EATING HABITS

Eating Habits

Synonymous with food patterns, food habits or eating patterns.

Refer to why people eat, which foods they eat, with whom they eat,
as well as how people obtain, store, use and discard food.

Individual, social, cultural, economic, environmental and political

factors are known to influence people’s eating habits.
 Eating Habits...
Food selection
Items selected as foods.

Who make food selection decisions?

Role of the “mother” in households has changed

Role of the media

Food procurement
How food is obtained? Purchase, self produced, (borrow, beg,

steal)
Children, institutionalised , homeless, and elderly: Can they make

their own decisions?

Food distribution
How is food divided in family/household/community?

Determined by income, gender, age?

Who has priority?

 Eating Habits...

Food manipulation/preparation
From raw ingredients at home – how often?

Prepared and eaten elsewhere- how often?

Ready to eat, processed food/meals, canned, frozen

Food preparation equipment and resources: stove, gas,

paraffin, fridge, freezers, water.

Food consumption
What, how much, when, where, with whom. (and why).
Important info to make realistic suggestions to dietary change

Staple foods? Why and what is usually added to staple foods

Meal patterns
 What influences eating habits?

Physiological factors

Environmental factors

Socio-cultural factors
 FACTORS INFLUENCING FOOD BEHAVIOR

SOCIOCULTURAL PSYCHOLOGICAL
Traditions Body image
Food ideology Coping mechanisms and need to use
Superstitions them
Religion
Government

PHYSIOLOGICAL
ENVIRONMENTAL
Stage of physical development
Climate State of health
Food supply
Transportation
Cost of food
Facilities for preparing food
Time available for food preparation
Media

Individual Food Preferences

FOOD BEHAVIOUR
PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
 Physiological Factors
Satisfy hunger and appetite
Supply energy and nutrients
Nutrients build and maintain body's functions and processes

Hunger
Set of internal signals that stimulate acquisition and consumption

of food
Painful sensation initiates food seeking behaviour.

Satiety
Feeling of satisfaction and fullness that occurs during eating and

halts eating
Determines how much food is consumed during a meal and how

much time passes between meals.

 Physiological Factors

Hypothalamus:
Ventromedial center – satiety center (removal - overeating)

Lateral nucleus – feeding center (removal – starve to death)

Can be influenced by
 Presence or absence of nutrients in blood (glucostatic;

lipostatic; aminostatic theories)

 Size and composition of previous meal,

 Customary eating patterns,

 Climate,

 Exercise (acute – decreased intake; chronic – increased

intake),
 Environmental temperature (cold – eat more; warm – eat less)

 Illness: physical and mental

 Physiological Factors

In addition to those...

Substances acting as hormones and neurotransmitters on

body form a complex and interrelated system of internal
signals regulating hunger

e.g.
Cholecystokinin: decreases stomach's contractions –
decreased intake

Low liver glycogen: stimulates hungers

 Physiological Factors

State of health
Diseases and drug therapy affect appetite

allergies and specific medical conditions in general influence your

food habits. e.g. peanut butter allergies, diabetic diet, gastric ulcer
patients, etc.
Mental illness: acquisition and preparation of meals

State of physical development

life cycle stages: pregnancy, infancy, toddlerhood, childhood,

teenager, adult, elderly

e.g.

elderly – teeth loss – soft diet;

PICA/cravings during pregnancy

 Physiological Factors
Appetite
Set of signals that guide selection and consumption of specific
foods and nutrients

Associated with pleasurable sensations provided by food and

choices made for specific foods

Influenced by metabolic and physiologic factors as well as by

Hedonic

Environmental

Social, and

Cultural factors

Learned preferences

Sometimes refers to desire for specific foods (e.g. cravings and

PICA during pregnancy)
 Physiological Factors

Bait shyness

Aversion to food resulting from unpleasant

circumstance

e.g. animal made sick by nausea-inducing drug

while eating particular food will later refuse that
food
 Physiological Factors
Hedonic Factors
taste+smell+texture+temperature = palatability
As well as surrounding in which food consumed

Senses will determine food acceptance/rejection

They vary between individuals and according to age
Taste and smell both necessary to enjoy food

e.g.
Ageing decreases nr of taste buds – preference for highly
flavoured food
Children with low taste sensitivity – accept greater variety of food
compared to children with high taste sensitivity
Children usually prefer lukewarm food whereas some adults prefer
food to be steaming hot
Man can choose to continue to eat or not to eat
beyond their physiological stimuli for hunger and
satiety
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 Economic factors
Money available to spend on food influences quantity & quality &
variety of food purchased and consumed in household

Impoverished/low income families who need to stretch the food-

rand tend to buy inexpensive calorie-rich foods like spaghetti and
potatoes and low protein foods. Also canned fruit instead of fresh
fruit. Less expensive cuts of meat chosen.

Low income/week – buy in small amounts/on account in corner

shops (more expensive than in supermarkets)

Wealthier people can afford to eat out frequently in expensive

restaurants. Low-income persons cannot afford to eat out
frequently and when they do fast food restaurants are the only
affordable option for them.
 Economic factors

Women working away from home – affects time for food

preparation

Meat is often considered essential for meal satisfaction + ability to

buy it is correlated to status.

Therefore, if people have enough income to spend on food they

tend to spend disproportionate amount on meat, in detriment of
fruits, vegetables, and milk products.
 Economic factors
Increase income --- decrease in the relative amount of money
spent on food in comparison with other expenses

Income-related elasticity of demand

Milk, eggs, cereal products – low income elasticity

Meats, fresh fruits and vegetables – high income elasticity

Purchase of dried beans/peas/rice/eggs are inversely related to

income

People with higher income spend more money on foods eaten

away from home
 Food security and storage systems

There are rules about storing and discarding food items using a
variety of methods

Most food consumed in SA is bought but livestock and crop

production still occurs in rural areas as subsistence farming.

Food security – access to food at all times – can influence food

consumption patterns.

It is itself influenced by social and economic status of individuals.

Household food shortages can influence eating patterns especially

of children.
 Availability/Geography

Climate affects which foods are produced. People grow, gather,

fish, hunt or purchase food items depending on their geographic
location and cultural practices.

Physical availability and presence of food in the production area is

essential to develop a taste for food. For example, where the
supply of meat and fish is unpredictable, drying and smoking
procedures were developed to preserve enough to last through the
lean months.

Technology minimized limitations in developed countries (freezing;

transport within and between countries; export and import;
preservation methods)
 Role of the media

Controversial:

some suggest that a tv advertisement can only affect those who

are already predisposed to the product and does not include a
desire for previously unwanted items

It may influence choice of brand name within an already desired

category of items

Advertising expected to not only increase overall product

consumption but also specifically increase their market by
establishing a product identity and building brand loyalty
 Role of the media
Advocates of food advertisement claim that it stimulates
competition and keeps prices down.

Their opponents maintain that huge sums spent on advertising

inevitably increase the price of the product.

Advertising utilizes powerful symbolic meanings of foods so that

what is being sold is not just a product, but a lifestyle, a dream, and
even a source of emotional fulfilment.

Advertisers hope to persuade the child to put pressure on parents

to buy brand name products.

Young children may not be able to distinguish between adverts

and programmes, and they certainly do not have the sophistication
to distinguish between fact and fiction.
 Role of the media

Popular foods are often marketed irrespective of their nutritious

value whereas indigenous foods are not. This may influence what
people choose to buy and eat.

Women and children tend to be the most affected due to exposure

to a variety of magazines and other media.

Advertising strategy takes into consideration that consumer is

more inclined to purchase products that are marketed dynamically
and that are also perceived as a status symbol.

Nutrition education on food composition and how to read labels

becomes important to help people make informed choices when
selecting food.
 Political factors

Policies/laws/regulations

Modification of food environments as means to

change food habits/eating behavior of people in
institutions/community
 Education
Positive association between education level of female head-of-
households and adequacy of dietary intake

Positive correlation between education level and nutrition

knowledge

More educated households have

Decreased use of convenience foods

More meals eaten away from home

More meals eaten together

Better nutrition knowledge doesn't necessarily equate better eating

practices (only when individuals are ready to make changes)
SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS
 Culture

complex whole that encompasses knowledge, beliefs, art, morals,

law, custom and habits acquired by man as a member of society

Shared patterns that identify members of a cultural group.

Eating habits are determined by learned behaviour regarding

etiquette, meal and snack patterns, acceptable foods, food
combinations and portion sizes.

For example it is acceptable in certain cultures to eat by hand

whereas it is unacceptable in others.
 Characteristics of a culture

It is acquired: it is not genetic/biological. A baby can learn any

culture, determined by family and environment. Because of this, it
is possible to add knowledge and to CHANGE existing knowledge.
Each individual had a different ability to learn and adapt.

It is a logical integrated whole: it is not a coincidental conglomerate

of habits. Each habit has a role/function. It is not one habit standing
alone. A culture must be understood and seen as a whole to be
able to bring about change. You have to understand the language,
religion, economic status, ideologies, etc.
 Culture

All cultures change: no culture remains static. We are constantly

exposed to technological and other changes and this brings about
a change in the culture of a particular group of people. For
example: take a car an think about the implications it has on eating
habits.

Each culture has a value system: it determines your actions,

thinking and norms. Gives security. You could compare the set of
values of different cultures.

Culture initiates interaction: culture enables interaction between

people. If you understand and appreciate a person's culture one
can contact or communicate with a person better.
 Food ideology

Explain how to conduct one's self with regard to eating behaviour.

The sum of attitudes, beliefs, customs and taboos affecting the diet
of a given group.

It is what people think of as food, what effect they think food will
have on their health and what they think is suitable for different
ages and groups
 Food ideology

what is deemed acceptable constitutes an important part of the

cultural stability of a society and is passed on from one generation
to another via the socialisation process.

Food deemed acceptable to a particular cultural group may not be

so for another.
Examples:
•Basotho: eat horses
•Chinese: Eat dogs and snakes
•Vatsonga/Bapedi/Vhavhenda people: eat a special type of frogs
and locusts
•Europeans: eat frog legs and snails
 Food taboos and folklore

Taboo: social or religious custom prohibiting or restricting a

particular practice or forbidding association with a particular
person, place, or thing.

Folklore: body of particular myths and beliefs relating to a particular

place, activity, or group of people.
 Food taboos and folklore

every group of people has customs concerning foods that should

not be eaten
although there is little or no scientific basis for these taboos, they
are rigidly held and quite resistant to change
if the origins of these taboos/practices are traced we seen that they
often had something to do with early concerns for health and safety
in consuming foods and liquids
in developing countries, taboos often contribute to malnutrition
for example, an ethnic group in nigeria rarely gives children any
meat or eggs to eat. These are expensive foods and it is thought
that giving them to children will encourage them to steal.
 Food taboos and folklore

An example of folklore is the belief system held by many

Chinese. The belief originates from the philosophy that 2
opposing components, yin and yang, regulate the universe.
To maintain health these forces need to be in balance. When
illness is caused by an excess of yang, “cold” or yin foods
must be used, and vice-versa.

An understanding of the cultural influences on food habits and

health behaviour is crucial in the design and implementation
of food-based nutrition interventions to promote health and
prevent disease.
 Social values of food
Hospitality: food is used to promote friendliness/social warmth

Communication/Social value:
promote interpersonal acceptance (we offer food and drink quickly

when friends come over)

relationships develop between giver and recipient of food

we accept food more readily from friends than from strangers

food also used to befriend strangers/newly made acquaintances

Gift:
e.g. a home-made bread to a neighbour or expensive food and fruit
packages at christmas
the gift signifies friendliness
in some societies, home-made food products are considered
inferior and packaged foods are considered worth giving.
 Attaining status/prestige

 societies attach prestige value to food

 often used to promote an individual's/group's welfare

throughout history one's place at the table has been ruled by his
social standing (“to sit at the head of the table”)

in some societies women have to wait for men and boys to finish
their meal before they can eat

the father is served first to ensure he receives the best food

choice
 Attaining status/prestige
To ensure your prestige you serve your guests foods which are
difficult to obtain; expensive foods; and exotic dishes

 the amount of cattle is a sign of a family's wealth

improvement of status rather than friendship may even be

involved in gifts of food or invitation to meals

climb the social ladder (shun foods that are associated with being
poor)

advertisements and values attached to certain foods often

influence people's beliefs. An example is that it may lead to
associating indigenous food with low class people, and fast foods
are associated with being urban and middle-class
 Achieving Security

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory

 Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory
The idea behind this theory of human motivation is that a minimum
satisfaction of a need is necessary before the person can move on
to satisfaction of the next need in the hierarchy

if we apply this theory to the use of food we can see that:

only when a person has food to satisfy hunger can he be

interested in any other meaning of food

at survival level, food is of the immediate interest

when one satisfies survival needs (enough food to live) he strives

for increased food security

as the economy of the person improves he aspires upwards on

the Maslow scale of needs

the man who knows where his next meal is coming from is on his

way to acquiring security

a feeling of security is associated with orderliness or a lack of

anxiety and tension over whether food will be forthcoming

 Emotional outlet
 Food can be used as gratification for life's stresses

some people eat to relieve tension whereas others don't eat when
under tension

 boredom or tension may lead to snacking

It may be a symbol of security. e.g. baby associates milk with

being held in mothers arms lovingly. Later, as an adult, milk may
still represent security and comfort, or it might be rejected as an act
of independence

It may be used as a weapon: insecure child will refuse to eat so

that his mother is concerned for him; ill/lonely will impose dietary
demands on those caring for them so as to attract as much
attention as possible
 Reward and punishment

Children learn what is approved of and acceptable as food

through a system of rewards and punishment

 child who behaves well is rewarded with a chocolate bar

ill-behaved child is sent to his/her room and deprived of

supper
 Family

food choices in the home reflect the environment where parents

grew up. For example, geographic region, education, income,
beliefs.

The mother is the gatekeeper – often controls the food that

reaches the table (this role is diminishing in many families)food
selection and preparation shared by parents and older children
many meals eaten away from home
 Peer acceptance

The social need to belong is an important motivation of human

action.

Food readily becomes an expression of the search for

belongingness.
 Meal patterns

 Many eat 3 meals/day while others eat only 2

 Coffee breaks are ubiquitous in the business world

Breakfasts tend to be light and informal. It is eaten at different

times depending upon the time people leave for work/school

 Elderly people often enjoy breakfast more than other meals

 Age

Certain foods deemed appropriate for specific age groups

e.g. Peanut butter and jam sandwiches for children; oysters and
coffee for adults

 Teenagers – tend to adopt latest food trends

Aging is often associated with decreased food intake. Lower

metabolism and increasing sedentary lifestyles decrease energy
requirements.
 Gender & Food

Almost half of African households are headed by women and most

of these in rural areas.

These female-headed households tend to be poorer than male-

headed ones, which arises from a lack of resources for
subsistence farming.

Women are most likely the ones who will sell the food in the
street/market and they are also the most likely to be responsible for
food purchasing

Processing (e.g. pounding/stone milling of grain) and preparation

(cooking) of food in the household are usually done by women.
 Gender & Food
Women play an important role in feeding the vulnerable groups in
the household such as infants, children, elderly and infirm.

Socialisation of the children into the family diet, and eating pattern
and the transmission of cultural values relating to food and eating
are all women’s responsibilities.

Food allocation may be gender biased: preference may be given to

boys over girls. When there is little food available the woman is
most likely to have the smallest share, once she has ensured that
everyone in the household has had a reasonable share.

Women may be better at ensuring that girls eat well and hence
ensure a healthy nutritional status compared to men
 Gender & Food

there is a gender dimension to food taboos imposed by culture. For

example in some cultures women are not allowed to drink milk or
sour milk produced by non-kin families, or that produced by their
own family if they are menstruated, because there is a fear that the
milk supply will dry out.

Women are key figures deciding what food is eaten and who eats it
within the household. Therefore they represent a target group for
addressing food and nutrition issues for households.

Women may prefer lighter food (e.g. Salads, fruits and vegetables)

Men usually prefer more filling meals such as meat, potatoes, etc
 Attitudes
Refer to feelings and emotions re: food

They are more predictive of behavior than knowledge

Attitudes towards foods affect nutrition. e.g. snails considered

repulsive therefore not even willing to try

Other general attitudes also influence nutrition

e.g. vegetarianism as a result of an attitude towards nature –
believe it unecessary and wasteful to eat meat in view of
environmental and population problems

Attitude towards body image and appearance:

Model-like thinness desirable is western societies not as desirable
in other traditional societies where robustness symbolizes
prosperity and wealth
Religion
 Religion
Since the beginning of time dietary practices have been
incorporated into religious practice of people around the world.
Religion has strong influence on eating habits; from relaxed to
highly restrictive beliefs and practices such as fasting,
abstaining for specific types of food and/or drink always or
during certain periods, etc.
e.g.
Zionist church members, Jews and Muslims are prohibited from
eating pork.
Seventh-day Adventists are prohibited of drinking stimulating
beverages such as alcohol and coffee
 Religion
As a dietitian it is important to recognize the
dietary limitations due to religion and plan
around those

There are possible harmful consequences due to

religious beliefs and practices related to food
e.g. in Kosher diet (Jewish)
 Religion
e.g.Kosher diet (Jewish)
• milk and its derivatives cannot be mixed with
meat - may lead to children taking in insufficient
amount of milk/milk products
• Diets are characteristically rich in calories, fat
and sugar – overweight/obesity; may be
contraidicated in those with hyperlipidemia
• Fasting periods/passage of time between meals
may be harmful for diabetic patients
 Religion
e.g. Hindu diet
High fat, sugar and refined CHO diets may be
harmful for those with CVD/diabetes
Vegans/ovo-lacto vegetarians may develop vit
B12 deficiency
Post-partum diet (only toast and black coffee and
a cup of masala drank early in morning and late
at night) may be harmful to mother and baby –
insufficient calories to support BF and recovery
DEVELOPMENT OF FOOD HABITS
FROM INFANCY TO OLD AGE
 Socialization
• Process by which culturally valued
norms/customs/traditions of behavior are passed from one
generation to the next

• Includes behavior re food/ food event and its nutritional and

social values

• Habits acquired as children are often long-lasting and

resistant to change

• Therefore sound nutritional practices in childhood ensure

life-long healthy eating habits
 Socialization
• Occurs through agency of immediate family
• Infants/young children dependant on adults for what food
they eat
• They have little choice re acceptance of food culture other
than absolute refusal to eat
• family characteristics will influence
• Quantity and quality of food available at home
• How food is prepared and distributed
• Interaction between parent/caregiver and child at meal times
 Socialization
• As children grow – exposed to various
experiences/viewpoints/influences

• Socializing agencies may complement or conflict with one

another
• E.g. habits learnt at home are either reinforced or
contradicted at school

• Siblings, friends and relatives can have a negative influence on

food habits.

• Life-long process
• Individuals with wide-ranging life experiences – more outward
looking and willing to experiment with food
 Role of parents/caregivers
• They are powerful socialization agents
• PROVIDERS:
• They determine food available and accessible to
children in the home
• These have been shown to be key factors predicting
F & V consumption
• They also determine amounts of food children are
presented with
• If given high amounts – will tend to eat it all
(however, depends on susceptibility to overeat)
 Role of parents/caregivers

• AS MODELS:
• Children try to emulate parent’s/adult’s eating
behavior
• Research has observed this with teachers
serving as models
• Less evidence exists for parents as models
• E.g. father consumption of milk – increased
probability of child drinking milk
 Resocialization
• Attempt to usurp old routines and practices and
replace them with new ones

• E.g. Food movements (vegetarianism/organic

foods/etc)
• E.g. Health interventions (high failure rates)

• Normative influences operate throughout

lifespan:
• Cultural restrictions
• Media
• Social status
• Regional tastes
 INFANTS & CHILDREN
• 0-5 years: Important period
• Transition from milk-based high-fat diet to low-fat
diets
• Learning to accept variety of liquid and solid foods
• Development of aversions/dislikes

• Determinants of children’s food preferences and

eating behaviors
• Genetic predispositions
• Experience re food/meals
 INFANTS & CHILDREN
• Genetic predisposition to
• Prefer sweet/salty/E-dense food (survival/growth)
• Reject sour/bitter flavours (avoidance toxins)

• Also tend to be neophobic

• don’t like to experiment new unknown foods
• Known foods make them feel secure and they trust these.
• Parents are the primary influence in making them willing to
experiment new foods

• These lead to rejection of healthy foods such as vegetables and

easy acceptance and preference for “junk” foods
 INFANTS & CHILDREN
• Repeated exposure to those foods that are
initially rejected on the basis of their flavor/being
new – essential to improve acceptance of that
food

• May take 10-16 exposures before child accepts

a food (non-coersive encouragement to
taste/experiment it)
 INFANTS & CHILDREN
• Other factors determining preferences & behavior re food
include:

• Social contexts in which food consumed:

• E.g. learning to like high-fat foods if they are served in
positive contexts (celebrations/holidays), used as rewards for
good behavior.

• Postingestive consequences:
• Positive: high-fat foods = high sense of satiety –
unconditioned stimuli for learned pref – further pref described
above
• Negative: eating – N/V = aversion created (bait shyness)
 Feeding practices of parents
• Infants & children – ability to self-regulate caloric
intake
• Eat less/more depending on E-density of meal
• Experiments have shown that 2 groups fed
foods with different E-density will differ
significantly in amounts of calories consumed at
each meal but that overall 24-hr E consumption
will be very similar
 Feeding practices of parents
• If parents authoritarian – take all control re
what/when/amount food eaten – overrides this
ability of children to self-regulate intake
according to hunger and satiety cues

• May lead to overeating – overweight/obesity

• Also, it may influence child’s acceptance of

variety of food items
 Feeding practices of parents
• Restrictive feeding practices – may lead to overeating and poor
self-regulating of intake in preschool children

• Using sweet/E-dense/palatable foods as rewards – may

promote preference for these unhealthy foods

• Rewarding them for eating vegetables/pressuring them to eat

them – may actually lead them to dislike this vegetable

• Restricting access to “forbidden” foods – may promote their

preference and increase their consumption when they are
available (experiment example)
 Breastfeeding
• BM = Recommended “food” for infants 0-6
months
• Immunity/Growth/Decreased risk of overweight and
obesity later in life

• BF may also have other benefits re eating

behavior:
• Effect of BF on food acceptance
• BF provides greater opportunity for infant’s
self-regulation of intake
 Effect of BF on food acceptance
• Flavors of food in mother’s diet pass to breast milk (BM) –
increased acceptance of these foods later on

• e.g. babies of mothers who drank carrot juice during pregnancy

and lactation show higher acceptance and enjoyment of carrot
flavored cereal compared to those infants whose mother drank
water.

• Formula-fed babies are exposed to SAME flavor ALL THE TIME

• More difficult to accept new flavours
 Effect of BF on self-regulation of intake
• Bottle – easy to drink from + more parental control over quantity
consumed – increased risk of overfeeding
• Has been associated with overweight/obesity later

• BF – more difficult; Infant has to actively suck to transfer milk

from breast to mouth + parent doesn’t really know amount taken
in

• Therefore, BF is best at allowing infants & children to self-

regulate intake – and this has life-long benefits
 Adolescents

• Usually consume more meals away from home

• Often choose foods high in CHO and low in satiety value -

encourages frequent snacking (usually unhealthy)

• 1/3 of the calorie intake of a teenager comes from between meal

snacks.

• It is not an easy habit to change as it is a desired behaviour

among peers.

• Improve eating habits by changing type of snack rather than try

to change their eating pattern.
 Adults
• More stubborn and resistant to changes and improvements to
their diets.
• Food has a social connotation for adults (e.g. Certain foods are
associated with social standing/ friendliness/etc)
Young adults
• Often have an indifference or are misinformed with regards to
food values
• Very susceptible to practice the “in” diet/eating behaviour.
• Related to lack of maturity, knowledge and funds (e.g. university
students and poor eating habits)
 Elderly
• Loneliness
• lose the enthusiasm for food and its preparation
• Loss of appetite

• Involvement in social groups may therefore be

beneficial in stimulating interest for food.