“ROBOTICS”

AN
SEMINAR REPORT
Submitted
In partial fulfillment
for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In Department of Computer Science & Engineering

SUBMITTED TO: - SUBMITTED BY: -

Mr. Toofan Mukherjee NAME: Chitrank Shukla
HOD(CSE Department), Roll No.-19ESBCS006
SBCET, Jaipur

Department of Computer Science and

Engineering Sri Balaji College of Engineering and
Technology Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
December, 2022
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I acknowledge the contribution of all those individuals who have support and
encouraged me in carrying out this work.
First and foremost, I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Toofan Mukherjee,
Head of Department, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Sri
Balaji College of Engineering & Technology, Jaipur for his inspiration,
encouragement & support provided by him whenever I needed it. His keen
interest and timely suggestion with kindness help me at every stage of this
dissertation.
I express my thanks to Dr. (Engg.) I.P. Meel, Principal, and Dr. Surendra
Choudhary, Vice Principal, Sri Balaji College of Engineering & Technology,
Jaipur for extending support.
I thank to all the faculty member of department of computer science and
engineering profusely for their kind help and Co-operation. I am incredibly
thankful to all my friends for their help, moral support and their valuable
suggestions. Most importantly I good like to thanks my family, my brother and
other supporting person for their unconditional support.

Name: Chitrank Shukla

Roll no: 19ESBCS006

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 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that I have given the whole introduction and technologies with
conclusion of python and it is a record of an original work done by me under the
guidance of Mr. Toofan Mukherjee Head Of Department, Dept of Computer
Science and Engineering, Sri Balaji College of Engineering and Technology,
and this project work will be submitted in the partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Computer Science and Engineering.

Name: Chitrank Shukla

Roll Number: 19ESBCS006
Branch: CSE
Sri Balaji College of Engineering and Technology

Counter Signed by
Mr.Toofan Mukherjee
HOD (CSE Department)
SBCET, Jaipur

ii
 List of Content
Title Page No
1. Acknowledgement i
2. Candidate Declaration ii
3. List of Content iii
4. List of Figures iv
5. Abstract 1
6. Introduction of Robotics 2
7.Classification of Robots 3
8. The Main Parts of Robots 8
9. Robot Architectures 15
10. Connection Between Robotics and some Related 25
Subjects
11. Conclusion 32
33
12. Reference

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 ABSTRACT

Robotics can take on any form as the tasks they do require so there are many types of
robotics that differ in shape and properties like swimming robots which work under
water, humanoid robots which look like human and wheeled robots.

To construct a robot which can do a specific task it's a very complicated thing and
there are many parts that the robot of like control system which guides the robot to do
a task, sensors which make the robot to react with the environment, manipulator the
body of the robot which can move and control the movement of the end effector, the
end effector is the part which do the required task and the actuators that provide robot
with power.

Now a days machines are necessary part in our life we can find it in work, home,
streets even in our pockets we find a mobile, so robots are very useful in many fields
in industry, medicine, military and many other fields by replacing the human with it
in dangerous situations, making tasks faster than human and more accuracy as well as
robots always energetic, don't have a real life to make them busy to do their job and
have the required skills to do the tasks simply because they are constructed to do that.

So how can we make use of robotics science and develop it to help us in the future to
make our life easier but attend think with me if robots will do everything, we can do
then what will be the difference between us and can robots control humans someday?!

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 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of robotics is to develop machines that can substitute for humans and
replicate human actions in necessary situations where humans cannot survive like bomb
detection and deactivation, dangerous manufacturing processes, explore the space and
others or in normal situations to help humans, save time and power and do the task by
more accuracy as we will see in the applications in my report.

1.1 Definition
Robotics is a branch of engineering that involves the conception, design, manufacture, and
operation of robots. This field overlaps with electronics, computer science, artificial
intelligence, mechatronics, nanotechnology and bioengineering.

1.2 History
As most people dislike doing most work and find a variety of ways to avoid it so the
earliest solution to the problem was to force somebody slaves else to do the work by
capture people imprisoned for crime and the like. Then slavery ended in the 19th century
and was replaced by hiring people for pay (employment) but human worker is not always
energetic, reliable, docile, smart, easily led, not always cheap, and those with the desired
skills are not always available o people have wanted to make artificial people to be their
slaves.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTICS

There are many types of robots. Each robot has its own unique features. Robots vary
hugely in size, shape, design, and capabilities. This Varity enable us to do several
functions with robots. So, we have different applications such as (Exploration,
Medical, Social, Industrial, Military, Entertainment, etc.).

2.1 Wheeled Mobile Robots

Wheeled robots are robots which change their positions with the help of their wheels.
Wheeled motion for a robot can be achieved easily in mechanical terms and its cost is
low. Additionally, control of wheeled movement is generally easier.

These reasons make wheeled robots one of the most frequently seen robots. Single
wheeled robots, mobile ball robots, two-wheeled robots, three- wheeled robots, four-
wheeled robots, multi-wheeled robots and tracked robots are examples of wheeled
robots.

Figure2.1:BallRobot

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2.2 Swimming Robots (Robot Fish)

Swimming robots are robots which move underwater. These robots are generally inspired by
fish. They consist of deep-sea submersibles like Aqua naut, diving humanoids like Ocean
One, and bio-inspired systems like the ACM-R5H snake robot.

Underwater Robots can go underwater longer and deeper than humans. They can take
samples and test water. They can travel in waters that is not suitable for humans. They are
used for research about animals and underwater wildlife. Most fish robots are used for
researching. Some have motors, some are gliders that ride ocean currents and dive.

2.2.1 Sentry Deep Sea Robot

The Sentry is an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) made by the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution. Sentry is designed to go to depths of 4,500 meters (14,800 ft.) and
to carry a range of devices for taking samples, pictures, and readings from the deep sea.

Figure 2.2: Sentry Deep Sea

Robot

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2.2.2 Glider Scarlet Knight
An ocean glider is an autonomous underwater vehicle used to collect ocean data. It can travel far
distances over long periods, without servicing.
Scarlet Knight was the first robot to cross the Atlantic Ocean underwater, which took it 221 days.

Figure 2.3: Glider Scarlet Knight

2.3 Aerial Robots

Aerial robots or we can say Flying robots are robots that float on air using their plane-like or
bird/insect-like wings, propellers, or balloons. They come in different sizes and have different
levels of autonomy. Flying robots are useful in search and rescue missions as they can be used
to survey large areas of land looking for victims. By using sensors flying robots can be sent
into areas where it is too dangerous to send human.

2.3.1 Ambulance Drone

The Ambulance Drone is a compact flying toolbox containing essential supplies for (lay-
person) advanced life support. The Portability and fold ability help the drone to be used
anywhere, also indoors.

Figure 2.4 : Ambulance Drone

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2.3.2 Insects Spy Robots
Robot insects are flying--climbing--crawling--jumping at the chance to assist humans in
search, rescue, and other dangerous operations. Robotic insects could also be used for spying.
It does not have a processor, camera, or a battery because it will be heavy to fly. Now add the
electronics and hardware to remotely control the craft.

Figure 2.5: Insect Spy Robot

2.4 Humanoid Robots

A humanoid robot is a type of robot that replicates the human body. The design of Humanoid
robots is what makes them distinct from the other types of mobile robots. A typical humanoid
robot consists of a head, two arms, a torso and two legs just like a human, but many of those
robots are only based on some part of the human body, like from waist up or something like
that.

Figure 2.6 : UBTECH Alpha 1S Humanoid

Robot

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2.4.1 Robot Chef
The robot chef consists of a pair of fully articulated robotic hands that can, in theory, reproduce the
entire function of the human hand. It is even capable of providing sufficient skill to rival human chefs
with respect to speed, sensitivity, and movement.

Figure 2.7: Robot Chef

2.4.2 Nao Robot

Nao is an autonomous, programmable humanoid robot developed by Aldebaran Robotics. Nao
robots have been used for research and education purposes in numerous academic institutions
worldwide.

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 2. THE MAIN PARTS OF ROBOTS

A robot is a machine that functions automatically and can adapt to changes in its environment.
Robots are an increasingly important segment of our society, performing many jobs that are
too dangerous or tedious for human beings.

3.1 Control System

Every robot is connected to a computer controller, which regulates the components of the
arm and keeps them working together. The controller also allows the robot to be networked
to other systems, so that it may work together with other machines, processes, or robots.

3.1.1 Software
Robots of aware is the set of coded commands or instructions that tell a mechanical device
and electronic system, known together as a robot, what tasks to perform. Robots of t ware is
used to perform autonomous tasks. Many software systems and frameworks have been
proposed to make programming robots easier.

Some robot software aims at developing intelligent mechanical devices. Common tasks include
feedback loops, control, path finding, data filtering, locating, and sharing data.

Example: ROBOFORTH, Epson RC+, RAPID, PDL2, Variable Assembly Language (VAL)

3.1.2 Hardware
A robot's control system uses feedback just as the human brain does. However, instead of a
collection of neurons, a robot's brain consists of a silicon chip called a central processing unit,
or CPU, that is like the chip that runs your computer. Our brains decide what to do and how to
react to the world based on feedback from our five senses. A robot's CPU does the same thing
based on data collected by devices called sensors.

Figure 3.1: Temperature Sensor

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 3.2 Sensors
Robots receive feedback from sensors that mimic human senses such as video cameras or
devices called light-dependent resistors that function like eyes or micro phones that act as
ears. Some robot seven have touch, taste, and smell. The robot's CPU interprets signals from
these sensors and adjusts its actions accordingly.

3.2.1 Types of sensors:-

Temperature Sensor
A Temperature Sensor, as the name suggests, senses the temperature i.e., it
measures the changes in the temperature. In a Temperature Sensor, the
changes in the Temperature correspond to change in itsphysical property
like resistance or voltage.

Figure 3.2: Temperature Sensor

Proximity Sensor
Proximity sensor can detect the presence of nearby object without any physical contact. The
working of a proximity sensor is simple. In proximity sensor transmitter transmits an
electromagnetic radiation and receiver receives and analyzes there turn signal for
interruptions. Therefore, the amount of light receiver receives by surrounding can be used for
detecting the presence of near by object.

Types of proximity sensors:-

Infrared (IR)Transceivers

In IR sensor LED transmit the beam of IR light and if it finds an obstacle then the light is
reflected which is captured by an IR receiver.

Figure 3.3: Infrared Sensor

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Ultrasonic Sensor
In ultrasonic sensors high frequency sound waves are generated by transmitter, the received
echo pulse suggests an object interruption. In general, ultrasonic sensors are used for distance
measurement in robotic system.

Figure 3.4: Ultrasonic Sensor

Sound Sensor
Sound sensors are generally a microphone used to detect sound and return a voltage
equivalent to the sound level. Using sound sensor, a simple robot can be designed to navigate
based on the sound receives. Implementation of sound sensors is note as light sensors because
it generate a small voltage difference which will be amplified to generate measurable voltage
change.

Figure 3.5: Sound Sensor

Acceleration Sensor
Acceleration sensor is used for measuring acceleration and tilt. An accelerometer is a device
used for measuring acceleration.

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Light Sensor
Light sensor is a transducer used for detecting light and creates a voltage difference equivalent to the
light intensity fall on a light sensor.

Types of light sensor:-

Photo Resistor
It is a type of resistor used for detecting the light. In photo resistor resistance
varies with change in light intensity. The light falls on photo resistor is inversely proportional
to the resistance of the photo resistor. In general photo resistor is also called as Light
Dependent Resistor(LDR).

Photovoltaic Cells
Photovoltaic cells are energy conversion device used to convert solar radiation into electrical
electric energy. It is used if we are planning to build a solar robot. Individually photovoltaic
cells are considered as an energy source, an implementation combined with capacitors and
transistors can convert this into a sensor.

3.3 Manipulators
A manipulator is a device used to manipulate materials without direct contact. The
applications were originally for dealing with radioactive or biohazards materials, using robotic
arms, or they were used in inaccessible places.

In more recent developments they have been used in diverse range of applications including welding
automation, robotically assisted surgery and in space. It is an arm-like mechanism that consists of a
series of segments, usually sliding or jointed called cross-slides, which grasp and move objects with
several degrees of freedom.

Figure 3.6: Manipulator

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 Welding Manipulator
It can be either open arc or submerged arc. A welding manipulator can be used to weld
horizontally and vertically and is ideal for job shops as they are robust, have high production
volume capacity and a greater degree of flexibility in product engineering. Examples of
robotic manipulators are: Canadarm, Tera bot-S by Oceaneering Space System, SCARA

3.4 End-Effectors
To interact with the environment and carry out assigned tasks, robots are equipped with tools
called end effectors. These vary according to the tasks the robot has been designed to carry
out. For example, robotic factory workers have interchangeable tools such as paint sprayers or
welding torches. Mobile robots such as the probes sent to other planets or bomb disposal
robots often have universal grippers that mimic the function of the human hand.

Types of End-Effectors:-

3.4.1.1 Permanent Magnet End Effector

It consists of a permanent magnet that moves in an aluminum cylinder. When the actuator
drives the magnet towards the front end of the cylinder, it holds ferrous parts. As the magnet is
extracted from the cylinder, the magnetic field fades, and the parts are released. This type can
be used for only ferrous parts and has the benefit of managing parts with a symmetrical form
as well as holding several parts concurrently.

Electromagnet End Effector

It is easy to operate, and multiple end effectors can be positioned with the robot arm to
perform multiple operations. Even with minor disturbance in the location of parts, or
alterations in configuration and dimensions, these end effectors can function effectively. The
set y pes can be used for parts with uneven exterior shape, such as coarse ferrous castings or
rounded components.

Vacuum End Effector

It consists of a cup-shaped component, and when it meets as mooth part, vacuum is created
in the cup which ensures that the part remains attached. Controls are used to generate or
remove vacuum. This type of end effectors is used for delicate parts.

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3.5 Actuators
To be considered a robot, a device must have a body that it can move in reaction to feedback
from its sensors. Robot bodies consist of metal, plastic, and similar materials. Inside these
bodies are small motors called actuators. Actuators mimic the action of human muscle to
move parts of the robot's body. The simplest robots consist of an arm with a tool attached for a
particular task. More advanced robots may move around on wheels or treads. Humanoid
robots have arms and legs that mimic human movement.

Types of Actuators:-

Hydraulic
A hydraulic actuator consists of cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to facilitate
mechanical operation. The mechanical motion gives a nout put in terms of linear, rotatory, or
oscillatory motion. As liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic actuator can
exert a large force. The drawback of this approach is its limited acceleration.

The hydraulic cylinder consists of a hollow cylindrical tube along which a piston can slide.
The term single acting is used when the fluid pressure is applied to just one side of the piston.
The piston can move in only one direction, a spring being frequently used to give the piston a
return stroke. The term double acting is used when pressure is applied on each side of the
piston; any difference in pressure between the two sides of the piston moves the piston to one
side or the other.

Pneumatic
Pneumatic actuators enable considerable forces to be produced from relatively small pressure
changes. A pneumatic actuator converts energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high
pressure into either linear or rotary motion. Pneumatic energy is desirable for main engine
controls because it can quickly respond in
startingandstoppingasthepowersourcedoesnotneedtobestoredinreservefor operation. Moreover,
pneumatic actuators are safer, cheaper, and often more reliable and powerful the another
actuators. These forces are often used with valves to move diaphragms to affect the flow of air
through the valve.

Electric
An electric actuator is powered by a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical
torque. The electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as multi-turn valves.

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Additionally, a brake is typically installed above the motor to prevent the media from opening
valve. If no brake is installed, the actuator will uncover the opened valve and rotate it back to
its closed position. If this continues to happen, the motor and actuator will eventually become
damaged. It is one of the cleanest and most readily available forms of actuator because it does
not directly involve oil or another fossil fuel.

Figure 3.7: Main Parts of Robots

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4 ROBOT ARCHITECTURES

What is it that distinguishes the software for a reasonably sophisticated robot from most other
large and complicated software systems? The answer has to do with its embeddedness of the
robot and the demands of responding to the environment in a timely manner. Their relationship
between the computational requirements for coming up with an appropriate response to a given
environmental challenge and the time allowed by the circumstances is at the heart of design in g
robot architectures. In many cases this issue is finessed simply by having robots that have
enough computational resources that they do not have to worry about being clever.
Consider the task of driving down an interstate highway. There are the small adjustments you
make to stay within your lane. There are larger and more abrupt adjustments you might make to
avoid a piece of tire tread or another road hazard. You might plan your trip well in advance to
determine which sequence of roads you will take to get to your desired destination. You will
have to divide your attention between staying in your lane and watching the cars around you and
watching for signs and landmarks that tell you of approaching exits. Once you see the sign for
your exit, you may have to plan how to maneuver your vehicle across several lanes of traffic to
make your exit.
Planning a route could be as difficult as solving a traveling salesman problem or as easy as
finding the shortest path in a graph. Certainly, thinking about how to maneuver across four lanes
of traffic could take longer than figuring out how to swerve to miss a pothole. What do you do if
you are hurtling toward an exit but not sure if it is the best exit to take in getting to your
destination? You cannot simply stop the world while you figure things out. You cannot even
focus your attention entirely on the problem because you still must attend to the road.
There is another issue that often comes to the fore and has its ana login conventional desktop
systems and that is the management of resources. Just as two different processes cannot be
allowed to access a disk drive at the same time, two processes (or behaviors) can’t be allowed to
drive the motors at the same time. Suppose your maneuvering across the highway trying to reach
the far-right lane to turn onto an approaching exit. At some level all your attention is on getting
the car to move to the right. Then suddenly you notice a car appear on your right and another part
of your brain takes control of the wheel and swerve es to the left avoid a collision.

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How to arbitrate between different goals and behaviors each requiring access to a critical
resource?
What sort of architecture might allow for timely responses across a wide spectrum of
environmental challenges and at the same time provide a framework for arbitrating among
competing behaviors?

4.1 Look And Lurch

Murphy [2000] describes the range of current architectures (or paradigms) in terms of the
relationships between three primitives, sense, plan, and act and in terms of how sensory data is
processed and propagated through the system. The following graphic illustrates the relationships
among the primitives in terms of the three dominant paradigms.

Figure 4.1: Architecture 1

The hierarchical paradigm is a bit of a caricature. It was however the dominant paradigm in the
early days of AI robotics when much of the focus was on robot planning. The emphasis in these
early systems was in constructing a detailed world model and then carefully planning out what
steps to take next. The problem was that,

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while the robot was constructing its model and deliberating about what to do next, the world was
likely to change. So, these robot sexhibited the odd behavior that they would look (acquire data,
often in the form of one or more camera images), process and plan, and then(often after a
considerable delay) they would lurch into action for a couple of steps before beginning the cycle
all over again. Shake ya robot developed at the Stanford Research Institute in the 1970s was
largely controlled by a remote computer connected to the robot by a radio link; Shakey exhibited
this sort of look- and-lurch behavior as it contemplated moving blocks around to achieve a goal.
The characteristic aspects of this paradigm are illustrated by the following figure from
[Brooks,1986]:

Figure 4.2: Architecture 2

The components of the robot in this case are said to be horizontally organized. Information from
the world in the form of sensor data must filter through several intermediate stages of
interpretation before finally becoming available for a response.

4.2 Reactive Systems

An alternative to the hierarchical paradigm with its horizontally organized architecture is called
the reactive paradigm and is labeled as such above. Adherents of the reactive paradigm organize
the components vertically so that there is a more direct route from sensors to effectors.
Schematically Brooks depicts the para dig mas follows:

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 Figure 4.3: Architecture 3

In the subsumption architecture, components behaviors are divided into layers with an arbitration
scheme where by behaviors a tone level can manipulate what behaviors at a lower level can see
or do. Brooks called the most primitive components of his architecture modules. Each module
has inputs, outputs, and a reset. A module at a higher level can suppress the input of a module at
a lower level thereby preventing the module from seeing a value at its input. A module can also
inhibit the output of a module at a lower level thereby preventing that output from being
propagated to other modules.

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 Figure 4.4: Architecture 4

The modules are meant to be simple computationally and so it is reasonable to think of them as
circuits or finite state-machines. Brooks assumed that they were augmented finite state
controllers. The reset would cause the controller to return to its initial state. Once set in motion
the controllers would continuously transition from one state to the next. The transitions can be
determined in part by reading from the inputs and some internal state and of course by referring
to the present state of the controller. Brooks also allows controllers to have an internal clock or
timer and so, for example, they can execute a wait. Here are the basic transition types allowed in
specifying the transition function of a finite-state controller.

 Output-a transition can compute a value as a function of the module's inputs and
internal state and then send the value to one of its outputs before entering a specified state
 Side effect - a transition can set one of the module's instance variables (internal state)
to some value computed as a function of the module's inputs and internal state; the
module then enters a specified state
 Conditional dispatch - a predicate on the module's inputs and instance variables is
evaluated and depending on the outcome the module enters one of two specified states

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  Event dispatch-a sequence of conditions and states to branch to is specified;
the conditions are then monitored continuously until a condition is met and
then the module transitions to the corresponding state

In some applications each module is implemented on a separate processor with information

propagated from inputs to outputs using parallel or serial communications. However, there is
nothing preventing us from implementing more th a none or all the modules on a sing le
processor with propagation carried out using shared variables. Here is the specification for a
module that is used as one component in a level responsible for avoiding obstacles. The
specification language has a lisp- like syntax, but the expressions would typically be compiled
into assembly code or into an intermediate target language like C.

Figure 4.5: Architecture 5

Here is the most primitive level of a mobile robot system consisting of three modules (plus the
sonar and motor components which can also be thought of as modules of a sort). We assume a
ring of sonars that provides at intervals an updated vector of sonar readings here referred to as a
map. The collide module looks at the sonar vector and if it determines there is an imminent
collision, then it sends a halt command to the motors. The feel force module treats the sonars as
repulsive forces acting on the robot and computes a force vector summarizing these repulsive
forces. The feel force module sends this force vector to the runaway module which computes
motor commands to move the robot in accord with the perceived repulsive for ces acting on it.
The resulting (Level0) behavior has robot moving away from any obstacles.

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probably ending up in the middle of room. To get more interesting behavior we can add a second
level.

Figure 4.6: Architecture 6

In the diagram below we add two Level 1 modules. One of these modules, the wander module,
selects an arbitrary heading possibly changing it from time to time using its internal timer and a
source of random directions. This heading plus the force vector generated by the feel force
module is provided as input to the avoid module that computes motor commands combining the
desired heading with the necessities of avoiding nearby obstacles. To prevent the run away
module taking over the control of the motors, the avoid module suppresses the output of the
runaway module. The combined Level 0 and Level 1 behavior result in a robot that wanders
aimless about but avoid obstacles.

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 Figure 4.7: Architecture 7

The final diagram below taken from Brook’s paper shows an additional level of control that
implements a more goal-oriented behavior on top the of more primitive behaviors.

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Figure 4.8: Architecture 8

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Here are some figures of some veteran robots from MIT several of which, e.g., Herbert, used
variations on the subsumption architecture. Flakey is a mobile robot from SRI that combines
aspects of reactive and hierarchical control in a hybrid architecture.

4.3 Implementing Subsumption

Here is a quite simple subsumption code fragment and the resulting NQC output. Because of
its limited numbers of processes (tasks) and variables NQC never proved practical as a target
language. Eventually I had a compiler that handle most of the subsumption language
constructs but would only work for cases involving five or six modules. I thought of
converting my compiler to leg OS, but it did not seem worth all the work given that the basic
ideas of subsumption are easy to incorporate in code and the rest is just syntax. Well, some
might say that the syntax enforces a discipline, but others just find the discipline confining. In
any case, if you want to use subsumption, you can either write your own compiler or you can
distill out the basic ideas and implement them in your own syntax.

What are the basic principles?

1. Divide your problem into basic competencies ordered simple to more complex.
Designate a level for each basic competency.

2. Further subdivide each level into multiple simple components which interact
through shared variables. Limit the sharing of variables among levels to avoid
incomprehensible code.

3. Implement each module as a separate light-weight thread. You might think of

setting the priorities for these threads so that modules in each level have the same
priority.

4. Implement suppression and inhibition as one or more separate

"arbitration" processes that serve to control access to shared variables. You
might want to control access using semaphores.

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5. Connections between robotics and some related subjects

Indeed, robotics has been regarded by some as a branch of AI, but equally AI could be said .

This view of AI as a sort of mechanical psychology is still held and, in my opinion, is where
its greatest importance lies, but as far as its present relevance to robotics and other practical
subjects is concerned AI is just a bag of programming methods. What these methods have in
common is that they search for a satisfactory interpretation of data, or a plan of action, among
a collection of possibilities, usually based on imperfect knowledge.

AI is about search and representation. Representation is the issue typified by questions such as
how a model of an object can be stored in a computer in a way which allows effective
comparison with an image.

5.1 When to use industrial robots instead of humans?

It is preferable to use robots in applications in 4D (i.e., Dangerous, Dirty, Dull, and
Difficult). It is used also in 4A: automation, augmentation, assistance, autonomous.

5.2 Types of industrial robot and their methods of operation

An industrial robot is driven through a sequence of movements by a program of some kind. The
program is executed by a controller; the basic relationship between the controller and the robot
is shown in Figure5.1. The controller turns on the joint actuators (throughout this chapter the
terms 'joint' and 'axis' are used interchangeably) at the appropriate times, while signals from the
joint sensors are returned to the controller and used for feedback. The types of controllers,
methods of programming and details of joint servo control are discussed in the following
sections. We begin with the classification of industrial robots.

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 Figure 5.1: The basic architecture of an industrial robot

Industrial robots can be classified by the method of control and by the method of teaching or
programming; although certain control methods and teaching methods are almost always
used together, in principle the two bases of classification are separate. The main classes of
control are as follows:

1) Pick and place.

2) Point to point.

3) Continuous path.

5.3.1 Pick and Place Manipulators!

Pick and place or limited sequence manipulators, which are not always counted as robots at
all, use mechanical stops to set two stopping positions on each axis. The joint must travel
backwards and forwards between these two end stops, whose positions can be adjusted when
the machine is set up; it is not possible to select any intermediate stopping point, although
sometimes extra stops can be inserted for parts of the program. This is usually done by
solenoid-operated pins which when extended prevent the arm moving beyond them.

5.3.2 Point to Point Robots

Point to point robots have servo position control of each axis and can go through a sequence of
specified points. The path between these points is unspecified. There can be any number of
stopping positions in each axis. The program for such a robot consists of a series of points; for
each point all the joint angles (or distances in the case of prismatic joints) must be specified.

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5.3.3 Continuous Path Robots
Continuous path robots do not go through a finite list of target points but can, ideally, execute
as mooth path of any shape, with continuous variation of speed as the arm moves along the
path. This requires not only servo control of the velocity of each joint but that several joints
move at once in a coordinated way, whereas for a point-to-point robot it is possible, although
not compulsory, to move only one joint at a time.

5.3 Programming languages for industrial robots

As explained earlier, most robots can be programmed in some language which is compiled (or
interpreted in the case of some slow robots intended for educational purposes) to yield the
machine code which drives the robot. Many manufacturers provide a language for their own
robots; meanwhile attempts are being made to develop universal robot languages, or to add
robot-control features or subroutine libraries to languages such as Pascal or C.

5.4 Performance specifications of industrial robots

Because of the great variety of shapes and uses of industrial robots, standardization of
specifications over all robots is difficult. However, there are certain characteristics which, all
else being equal, allow robots of similar type to be compared.

5.5.1 Positioning accuracy and repeatability

Accuracy
The accuracy with which a robot can bring the payload to a position and hold it there or the
accuracy with which it passes through a position while moving, can both be important.
Perhaps because of the difficulty of measuring the second of these, accuracy is usually defined
for the static case, when the manipulator has approach e data r get point and is holding the
payload in a fixed position. Since this is done by servo controls (expect for pick and place
machines) and servos are never perfect, there will be both an offset and a random error. This is
true foreach axis, and the size of the error will not be the same for all axes. If a single figure is
quoted for a guaranteed maximum position error for the whole robot it should be the worst
case; the accuracy in certain axes may be much better.

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Repeatability
Repeatability is a measure of how closely the achieved position clusters around its mean. The
difference between accuracy and repeatability is illustrated by Figure5.2. Repeatability is often
more important than accuracy since, provided that the accuracy error is constant, it can be allow
for. (This is only true if the robot keeps repeating the same cycle of actions.)

Figure 5.2: The difference between repeatability and accuracy

5.5.2 Control related specifications

Memory Capacity
For a limited sequence (pick and place) arm or a point-to-point robot, memory capacity is
expressed as the number of movements or positions and may be several hundred. Such a
number might well be needed in, say, spot welding; for many transfer operations less than ten
positions might be used. For a continuous path robot, memory capacity is expressed as the
length of time which can be recorded. The specification should state what kind and capacity of
exchangeable memory device is provided.

Program Structure
These remarks about memory capacity assume that a program consists of a simple sequence of
operations. More complex facilities are useful, such as subroutines, branches, a choice of
programs and soon. The details of these facilities should be stated.

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Advanced Features
Some of the properties whose presence or absence, and their type when present, should bemade
clear in the specification are as follows:
1) Programming languages,
2) Ability to generate circles,
3) Ability to generate welding patterns (, weaving'),
4) Interfaces for sensors (such as vision systems),
5) Ability to track a conveyor,
6) Ability to control ancillary devices such as positioning tables,
7) Communications ports for factory networks,
8) Ability to be down-line loaded with a program by some other system.

5.5 Applications of industrial robots

There are a lot of applications in industry regarding robots. Some of them will be discussed in this
section.

Machine loading
The first application of industrial robots was in unloading die-casting machines. In die casting
the two halves of a would or die are held together in a press while molten metal, typically zinc
or aluminum is injected under pressure. The die is cooled by water; when the metal has
solidified the press opens and a robot extracts the casting and dip sit in a quench tank to cool it
further. The robot then places the casting in a trim press where the unwanted parts are cut off.
A robot serving two die-casting machines and a trim press is shown inFigure-5.3.

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 Figure 5.3: A robot serving die-casting machines.

Spot welding
The spot welding of car bodies is the most well-known use of industrial robots, mainly
because the motor industry is in the public eye more than most; also, a spot- welding line with
its showers of sparks and large number of robots is more spectacular than a solitary robot
unloading a die-casting machine.

Arc welding
Arc welding as it applies to robotics generally
uses the metal-inert gas (MIG) technique
shown in Figure 5.4.

gure 5.4: The basic arrangement for arc

welding

Spraying
Because many pigments and solvents are poisonous, the automation of paint and other types
of spraying is desirable for health reasons as well as for reasons of economy and consistency.
Continuous path robots are needed but need not be very.

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precise. Since the solvent-lade n at m o sphere I spot enti ally. Explosive, precautions must
be taken to avoid sparks. The work pieces often move on a continuous conveyor, so the
ability to program or teach on a stationary work piece and then to reproduce the action
while tracking a moving one is commonly needed.

Surgical skill can be broken down into theoretical skill (consisting of factual and decision-
making knowledge) and practical skill (the ability to carry out manual tasks such as
dissection and suturing). Theoretical skill is often taught in a classroom and is thought to
be accurately tested with written examinations like the Medical College Admission Test
(MCAT) and the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE).Practical
skill ,on the other hand, is much more difficult to judge.

Practical skills, such as driving a car, swinging a golf club, or throwing a football, are
most effectively taught "in the field" through demonstration. In 1889, Sir William Halsted
at Johns Hopkins University revolutionized surgical training by developing an apprentice-
style technique still being used in most modern training programs of surgical residents
today.

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 CONCLUSION

Finally, we find most robots working for people in industries, factories,

warehouses, and laboratories. Robots are useful in many ways. For instance,
it boosts economy because businesses need to be efficient to keep up with
the industry competition. Therefore, having robots helps business owners to
be competitive, because robots can do jobs better and faster than humans
can, e.g., robot can build, assemble a car. Yet robots can not perform very
job; today robots roles include assisting research and industry. At the end, as
the technology improves, there will be new ways to use robots which will
bring new hopes and new potentials.

Robotics is a rapidly growing field, as technological advances continue;

researching, designing ,and building new robots serve various practical
purposes, whether domestically, commercially, or militarily. Many robots
are built to do jobs that are hazardous to people such as defusing bombs,
finding survivors in unstable ruins, and exploring mines and shipwrecks.
Robotics is also used in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics) as a teaching aid. The advent of Nano robots, microscopic
robots that can be injected into the human body, could revolutionize
medicine and human health.

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 REFERENCE

[1] D.J.Todd(auth.)–Fundamentals of Robot Technology _An Introduction

to Industrial Robots, Teleoperators and Robot Vehicles-Springer
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[2] "Robot soldiers". BBC News. 2002-04-12. Archived from the
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[3] InternationalJournalofScientific&EngineeringResearchVolume2,Issue
8, Auguest-2011 1ISSN2229-5518
[4] https://robots.ieee.org/learn/types-of-robots/
[5] http://www.robotpark.com/All-Types-Of-Robots
[6] https://nccr-robotics.ch/research-areas/mobile-rescue-robots/flying-robots/
[7] https://www.truthfacts.net/Since082514/ComputerRobots6.html
[8] https://user.eng.umd.edu/~austin/enes489p/projects2011a/BorderSecurity-
Air-Team-FinalReport.pdf
[9] https://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/medical-robots/using-
robots-to-train-the-surgeons-of-tomorrow
[10] https://www.ecpi.edu/blog/7-latest-innovations-in-robotics
[11] http://cs.brown.edu/people/tdean/courses/cs148/02/architectures.html

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