 436,
cyclones, 444--447 437, 444
 Index 719

"Whirling" chamber, 241,242 Zehr's combustion bomb, 312-313

Wood flour/dust Zehr's theory of explosive concentrations, 315,
experiments, 357, 392 316,317
literature survey, 135-136 Zero gravity conditions, 284-287
Wood particles, ignition and combustion, 29, Zircaloy dust, precautions with, 141
264-265 Zirconium particles, ignition and combustion, 255
"Worst credible explosion" criterion, 468-469 ZND model, 372