Index
Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures, and t indicate tables.
A ALM. See Additive layer manufacturing
AASC. See Alkali-activated slag concrete
(AASC)
AASP. See Alkali-activated slag pastes (AASP)
Abrasion resistance, 246–247
ABS. See Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
Acoustic emission sensor, 475
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), 84, 384–385
Actuating materials, 466
Adam-Gibbs model, 595
Additive layer manufacturing (ALM), 105
Additive manufacturing (AM), 65
Aerodynamic energy harvesters, 426–427
Aerospace applications
commercial systems
interior aircraft structures, 390
material combinations, 389, 389t
structural applications, 390
prepreg systems
advantages, 392–393
applications, 390–391
C-fiber degradation, 391–392
gas-phase active systems, 391–392
interior aircraft structures, 391
interlaminar shear strength, 391
resin transfer molding systems
9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-
oxide, 393–394
secondary and interior aircraft structures, 393
standards and regulations
applications, 387–388
interior aircraft structures, 388–389
thermoplastic matrix systems
applications, 394
interior aircraft structures, 394
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
(ATSDR) rankings, 504–505
Aircraft winglets, 424
Alkali-activated slag concrete (AASC), 34, 38
Alkali-activated slag pastes (AASP), 45
Alkaline activator solution, 25–26
Alkaline hydrolysis, 122–124
657
(ALM)
Al-MMCs. See Aluminum-based metal-matrix
composites (Al-MMCs)
Aluminosilicate geopolymers
formation mechanism and structure, 119–120
synthesis parameters, 120
two-dimensional representation, 119f
Aluminum-based metal-matrix composites
(Al-MMCs)
casting process, 3–4
composite materials, classifications, 4–5
density and porosity measurements, 9t
fabrication strategy, 4
futuristic development and applications, 19–21, 19–20t
industrial applications, 21–22
mechanical properties and industrial scalability, 15–19
process and working principle, 5–15
reinforcing elements, 3
solid, liquid and semisolid processing methods, 3–4
stages, 3–4
Aluminum trihydrate (ATH)/boehmite (AOH), 409
Al/ω-Al-Cu-Fe composite, 17–18f
AM. See Additive manufacturing (AM)
Ambient-cured geopolymer (ACG), 267
AMC properties vs. four metals and composite
materials, 21f
Ammonium polyphosphate (APP), 386, 406
Animal-inspired robots
application, 434
electromagnetic oscillatory actuator, 433
inchworm robot, 433
OctArm-like robot, 434
turtle-like robot, 434
ANNs. See Artificial neural networks (ANNs)
Antiicing/deicing system, 431
Anti-lightning effect, 372
Apparent volume of permeable voids (AVPV), 46–47
Archimedes’ principle, 90, 506, 508
Arrhenius equation, 199–200
Artificial intelligence techniques, 198
Artificial neural networks (ANNs), 68, 180, 198
658
Automotive applications
polyamides and polypropylene compounds, 403–404
standards and fire regulations, 402–403
thermoplastic composites, 401
B
BAAM. See Big area additive manufacturing (BAAM)
Backscattered electron (BSE) techniques, 509
Bamboo fibers, 132
Barely visible impact damage (BVID), 348
β-cyclodextrin-modified alginate (β-CD-Alg), 591
Big area additive manufacturing (BAAM), 103, 107
Binder jetting (BJ), 70–73, 71f, 72t, 97, 105
Bioinspired structures
imitation of creatures, mechanism
adhesive, 439–441
superhydrophobicity (see Superhydrophobicity)
imitation of creatures, movement
animal-inspired robots, 432–434
plant-inspired robots, 435–437
Biomass-derived carbon precursors, 638–643, 639f
Bioprinting, 95
Bismaleimide (BMI) composite, 375–376
Bismuth (III) oxide (Bi2O3)-polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
matrix composites
density measurements, 506
density of sample
density filler compound, 512–513
micro-sized and nano-sized fillers, 513
samples preparation, 505–506
X-ray transmission
effect of starch, 516–520
measurements, 506–507
without starch, 513–516
Bismuth (III) oxide nanopowder (N-Bi2O3)/epoxy-
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) matrix composites
density measurements, 510
density of sample, 526–529
nanofiber mats analysis, 530–533
samples preparation, 509–510
scanning electron microscopy, 510
X-ray attenuation
effect of filler loading, 530
effect of X-ray tube voltage, 529–530
measurements, 510
Bistable energy harvester, 426–427
Bistable flap, 423, 424f
BJ. See Binder jetting (BJ)
Blanket and flame tests, 298
Blast furnace slag (BFS), 268t
Blow-off impulse model, 366–367
BO. See Build orientation (BO)
Bond-slip models, 222
Bond-then-form process, 80
Index
Bottom-up approach, 637–638
Bragg grating, 321–322, 478
Bridging effect, 152–153
Buckypaper (BP), 372–374
Build orientation (BO), 68
C
CAD. See Computer-aided design (CAD)
Calcium-aluminate-cement (CAC), 132
Calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H), 130–131
Capsule-based self-healing, classification, 334–336
Capsule fabrication process, 333–334
Carbon black (CB), 311
Carbon-epoxy and glass-epoxy coupons, 290
Carbon fiber (CF), 53
Carbon fiber and carbon nanotubes (CF-CNTs)
hybridization, 54–57, 61
hybrid fiber-reinforced polymer composites,
performance
electrical properties, 60–61
mechanical properties, 58–60, 59t
thermal properties, 61
performance, hybrid, mechanical properties, 57–58
Carbon fiber/epoxy resin (CF/EP), 249
Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites,
307–308
aircraft structures, 287
carbon-glass hybrid composites, 301–302
compression-thermal loading tests, 303
detecting changes, elevated temperature
delamination, 292–293
nondestructive test method, 292
X-ray computed tomography, 292–293
duration of heating, 289
failure behaviors, 286
glass composites, 301–302
heat treatment tests
mechanical properties on orientation, 298–301
mechanical properties, 290
microscopic defects, 287
microscopic hardness, mechanical properties
hardness testing, 295–296
hardness vs. strength at macroscopic level, 296–298,
298f
steady-state and transient heat tests, 302–303
temperature distribution, aircraft, 293–294
thermal effects (see Thermal effects, CFRP)
thermal loading, 286
Young’s modulus, 286–287
Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRPs), 53, 383–384,
436
Carbon fiber-reinforced polyphenylene sulfide
(CF/PPS), 168
Carbon-glass hybrid composites, 301–302
 Index 659
Carbon nanofibers (CNFs), 88 fire safety regulations, 404–406
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 92, 311, 312f, 430, 589 flame-retardant concepts, 406–407
electric arc method, 41 Close-then-heal (CTH) approach, 342
geopolymer composite properties CMCs. See Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
conclusions, 43 CNC. See Computer numerical control (CNC)
durability, 42–43 CNTs. See Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
geopolymerization, 42 Coefficient of friction (CoF), 246–247, 495
scanning electron microscopic (SEM), 43f Combination types, intelligent materials
strength, 42 assembling particles, 470
workability and setting times, 41–42 fibers/particles
properties, 41 damping properties, 468–469
Carbon-reinforced polymer (CFRP), 180 ferroelastic SMAs, 468–469
Carbon-rich materials, 639 piezoelectric properties, 468
Carmel 700M, 77–78 multilayer films, 469
Catalyst carrier, 484 nano periodic structure, 469–470
CCD. See Central composite design (CCD) porous-based structural framework, 469
Cellulose-based fibers Compact tension (CT), 327
bagasse fibers, 134 Composite materials
bamboo fibers, 132 alloy designations, 157t
chemical composition, 123t failure modes, 167f
chemical structure and mechanical properties, 122 fracture mechanisms, carbon nanotubes (CNTs),
corn husk fibers, 134–135 152–153, 153f
cotton fibers, 128–131, 129–130f fracture toughness, 166–167
degradation, alkaline conditions, 124f interfacial properties, 151–152, 162–170
flax fibers, 125–127, 126–128f interphase, 151, 159–162
hemp fibers, 133 matrix
hierarchical structure, 122f ceramic, 158–159
highly alkaline conditions, 122–125 metal, 157–158
jute fibers, 132 polymer, 156–157, 156f
physical and mechanical properties, 123t mechanical performance, 151
sisal fibers, 133–134 reinforcements, 152–156, 152f
Cellulose fibers, 229 tensile properties, fibers vs. polymer matrices, 155t
Cement composite (CC), 267 Computer-aided design (CAD), 65
Central composite design (CCD), 120 Computer numerical control (CNC), 74
Ceramic-matrix composites, 4–5 Concept of a supercapacitor, 643–644
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), 84, 543–544 Copper-based superhydrophobic materials, 431
fiber reinforcements, 93–95, 94t Coupling effect, 196–197
nanoparticle reinforcements, 95–97, 96t Crack-bridging effect, 218
CF. See Carbon fiber (CF) Cryogenic fracturing method, 88
CF-CNTs. See Carbon fiber and carbon nanotubes C-S-H. See Calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H)
(CF-CNTs) Cured-in-place-pipe (CIPP), 214
CF/PPS. See Carbon fiber-reinforced polyphenylene CVD. See Chemical vapors deposition (CVD)
sulfide (CF/PPS) CVI. See Chemical vapor infiltration (CVI)
CFRPs. See Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRPs)
Charpy impact machine, 250 D
Charpy impact test, 250–251, 549–550, 561, 563t Damage, lightning strike
Chemical functionalization, 54, 58 electrical-thermal-pyrolysis model (see Electrical-
Chemical vapor infiltration (CVI), 93–95 thermal-pyrolysis model)
Chemical vapors deposition (CVD), 41, 54, 311 mechanistic model (see Mechanistic model)
Chestnut shell, 648 thermal-chemical model (see Thermal-chemical
China bonfire test, 402–403 model)
Chopped strand mat (CSM) composites, 246–247 Damage self-sensing, 318
CIPP. See Cured-in-place-pipe (CIPP) Darcy’s law, 369
Civil engineering Debonding failure, 161–162, 161f
660
Decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), 403–404
DED. See Directed energy deposition (DED)
Deformation robot, 450
Degree of pyrolysis, 363
Delta printing technology, 76
Density functional theory (DFT), 21–22
Deployable inflatable antennas, 425–426
Deployable reflectors
inflatable antennas, 425–426
mesh reflectors, 425
solid surface, 425
Deposition processing, 158
DFT. See Density functional theory (DFT)
DIADOS diagnostic detector, 510
Diamond-like carbon (DLC) films, 489–490
Dibromoneopentyl glycol (DBNPG), 406
Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs), 441–444
Dielectric elastomer (DE) films, 443–444
Dielectric elastomer minimum energy structures
(DEMESs), 443–444
Diels-Alder (DA) reactions, 328
Diethylenetriamine-modified alginate (DETA-Alg), 591
Differential thermogravimetry (DTG), 230–231
Digital light processing (DLP), 84, 95
Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA), 334
9,10-Dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide
(DOPO) molecule, 386
N, N-Dimethylformamide (DMF), 54, 509
Dimethyl methylphosphate (DMMP), 406
Dimethyl propylphosphate (DMPP), 406
Directed energy deposition (DED), 73–74, 73f, 74t
Direct ink writing (DIW), 93, 95
Direct light printing (DLP) approach, 600
Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), 97
Disintegrated melt deposition (DMD), 13–14, 14f
DIW. See Direct ink writing (DIW)
DLP. See Digital light processing (DLP)
DMD. See Disintegrated melt deposition (DMD)
DMLS. See Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)
Double-cantilever beam (DCB) test, 327
Double cleavage drilled compression (DCDC), 327
Double electrochemical layer, 644–645
Double exponential waveforms, 362
Double-layer electric capacitor, 649
Drawing exchange format (DXF), 67
DTG. See Differential thermogravimetry (DTG)
Dual-mode polarization, 478
Ductility, 254–255
DXF. See Drawing exchange format (DXF)
Dynamic fracture, 250
E nanofiber mats
ECCs. See Engineered cementitious composites (ECCs)
Eco-composites, 239f
Index
Eco-nanocomposites, 234, 239f, 241
E-glass laminates, 301
Electrical and electronic equipment (E&E), 384–385
Electrical energy storage systems, 643
Electrical resistance measurement
analytical and numerical methods, 321
assessment of damage, 309–311
carbonaceous fillers, 311
concept of hybridization, 311
conductive fillers, 311
damage sensing, 318
delamination damage, 313
electrical contact configurations, 314–316
piezoresistivity, 319–321
resistance-based self-sensing performance, 313
spatial distribution, 316
strain and damage sensing, 313
strain/stress, 316–318
Electrical self-sensing systems aligned with thermally
activate self-healing, 347–348
Electricalthermal finite element (FE) model, 363–364
Electrical-thermal-pyrolysis model
double exponential waveforms, 362
Joule’s law, 362
Maxwell’s equation, 362
numerical implementation, 363–364
Ohm’s law, 362
thermogravimetric analysis test, 363
Electro-active polymer (EAP) materials, 445
Electrochemical accumulators, 643
Electronic industry
nonhalogenated flame retardants for E&E, 409–410
printed circuit board, 407–408
Electrophoretic deposition (EPD), 54, 311
Electrorheological fluids (ER), 466
Electrospinning, 505
Electrospray deposition (ESD), 54–57, 55–57f
Electrospun Bismuth (III) oxide/PVA and WO3/PVA
nanofiber mats
density measurements, 508
density of sample, 520–522
morphology study, 526
samples preparation, 507–508
scanning electron microscopy, 509
thickness measurements, 508
X-ray attenuation
effects of different types of filler loading, 525–526
effects of filler loading, 524–525
effects of X-ray energies, 523–524
measurements, 508–509
Electrospun n-Bismuth (III) oxide/epoxy-PVA
density measurement, 511
density of sample, 533
 Index
morphology study, 535–537
sample preparation, 511
scanning electron microscopy, 512
X-ray attenuation, 534–535
measurement, 511–512
Electrostatic activated carbon supercapacitors, 646
ELO. See Epoxidized linseed oil (ELO)
Emulsion size, 247–248
Ender-3 Pro, 76
End-Notched Flexure (ENF) specimen test, 327
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis,
269–270
Energy harvesters
aerodynamic energy harvesters, 426–427
macro fiber composite, 428–430
piezoelectric ceramic transducer
beam-shaped, 427–428
bistable composite laminates, 427
electro-elastic model, 427
plate-shaped, 427–428
piezoelectric materials, 426–427
piezoelectric wind energy harvesters, 426–427
vibration energy harvesters, 426–427
Energy release rate, 251
Energy release rate, equation
fracture energy per area unit, 260
injection molding process, 256
limitation, 260–261
probability of fibers, 258
stress intensity coefficient, 256
stress intensity factor, 256
total fracture energy, 256
volume fractions of fibers, 256–258
Young’s modulus, 256
Engineered cementitious composites (ECCs), 207
applications, 218
definition, history and potentials, 214–216
manufacturing and installation methods, 218
materials and properties, 216–218
reinforcing materials and structures, 217t
textile reinforced concrete and fiber-reinforced
concrete, 217f
Engineering plastics, 384–385
EPD. See Electrophoretic deposition (EPD)
Epoxidized linseed oil (ELO), 171
Epoxidized sucrose soyate (ESS), 171
Epoxy, polyester/vinylester
acidity and alkalinity, 186–187
elevated temperature, 181–183
low temperature and freeze-thaw cycling, 184
moisture, 185–186
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 187–188
Epoxy resin thermosetting polymer, 504
ESD. See Electrospray deposition (ESD)
661
ESS. See Epoxidized sucrose soyate (ESS)
Ethylene-propylene-diene rubber (EPDM), 546–547
5-Ethylidene-2-norbornene (ENB), 334
Extrinsic self-healing
approach, 330–340
capsule mechanism
classification of, 334–336
fabrication process, 333–334
vascular self-healing approach
classification of, 338–340
fabrication process, 336–338
F
Face centered cubic (FCC) structure, 492–493
Facet deviation, 67
Failure in reinforcement, 161–162
Failure in the matrix, 161–162
Fatigue damage analyses, 631
FDM. See Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
FEA. See Finite element analysis (FEA)
FEAM. See Fiber encapsulation additive manufacturing
(FEAM)
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 387–388
FEM. See Finite element method (FEM)
Fiber encapsulation additive manufacturing (FEAM),
104
Fiber-fiber contact, 313
Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC), 206–207
Fiber-reinforced geopolymers, 121
Fiber reinforced polyamide, fracture mechanics
ductility index, 252–253
effects of moisture, 251
energy release rate, 251–252
energy release rate, equation (see Energy release rate,
equation)
impact test processing, 250–251, 250f
injection-molded processing, 250
plastic deformation, 254–255
relative humidities, 251–252, 252f
short carbon fiber-reinforced polyamide 66, 250
short glass fiber-reinforced polyamide 66, 250
Fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs), 155–156, 285
acceleration, 180
aging, 180
applications, 212–214
definition, history and potentials, 207–208
durability, 180–190
engineered cementitious composites (ECC), 207
engineering structures, 179–180
life prediction, 190–198
manufacturing and installation methods, 212
material modifications and surface preparation,
211–212
materials and properties, 208–210
662 Index

Fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) (Continued) Friction stir processing (FSP), 12–13, 13f
reinforcing fibers, 179–180 FRP. See Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)
shear and flexural strengthening, 213f FSP. See Friction stir processing (FSP)
strengthening elements, 206–207 FTIR. See Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
strength, stiffness and density values, 209t (FTIR)
thermosetting resins, 179–180 Full-width at half-maximum (FWHM), 492–493
Fibrillar silicate (FS) nanofibers, 248–249 Fused deposition modeling (FDM), 69, 75–77, 75f, 76t, 84,
Filament winding manufacturing process, 597–598 596–600
Filler/polymer nanocomposites, 503–504
Finder 2.0, 76 G
Finite element analysis (FEA), 68, 321, 359–360, 423, 620 Gas-phase active systems, 391–392
Finite element method (FEM), 222 γ-Fe2O3@SiO2 nanocomposites coatings
Finite element (FE) model, 363–364 antifriction mechanism
Fire behavior of polymeric materials coefficient of friction values, 499–500
flame-retardant additives, 387 microstructure of worn scars, 499f
halogenated additives, 386 Raman spectroscopy, 499
intrinsically flame-retardant systems, 385 superlow friction, 500
metal compounds, 386 X-ray diffractometry analysis, 499
phosphorus-based flame retardants, 386 characterization of, 491–492
Fire growth rate index (FIGRA), 405–406 formation mechanism
Fire resistance, 220–222 FTIR spectrum, 498
Fire retardants working principles, 221, 221f hydrolysis of iron ions, 497
Flake reinforcements, 156 surface characterization, 492–495
Flame-retardant additives, 387 synthesis of
Flame-retardant properties, 384, 388–389 chemicals for sol-gel, 490
Flame-retardant systems, 384 high-speed steel disc, 491
Flax fabric (FF), 249 the sol, 490–491
Flexure tests, 289 spray photoresist coating device, 491
FLM. See Food layer manufacture (FLM) tribological properties, 495–497
Fluidic elastomer actuators (FEAs), 442 tribotests of, Ag, 492
Fly ash-slag-blended geopolymer, 265 Gauge factor (GF), 313, 320–321
Food layer manufacture (FLM), 105 Geckoadhesion, 440–441
Form-then-bond process, 80 Gecko-inspired robot, 440
Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR), 32–33, Gecko’s dry adhesive, 439
298–301, 491–492, 643 General Electric (GE) group, 612
Four-step braiding, 612 Geopolymer composites
architecture, 616–619 carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 41–43
mechanical properties of repeat unit cells, 619 molar concentration, 26
processing nano-alumina, 35–40
circular braiding, 613 nano-clay, 31–35
control parameters, 612–613 nanomaterials, 26
regular braiding, 613 nano-silica (NS), 27–31
rectangular cross-section braiding nano-titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2), 43–47
braiding carriers, 613–614 recycling, 25–26
group, 615 GFRP. See Glass-reinforced polymer (GFRP)
jamming action, 613–614 Glass composites, 301–302
yarn location and path, 615 Glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites (GFRP),
repeat unit cells, 616–619 248–249, 307–308
F-P (Fabry-Perot) interference, 478 Glass-reinforced polymer (GFRP), 180, 182f
Fracture matrix mechanism, 254–255 Global warming, 265
Fracture toughness, 166–167 Gluing/adhesive bonding process, 80
Freeze-thaw cycling, 184 Gold capacitors, 644
Freezing-thawing cycles, 35 Graphene, 95
 Index 663
Graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), 311 In-service environments, 180, 199–200
Graphene oxide (GO), 92, 249 Intelligent fabrics, 484
Gravimetric capacity, 648 Intelligent materials
actuating materials, 466
H carbon in electrochemical sensors, 480–481
Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs), 228–229, 337–338 conductive materials, 466
Halogenated additives, 386 design and fabrication
Halogenated flame retardants, 221 combination types (see Combination types,
Halogen-free substrates, 409 intelligent materials)
Hand layup method, 212 integrate active fibers, 468
Hand lay-up process, 289–290 integration of software features, 467
Hardness values (HVs), 295 optimum design, 468
Hazard levels (HL), 395–396 sensing/actuation, 467–468
Heat-cured geopolymer (HCG), 267 intelligent polymers (see Intelligent polymers)
Heat curing systems, 26 level of intimacy, 466–467
Hemicelluloses, 122 magnetic materials, 466
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) matrices, 345, magnetostrictive materials (see Magnetostrictive
545–546 materials)
High resolution field-emission scanning electron matrix materials, 465–466
microscopy, 551 optical fibers (see Optical fibers)
High-speed steel (HSS) disc, 491 piezoelectric materials (see Piezoelectric materials,
High static low dynamic stiffness (HSLDS), 431 applications)
High-temperature superlubricity system, 489–490 piezoelectric effect, 473–474
High-temperature tribology, 499–500 principles, 474
HIP. See Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) reverse piezoelectric effect, 473–474
HNTs. See Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) size of, 474
Hollow glass bubbles (HGBs), 334 semiconductor materials, 466
Hollow optical fibers (HOFs), 348 sensing materials, 466
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP), 16, 72 shape memory alloys (see Shape memory alloys
Hybrid supercapacitors, 645–646 (SMAs))
Hydrogel actuators, 446 Intelligent polymers
Hydroxyl end-functionalized polydimethylsiloxane applications
(HOPDMS), 336 catalyst carrier, 484
Hygrothermal environment, 170–171 intelligent fabrics, 484
Hygrothermal exposure, 199 pulse-release technology, 483
Hysteresis loop analyses, 631 responsive gel surface, 484
targeted release carrier, 483
I cross-linking structure, 482–483
IFSS. See Interfacial shear strength (IFSS) external stimulus, 483
IGES. See Initial graphics exchange specification (IGES) Interfacial shear strength (IFSS)
IJP. See Inkjet printing (IJP) debond force, 162–164
ILSS. See Inter-laminar shear strength (ILSS) metal and ceramic matrix composites, 165–166
Impact test processing, 250 polymer matrix composites, 164–165
Initial graphics exchange specification (IGES), 67 pullout/micro-bond tests, 162–164, 163f
Injection-molded processing, 250 slip-softening, 162–164
Injection molding, 247–248, 256, 550–551 surface roughness, 165f
Inkjet printing (IJP), 93 surface treatments, 164t
Inorganic polymers (geopolymers) Inter-laminar shear strength (ILSS), 182–183, 183f, 391
alkali silicate solutions, 118 Intermode interference, 478
aluminosilicate, 117–120 Interphase
carbon footprint, 118 composite, 159f
natural fibers, 121–139 defined, 159
In-plane morphing, 422–423 failure modes, 161–162
664 Index

Interphase (Continued) M
mechanism, 159–160 Macro fiber composite (MFC), 426–429
silane, 160f Magnetoactive elastomer (MAE), 446
Intrinsically flame-retardant systems, 385 Magnetostrictive materials
Intrinsic self-healing technique, 327–330 applications
Intrinsic self-responsive approach, 308 terfenol-D/CuZnAl composite, 482
Ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs), 441–442, 445 terfenol-D/Ni-Ti composite film, 482
Isostatic pressing technique, 93–95 characteristics, 481–482
definition, 481
J Maleated anhydride (MA), 170
Japan Printed Circuit Association (JPCA), 409 Material extrusion (ME), 75–77
Joule’s law, 362 Material jetting (MJ), 77–78, 77f, 78t
Material’s stress relaxation, 596
K Matrix breaking strain, 254–255
Kaolinite, 31–32 Matrix cracking, 291
Matrix modifications, 169–170
L Maximum averaged heat rate emission (MAHRE) value,
LAAM. See Laser aided additive manufacturing (LAAM) 396
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM), 80, 93 Maxwell’s equation, 362
Landing-parking takeoff, 293–294 MD. See Molecular dynamics (MD)
Laser aided additive manufacturing (LAAM), 97 ME. See Material extrusion (ME)
Laser beam absorptivity, 99–100 Mechanical interlocking principle, 184
Laser engineered net shaping (LENS), 74 Mechanism, lightning strike
Laser metal deposition (LMD), 97 lightning
Lead (Pb), 503 ablation damage, 360–361
Lead, mercury, cadmium, and chromium (VI), 408 composite interaction, 361
Life prediction models discharge of electricity, 360
accelerated tests, 190–198 pyrolysis of matrices, 360–361
Arrhenius plots, 191–192t swept stroke event, 361
artificial intelligence techniques, 198 Mechanistic model
characterization, 190 blow-off impulse model, 366–367
Light-activated shape memory polymer composites effective magnetic pressure, 366
(LASMPCs), 585–586 numerical implementation, 367–368
Lightning-composite interactions, 379–380 overpressure model, 367
Lightning-induced ablation damage, 367–368 pressure impulse, 366
Lightning strike protection (LSP) system stiffness matrix, 364–366
surface system Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), 46–47, 269–270
advanced, 372–376 Mesh deployable reflectors, 425
internal decentralized, 376–379 Metakaolin, 31–32
metallic, 370–372 Metal compounds, 386
Lignin, 122 Metal matrix composites (MMCs), 4–5, 84, 158, 161t,
Lignocellulose fibers, 121 543–544
Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), 88–90 ceramic particle reinforcement, 98t
Liquid impregnation processes, 390 materials, 97
Liquid-state processing, 158 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), 481
LLDPE. See Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) Methyl methacrylate (MMA), 406–407
LMD. See Laser metal deposition (LMD) MHS. See Microwave hybrid sintering (MHS)
LOM. See Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) Michelson/F-P optical fiber sensors, 479
Long-glass fiber-reinforced polypropylene (LFT-PP) Micro air vehicles (MAV), 434
composites, 403–404 Microcracks, 151
Long-term behavior, 581–582, 593 Microstructures, 153
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), 545–546 Micro-voids, 233–234
Low-melting-point alloys (LMPAs), 441–442, 450 Microwave casting (MWC), 7–9, 10–11f
 Index 665
Microwave hot pressing, 9–11, 10f conclusions, 35
Microwave hybrid sintering (MHS), 5–7, 6f, 8f durability, 35
Millimeter-scale lamellar structures, 439–440 geopolymerization, 32–33
Mimosa pudica, 435 setting time, 33
MIP. See Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) strength, 33–34
MJ. See Material jetting (MJ) workability, 32
MMCs. See Metal matrix composites (MMCs) hydrous silicates, 31–32
Molecular dynamics (MD), 21–22 physical properties, 32
Morphing aerofoil structures, 422–423 platelets, 229
Morphing aircraft wings Nanomaterials, 26
aerofoil structures, 422–423 Nano-silica (NS), 249
aircraft winglets, 424 chemical properties, 27–28, 28t
aircraft wings, 421–422 crystalline and amorphous, 27
flaps, 423 geopolymer composite properties
trailing edge, 423–424 conclusions, 31
Morphing flaps, 423 durability, 30–31
Morphing trailing edge, 423–424 geopolymerization, 28–29
Multifunctional system, 346–347 setting time, 29–30
Multilayer carbon nanotube (MWCNT), 376–378 strength, 30
Multilayer piezoelectric energy harvester (MPEH), workability, 28
427–428 physical properties, 27, 27t
Multistable composite structures Nanotechnology, 26
application, 422f Nano-titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2)
bioinspired structures (see Bioinspired structures) cementitious materials, 43–44
morphing structures geopolymer composite properties
aircraft wings (see Morphing aircraft wings) alkali-activated binders, 46f
antiicing/deicing system, 431 conclusions, 47
automobile industry, 430 durability, 46–47
deployable reflectors (see Deployable reflectors) geopolymerization, 44
energy harvesting (see Energy harvesting) setting time, 45
nonlinear vibration isolation system, 431 strength, 45–46
soft robotic grippers (see Soft robotic grippers) workability, 44
Multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT), 12, 42 properties, 44
MWC. See Microwave casting (MWC) Natural fibers
Mxenes, 481 categories, 121
cellulose-based fibers, 121–135
N drawbacks, 121
Nano-alumina eco-benign recycling, 121
agglomeration effect, 35–36 mechanical properties, 140–141t
chemical properties, 36, 37t protein-based fibers, 135–139
geopolymer composite properties Natural rubber (NR), 546
conclusions, 39–40 Near-infrared (NIR), 586
durability, 38–39 Nickel-plated carbon fiber nonwoven veils
geopolymerization, 37 (Ni-CFNVs), 376
scanning electron microscopic (SEM), 39, 40f Nickel-plated singlewalled carbon nanotubes
setting time, 37–38 (Ni-SWCNTs), 375–376
strength, 38 Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods,
workability, 36 309
X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns, 39f Nondestructive test (NDT) methods, 292
physical properties, 36, 36t Nonlinear vibration isolation system, 431
Nano-clay, 170–171 Nozzle movement rate, 69
chemical properties, 32 Nozzle speed, 69
geopolymer composite properties NS. See Nano-silica (NS)
666
Nuclear-grade nano-boron carbide (B4C) powders
characteristics
Rietveld refinement technique, 554–555
transmission electron micrographs, 557
X-ray diffraction analysis, 554–555
composite fabrication
Charpy impact test specimens,
549–550
injection molding process, 550–551
microstructural analysis, 551
mechanical performance of low-density polyethylene
Charpy impact test, 561, 563t
FE-SEM fractographs, 569, 570–571f
stress concentrations, 562
stress-strain graphs, 565–569, 565–569f
surface modification, 561
tensile test, 564–565, 564t
neutron shielding of low-density polyethylene
nano-sized filler particles, 572–575
neutron absorption, 572–575
neutron flux, 572–575, 574f
neutron shielding measurements, 575
thermalization, 572–575
surface modification, 548–549, 557–561
synthesis of, 547–548
O reducing stress concentration and prolong fatigue
Oblique current configuration, 315
Off-axis shear testing, 289
Ohm’s law, 362
One-dimensional resistance method, 316
One-way shape memory effect, 583
OPC. See Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC)
Operation category (OC), 395–396
Optical fibers
applications
in cement structures, 480
damage assessment, 479
measurement of strain and temperature, 478
monitoring the curing process, 479
development of, 477–478
formation of resin-rich zones, 477–478
Michelson optical fiber sensors, 479
propulsion system, 477
reflection principle, 477
Optical fibers sensors (OFSs), 321–322
Optical self-sensing
fiber-matrix debonding, 323–325
optical fibers sensors, 321–322
optically active reinforcing fibers, 322
refractive index cladding polymer, 322–323
total internal reflection, 322
Index
Optical self-sensing align with self-healing
systems, 348
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), 117, 130–131, 265–266
Organically modified montmorillonite (OMMT), 404
Out-of-plane morphing, 422–423
Overpressure model, 367
P
Paper-based strain sensor, 439
PB-AM. See Powder bed additive manufacturing
(PB-AM)
PBF. See Powder bed fusion (PBF)
PCA. See 1-Pyrenecarboxylic acid (PCA)
PCS. See Polycarbosilane (PCS)
Peak heat release rate (pHRR), 390
Petal-type deployable solid surface antenna, 425
PFC. See Piezoelectric fiber composites (PFC)
Phosphorous-based additives, 392–393
Phosphorus-based flame retardants, 386
Physical-chemical evolutions, 198
Piezoelectric ceramic transducer (PZT), 426–427
Piezoelectric fiber composites (PFC), 476
Piezoelectric materials, applications
for actuator
damping and noise reduction, 475–476
reducing flutter, 476
life, 476
for adaptive structures
piezoelectric fiber composites, 476, 477f
self-adaptive mechanism, 477
for sensor
monitoring aircraft structures, 475
monitoring composites/engineering structures, 475
pressure sensors, 474–475
Piezoelectric wind energy harvesters, 426–427
Piezoresistivity based self-sensing, 319–321
Plant-based fibers, 121
Plastic deformation, 254–255
Plastic deformation absorption energy, 254–255
PMCs. See Polymer matrix composites (PMCs)
Pneumatic artificial muscle (PAM) actuator, 603–604
Polarization coupling, 478
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibers, 286
Polyamides (PA), 384–385
Polyaniline de-doping method, 376–378
Polyaniline (PANI), 376–378
based resin, 376–378
Polybrominated biphenyl (PBB), 408
Polybrominated diphenylether (BDE), 408
Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), 384–385
Polycaprolactone (PCL), 249
Polycarbosilane (PCS), 95–97
 Index
Polydiethoxysiloxane (PDES), 336
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), 450, 504
Polyetherimide (PEI) resin, 397
Polyether sulfone (PESU), 389
Polyethylene (PE), 384–385
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 397
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polypropylene
(PP) fiber
composite
cement, 267
compressive strength, 270, 271f
flexural strength, 270–272
fly ash-based heat-cured geopolymer, 267
fly ash-slag blended ambient-cured geopolymer, 267
mixed proportions of, 267t, 268–269
uniaxial tensile strength, 272, 274f
energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis, 278f
materials, properties and compositions, 268t
microstructure, 272–274, 282
properties of, 268t
result, 282–283
scanning electron microscopy analysis, 272–274,
275–277f, 279–280f
Washburn expression, 269–270
Polyjet technique, 103
Polylactic acid (PLA), 249
Poly melamine-formaldehyde (PMF), 333
Poly melamine-urea-formaldehyde (PMUF), 333
Polymer chain immobilization, 585
Polymeric fibers, 265–266
Polymeric pellet-based additive manufacturing
(PPBAM), 107
Polymer matrix composites (PMCs), 4–5, 84, 249, 543–544
fiber reinforcements, 88–90, 89t
nanoparticle reinforcements, 90–92, 91t
particle reinforcements, 84–88, 86t
Polypropylene (PP), 170, 266, 384–385
Polysilazane (PSZ), 97
Poly(sialate) structures, 26f
Polysulfone/cellulose nanocrystals (PSF/CNC), 249
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tube, 490–491
Poly urea-formaldehyde (PUF), 333
Polyurethanes (PUs), 345
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), 504
Polyvinyl alcohol fiber-reinforced geopolymer
composites (PVA-FRGC), 249
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 384–385
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 474–475
Pool-fire test, 387–388
Porous carbon biomass
morphology and chemical structure
fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, 643
graphitization degree, 643
667
supercapacitors (see Supercapacitors)
synthesis process
chemical activation, 641
hydrothermal carbonization, 641
potassium hydroxide, 641
pyrolysis, 640
Porous coordination polymers (PCPs), 481
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC), 469
Powder bed additive manufacturing (PB-AM), 97
Powder bed fusion (PBF), 78–80, 79f, 79t, 97
Powder metallurgy techniques, 3–4
PPBAM. See Polymeric pellet-based additive
manufacturing (PPBAM)
Prepreg, 598
Principle of energy storage, 643
Printed circuit board (PCB), 407–408
Protein-based fibers, 135–139
Pseudocapacitors, 644
PSZ. See Polysilazane (PSZ)
Pulse-release technology, 483
1-Pyrenecarboxylic acid (PCA), 92
Pyrolysis, 224, 640
Q
Quality product development, 21–22
Quasi-static indentation tests, 296
R
Radiation shielding, 547, 572–575
Radio frequency (RF), 425
Railway applications
driver’s cab, 396–398
flame-retardant
epoxy resins, 399–401
polyester resins for sheet molding compound,
398–399
flame-retardant materials, 395–396
interior panels, 397–398
internal fittings, 397
Raman spectroscopy, 493–494, 494f
Rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT), 30–31
Rapid prototyping, 65
Rate of char mass, 369
RCF. See Recycled cellulose fibers (RCF)
RCPT. See Rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT)
Real-time sensing, 316–318
Recycled cellulose fibers (RCF), 228, 242
Reduced graphene oxide (RGO), 372–374
Regular and circular (tubular) braiding, 613
Reinforcement treatment, 168–169
Rejected take off (RTO), 293–294
Relative humidities (RH), 251–252
Resin degradation, 368
668 Index

Resin film infusion (RFI), 372–374 applications

Resin transfer molding (RTM), 308, 393–394, 597, 620 active control of vibration, 472
Reticuloendothelial system (RES), 483 active vibration control, 473
Reversible covalent bonding, 328–330 in automobile manufacturing, 472
Reversible ligand-exchange reaction, 590 low-frequency situations, 473
Reversible noncovalent bonding, 330 in medicine, 472
Rietveld refinement technique, 554–555 nondestructive detection of cracks and self-
Ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP), 332 recovery, 472
Rockwell hardness tests, 296 reinforcement, 471–472
Rotary ball-on-disc configuration, 492 in space technology, 473
RTM. See Resin transfer molding (RTM) temperature sensor, 473
pseudo-elasticity, 470
S Young’s modulus, 470
Sandwich-type supercapacitor, 649 Shape memoryassisted self-healing (SMASH), 342
Sapphire fiber, 479 Shape memory effects (SMEs), 342
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 266, 269–270, 289, glass transition temperature, 583
491–492, 509, 548, 555, 643 molecular mechanism, 584–585
Scherrer equation, 492–493 Shape memory polymers (SMPs), 342, 441–442, 444
Selective laser melting (SLM), 97 Shape memory polymers composites (SMPCs)
Selective laser sintering (SLS), 69–70, 79, 84, 93, 95 durability, 592–594
Self-healing concept, 325–326 manufacturing
Self-healing polymers composites direct light printing, 600
assessing the performance, 327 filament winding manufacturing process, 597–598
concept of, 325–326 fused deposition molding, 596–600
extrinsic self-healing (see Extrinsic self-healing) prepreg, 598, 599f
intrinsic self-healing technique, 327–330 resin transfer molding, 597
reversible covalent bonding, 328–330 mechanisms of stimulation
reversible noncovalent interactions, 330 activated electrically, 589
shape memory components, 340–345 activated magnetic field, 587–589
technical challenges, 345–346 activated microwave, 589–590
Self-sensing and self-healing features activated water/chemical solution, 590–591
electrical self-sensing systems aligned with thermally light-activated shape memory polymer composites,
activate self-healing, 347–348 585–586
optical self-sensing align with self-healing systems, modeling
348 Adam-Gibbs model, 595
Self-sensing polymers composites phase transition, 594
applications of, 325 thermal viscoelastic finite deformation constitutive
concept of model, 595
appealing feature, 309 thermoviscoelastic modeling, 594
intrinsic self-responsive approach, 308 time-temperature superposition technique, 596
nondestructive evaluation methods, 309 user-defined material subroutine, 595–596
structural health monitoring, 308 reinforcement, 591–592
electrical resistance measurement (see Electrical significance and capabilities, 582f
resistance measurement) smart applications
optical self-sensing, 321–325 aerospace and space engineering, 600
Self-standing truss with hard points structure (SSTHP), antennas, 602–603
425 biomedical industry, 600
SEM. See Scanning electron microscopy deployable solar panel arrays, 603
Sensing materials, 466 shape memory polymer composite, 601–602t
SFF. See Solid freeform fabrication (SFF) solar array system, 606–607
Shape-changing polymers (SCPs), 581 Shear-axis strength, 289
Shape memory alloys (SMAs), 342, 423–424, 441–442, Sheet lamination (SL), 80–81, 81t
444, 581 Sheet molding compound (SMC) material, 397
 Index 669
Short beam shear testing, 289 Standard for the exchange of product model
Short carbon fiber-reinforced polyamide 66 data (STEP), 67
(SCFR-PA66), 245–246 Standard Tessellation Language (STL), 67, 67f
Short carbon fibers (SCF), 311 Steady-state tests, 302–303
Short glass fiber-reinforced polyamide 66 (SGFR-PA66), Steel corrosion, 208
245–246 STEP. See Standard for the exchange of product model
Silicon carbide (SiC), 589–590 data (STEP)
Silver nanoparticle modified carbon nanotube paper Stepless rapid prototyping (SRP), 68
(SMCNP), 376 Stereolithography (SLA), 93
Single burning item (SBI) test, 405–406 Stiffness matrix, 364–366
Single-edge notched beam (SENB), 327 Stiffness-to-weight ratio, 543–544
Single-leg bending (SLB) specimen test, 327 Stimulus-responsive shape memory materials (SMMs),
Single vertex compliant facet origami mechanism 444
(SV-COFOM), 451 STL. See Standard Tessellation Language (STL)
SL. See Sheet lamination (SL) Strain energy release rate, 247–248
SLA. See Stereolithography (SLA) Strength-to-weight ratio, 543–544
SLM. See Selective laser melting (SLM) Stress and strain energy trend analysis, 628–630
SLS. See Selective laser sintering (SLS) Stress distribution, 630–631
Smart materials/intelligent materials, 465 Stress-free strain recovery, 583–584
Smart modular structure (SMS), 444–445 Stress intensity coefficient, 256
Smart polymer composites, 307 Stress intensity factor, 247–248, 256
SMAs. See Shape memory alloys (SMAs) Structural health monitoring (SHM), 308
SMPCs. See Shape memory polymers composites Structural rehabilitation, 205–206
(SMPCs) Structural repair, 205–206
Soft robotic grippers Structural retrofit, 205–206
actuations for grasping Structural strengthening
dielectric elastomer actuators, 443–444 composite materials, 206
hydrogel actuators, 446 durability, 219–220
ionic polymer-metal composites, 445 fire resistance, 220–222
magnetoactive elastomer, 446 numerical modeling, 222–223
shape memory materials, 444–445 population growth, 206
controlled stiffness purpose, 205
granular jamming, 448 repair, rehabilitation and retrofit, 205–206
low-melting-point alloy, 450 Structures with an integrated monitoring system (SIMS),
shape memory materials, 449–450 475
variable stiffness origami materials, 451–452 Supercapacitors
multistable carbon fiber-reinforced polymer structure advantages, 648
pneumatically actuated bistable gripper, 452–454 application, 646–648
pneumatically actuated variable stiffness, 454–455 based carbon derived from biomass
Soft robotic rehabilitation devices, 455 apricot shell, 648
Sol-gel method, 493, 499, 547, 575–576 chestnut shell, 648
Solid freeform fabrication (SFF), 105 impregnation ratio, 649
Solid lubricants, 489–490 sandwich-type supercapacitor, 649
Solid-state processing, 158 limitations, 648
Solid surface deployable reflectors, 425 technologies and structures, 643–646
Solvolysis, 224 types, 644–646
Source to surface distance (SSD), 507 double electrochemical layer, 644–645
Spark plasma sintering (SPS), 12, 12f hybrid supercapacitors, 645–646
SPS. See Spark plasma sintering (SPS) pseudocapacitors, 644
SRP. See Stepless rapid prototyping (SRP) Superhydrophobicity
Stabilizer, 82–83 applications, 437, 439
Stable crack extension process, 246–247 dropwise condensation, 437–439
filmwise condensation, 437–439
670
Superhydrophobicity (Continued)
methods of removing ice, 437
paper-based strain sensor, 439
self-cleaning property, 439
Superlubricity, 489–490
Super magnetostrictive materials, 481–482
Surface resistance measurement, 314–315
Sustained mechanical load, 188–190, 189t
Synthetic fibers, 179–180
T statics performance
Tapered double-cantilever beam (TDCB), 327
Targeted release carrier, 483
TEM. See Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Tensile testing, 289
Tension relaxation-recovery, 248–249
Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), 408
Tetrabromphthalic anhydride (TBPA), 406
Tetrahydrofuran (THF), 54
Textile structural composites, 611
TGA. See Thermogravimetry analysis (TGA)
TGA analysis, 292, 292–293f
Thermal bonding, 90
Thermal-chemical model
mass fraction of decomposing gas, 368
numerical implementation, 369
rate of char mass, 369
resin degradation, 368
velocity of gas filtration, 369
Thermal effects, CFRP
charring, 291
color texture, 287–289
delamination, 291
hand lay-up process, 289–290
immersion characteristics, 289
matrix cracking, 291
oxidation of PAN-based carbon fibers, 291–292
shear-axis strength, 289
Thermal loading, 290–291
Thermal transition temperature, 585
Thermogravimetry analysis (TGA), 230–231, 363
Thermomechanical cycle, 591
Thermoplastic copolyester (TPC), 90
Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE), 87–88
Thermoplastic materials, 246–247
Thermoplastic matrix systems, 394–395
Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), 84, 92, 106
Thermosetting polymers, 308
THF. See Tetrahydrofuran (THF)
Three-dimensional (3D) braided composites,
mechanical property
dynamics performance
damage evolution, 627
Index
failure morphologies, 627
force-time curves, 626
impact response curves, 624–626
stress distribution, 626–627, 626f
fatigue performance
damage propagations, 631
fatigue damage analyses, 631
hysteresis loop analyses, 631
stress and strain energy trend analysis, 628–630
stress distribution, 630–631
damage morphology and mechanism, 621
repeat unit cell, 620–621
stress and damage evolution, 621
Three-dimensional (3D) braiding technology, 611–612
Three-dimensional (3D) printing
applications
aerospace, 102–103, 102t
automotive, 103, 104t
biomedical, 100–101, 101t
electronics, 104–105, 104t
food, 105
marine, 107, 108t
sport equipment, 105–106, 107t
cake fabrications, 106t
ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs), 92–97
classification, 70, 70f
composite materials, 83–100, 85t
concept, 65, 66f
injection molding and extrusion, 65
metal matrix composites (MMCs), 97–100
stages
build process, 69
creation, 66–67
file conversion, 67
optimization, 68
postprocessing, 70
removal and cleanup, 69
setup, 68–69
techniques, 70–83
Three-point bending tests, 269, 269f
Three-roll-mill technique, 311
Time-temperature-superposition principle (TTSP), 180
applications, empirical Arrhenius plots, 194–198
bond strength retention vs. time in logarithmic scale,
197f
fitted curves, temperatures, 195f
illustration, 193f
linear viscoelastic materials, 190–193
master curves, storage modulus, 196f
mechanical loading-accelerated tests, 190–193
single horizontal shift, time domain, 193
thermally-accelerated aging tests, 190–193
 Index 671
vertical and horizontal shifts, 193–194 cellulose fiber-reinforced polymer composites, 229
Time-temperature superposition (TTS) technique, 596 cellulose fibers and nanoclay platelets/halloysite
TO. See Topological optimization (TO) nanotubes, 229
Topological optimization (TO), 68 eco-composites and eco-nanocomposites, 239f
Total internal reflection(TIR), 322 flexural strength, 233–234, 234t
TPC. See Thermoplastic copolyester (TPC) fracture surface, 232–233f, 236f
TPE. See Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) fracture toughness, 238–239, 238t
TPU. See Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) impact toughness, 235–236, 235t, 237t
Tracer labeling sensor, 475 materials, 228
Transglutaminase, 105 natural fibers, 227
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 16, 491–492, physical and mechanical properties
548 flexural strength, 230
Triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG), 445 fracture toughness, 230
Tribology applications, 489–490 impact toughness, 230
Triton X-100, 54 porosity, 229
TTSP. See Time-temperature-superposition principle thermal stability and flammability, 230–231
(TTSP) polymer nanocomposites, 229
Two-dimensional resistance technique, 316 porosity, 231–233, 231–232t
thermal properties, 240t
U thermal stability and flammability, 239–242
UAC. See Ultrasonic-assisted casting (UAC) wastepaper products, 228
UAM. See Ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) water absorption, durability, 236–238
UC. See Ultrasonic consolidation (UC) Volume resistance measurement, 314
UHPC. See Ultrahigh-performance concrete VP. See Vat photopolymerization (VP)
(UHPC)
Ultrahigh-performance concrete (UHPC), 218 W
Ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM), 80, 81f Washburn expression, 269–270
Ultrasonic-assisted casting (UAC), 14–15, 15f Waste biomass, 639–640
Ultrasonic consolidation (UC), 80 Water absorption tests, 30–31
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 592 Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) empirical equation, 193
Uniaxial tension test, 269, 269f Wind energy plant blade rehabilitation work, 215f
Unidirectional fiber-reinforced polymer composites, Windform SP, 103
246–247 Wool fibers
Universal Testing Machine (UTM), 551 applications, 138–139
Universal two-fingered hand, 448 chemistry and structure, 135–136, 136f
Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), 424 fibrous macrostructure, 137f
User-defined material subroutine (UMAT), 595–596 geopolymer matrix, 138
mechanical properties, 136–138
V stress-strain curves, 138f
Vacuum-assisted resin infusion molding (VARIM), 308
Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) X
method, 372, 597 X-ray beam intensity, 507
Variable stiffness origami materials, 451–452 X-ray diffraction (XRD), 32–33, 169–170, 491–492, 548,
Vascular self-healing mechanism, 336–340 554–555, 643
Vat photopolymerization (VP), 82–83, 82f, 83t X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), 506, 508
Venus flytrap (Dionaea), 436–437 X-ray shielding, 503
Vibration energy harvesters, 426–427
Vickers Hardness tests, 295–296, 295f Y
Vinyl-ester composites Young’s modulus, 256