Applied Physics

by Dr. Muhammad Rizwan Amirzada

mamirzada@numl.edu.pk

Applied Physics 1
Study Material
• Fundamentals of Physics (Extended), 10th edition, Resnick
and Walker

• Narciso Garcia, Arthur Damask, Steven Schwarz., “Physics

for Computer Science Students”, Springer Verlag, 1998

• Browse internet for suitable material

• These slides will be available after every lecture

Applied Physics 2
Coordinate System
• Used to describe the position of a point in space

• Coordinate system consists of

• a fixed reference point called the origin

• specific axes with scales and labels (X axis and Y axis)

• instructions on how to label a point relative to the origin and the axes

Applied Physics 3
Coordinate System (contd.)
• Cartesian Coordinate System
• Also called rectangular coordinate system
• x- and y- axes intersect at the origin
• Points are labeled as (x,y)
• Known as ordered pairs

Applied Physics 4
Coordinate System (contd.)
• Polar Coordinate System
• Origin and reference line are noted
• Point is distance r from the origin in the direction of angle 𝜃, from
reference line
• Points are labeled as (r,𝜃)

Applied Physics 5
Coordinate System (contd.)

Applied Physics 6
Coordinate System (contd.)

Applied Physics 7
Examples

Applied Physics 8
Examples contd.

Applied Physics 9
Vectors
• The quantity which has direction and magnitude is called vector

Applied Physics 10
Vectors (contd.)
• When handwritten, use an arrow:

• When printed, will be in bold print: A

• When dealing with just the magnitude of a vector in print, an italic letter
will be used: A or |A|

• The magnitude of the vector has physical units

• The magnitude of a vector is always a positive number

Applied Physics 11
Vectors (contd.)

Applied Physics 12
Vectors (contd.)

Applied Physics 13
Vectors (contd.)
• The result of the multiplication or division is a vector

• The magnitude of the vector is multiplied or divided by the scalar

• If the scalar is positive, the direction of the result is the same as of the
original vector

• If the scalar is negative, the direction of the result is opposite that of

the original vector
Applied Physics 14
Vectors (contd.)

Applied Physics 15
Vectors (contd.)
• The x-component of a vector is the projection along the x-axis

• Ax = A cos𝜃

• The y-component of a vector is the projection along the y-axis

• Ay = A Sin𝜃

Applied Physics 16
Vectors (contd.)

Applied Physics 17
Vectors (contd.)
• A unit vector is a dimensionless vector with a magnitude of exactly 1.
• Unit vectors are used to specify a direction and have no other physical
significance

Applied Physics 18
Vectors (contd.)

Applied Physics 19
Vectors (contd.)

Applied Physics 20
Vectors (contd.)

Applied Physics 21
Vectors (contd.)

Applied Physics 22
Vector Problems
• A small airplane leaves an airport on an overcast day and is later
sighted 215 km away, in a direction making an angle of 22° east of
due north. How far east and north is the airplane from the airport
when sighted?

• In Fig, a heavy piece of machinery is raised by sliding it a distance d #

12.5 m along a plank oriented at angle u # 20.0° to the horizontal.
How far is it moved (a) vertically and (b) horizontally?

Applied Physics 23
Vector Problems
• A person walks in the following pattern: 3.1 km north, then 2.4 km
west, and finally 5.2 km south. (a) Sketch the vector diagram that
represents this motion. (b) How far and (c) in what direction would
the person in a straight line from the same starting point to the same
final point?

• A car is driven east for a distance of 50 km, then north for 30 km, and
then in a direction 30° east of north for 25 km. Sketch the vector
diagram and determine (a) the magnitude and (b) the angle of the
car’s total displacement from its starting point

Applied Physics 24
Work and Energy
• Work is done on an object when an applied force moves it through a
distance

• Mathematically, work is W = F · d, where F is the applied force and d

is the distance moved, that is, displacement

• If there is an angle between F and d then W = F.d cos𝜃

• The SI unit for work is the joule (J), which is newton‐meter

Applied Physics 25
Work and Energy (contd.)
• An example

Applied Physics 26
Work and Energy (contd.)
• Calculate the work done by a 2.0-N force (directed at a 30° angle to
the vertical) to move a 500 gram box a horizontal distance of 400 cm
across a rough floor at a constant speed of 0.5 m/s.

• Here is a good example of the importance of understanding the angle

between F and x. In this problem, the x is horizontal and the F is at a
60-degree angle to the horizontal. Thus, theta is 60 degrees.

• W = (2.0 N) * (4.00 m) * cos (60 degrees) = 4.0 J

Applied Physics 27
Work and Energy (contd.)
• The ability to do work is called Energy
• energy is just the force that causes things to move.
• There are two types of energy
• Potential energy occurs before an action
• Kinetic energy happens during an action
• Potential energy is the stored energy of position possessed by an
object.
• Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object as the
result of its vertical position or height

Applied Physics 28
Work and Energy (contd.)
• Gravitational potential energy depends on two parameters
• Height and Weight of the object
• Mathematically
PEgrav = mass • g • height
PEgrav = m • g • h

Applied Physics 29
Work and Energy (contd.)
• Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in elastic materials as the
result of their stretching or compressing
P.E=1/2.k.x2
• Where k is the spring constant and x is the spring displacement

• We attach a spring to a board, and use 3 J energy to stretch the spring

99 cm. What be the value of the spring constant using Spring
Potential Energy Formula? Solve

Applied Physics 30
Work and Energy (contd.)
• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion
• An object that has motion - whether it is vertical or horizontal motion
has kinetic energy
• The amount of kinetic energy that an object has depends upon two
variables: the mass (m) of the object and the speed (v) of the object
• Mathematically
KE = 1/2 • m • v2
where m = mass of object and v = speed of object

Applied Physics 31
Work and Energy (contd.)
• A 900-kg compact car moving at 60 mi/hr has approximately 320 000
Joules of kinetic energy. Estimate its new kinetic energy if it is moving
at 30 mi/hr
• Critically thinks about it

• The KE is directly related to the square of the speed. If the speed is

reduced by a factor of 2 (as in from 60 mi/hr to 30 mi/hr) then the KE
will be reduced by a factor of 4. Thus, the new KE is (320 000 J)/4 or
80 000 J.

Applied Physics 32
Introduction: Concepts of Electricity
• Electricity is movement of Electrons
• What is an Electron?
• a stable subatomic particle with a charge of
negative electricity, found in all atoms
• Every material has different number of
electrons

• These electrons causes charge

Applied Physics 39
Concepts of Electricity contd.
oElectric Charge is the property of subatomic particles that causes it to
experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field
oIt can be negative or positive
oElectrons carry negative charge and Protons carry positive charge
oThree basic principles which are important in electricity are
oVoltage
oCurrent
oResistance

Applied Physics 40
Concepts of Electricity contd.
oVoltage: it can be defined as, it is the difference in charge between
two points
oIt means one point has more charge than other
oUnit of voltage is Volts
oIt can be AC or DC
oCommon example of voltage sources is battery cells which are
available in market

Applied Physics 41
Concepts of Electricity contd.
o Current: The amount of charge flowing through a conductor in a
given time is called current

oUnit of current is Ampere which can be defined as one coulomb

charge flowing in one second

oSymbol for representation of current is “I”

Applied Physics 42
Concepts of Electricity contd.
oResistance: Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow
in an electrical circuit

oUnit of Resistance is Ohm and can be described as when a constant

potential difference of one volt, applied to two points, produces in
the conductor a current of one ampere

oSymbol of resistance is “R”

Applied Physics 43
Concepts of Electricity contd.
o All these three principles are well explained via water tank
philosophy

Applied Physics 44
Ohm’s Law
o Ohm’s Law establishes a relationship between voltage and current
through a resistance
o This relationship established as
𝑉 =𝐼×𝑅
o This is a linear equation means the plot between voltage
and current will be a straight line when resistance is constant

Applied Physics 45
Ohm’s Law contd.
o Electrical Power (P) in a circuit is the rate at which energy is absorbed
or produced within a circuit
oA source of energy such as a voltage will produce or deliver
power while the connected load absorbs it
oMathematically we can write Power as
𝑃 =𝑉×𝐼
oThe Units of Power is Watt (W), milliwatt (mW) or kilowatt
(KW) is also use extensively in electronics and electrical
circuits
Applied Physics 46
Ohm’s Law contd.
o For the circuit shown below find the Voltage (V), the Current (I), the
Resistance (R) and the Power (P)

Applied Physics 47
Voltage and Current Sources

Applied Physics 48
Voltage and Current Sources contd.

Applied Physics 49
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb.
o Resistors are said to be connected in “Series”, when they are daisy
chained together in a single line
o Resistors in series has common current flowing through them

Applied Physics 50
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o The amount of current will remain same throughout the network
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅1 = 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑅3
o The equivalent resistance is the sum of all the resistance
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Applied Physics 51
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o A simple example for calculating the total resistance and current

Applied Physics 52
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o Another example for finding the voltage between two points

Applied Physics 53
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o In a parallel resistor network the circuit current can take more than
one path as there are multiple paths for the current
o Resistors in Parallel have a Common Voltage across them but current
will divide (depends upon the resistance value)

Applied Physics 54
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o The amount of voltage will remain same throughout the network
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑉𝑅2 = 𝑉𝑅3
o The equivalent resistance can be calculated as follows
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Applied Physics 55
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.

Applied Physics 56
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o An example for parallel network

Applied Physics 57
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o Another example

Applied Physics 58
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o A little complex example

Applied Physics 59
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o Task for you

Applied Physics 60
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o A complex example

Applied Physics 61
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o A complex example

Applied Physics 62
Series and Parallel Resistor Comb. Contd.
o A complex example

Applied Physics 63
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
o Kirchhoff’s Current Law is one of the fundamental law used for circuit
analysis
oIt states that the total current entering a circuits node is exactly equal
to the total current leaving the same node
oMathematically we can write it as
෍ 𝐼𝐼𝑁 = ෍ 𝐼𝑂𝑈𝑇

Applied Physics 64
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) contd.
o lets take a simple example

Applied Physics 65
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) contd.
o Lets take another simple example

Applied Physics 66
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) contd.
o lets take a complex example

Applied Physics 67
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) contd.
o Equivalent circuit will be

Applied Physics 68
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
o Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is the second of his fundamental laws we can
use for circuit analysis
o It states that for a closed loop series path the algebraic sum of all the
voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero
oMathematically we can write it as
෍ 𝑉 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝

Applied Physics 69
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) contd.

Applied Physics 70
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) contd.

Three resistor of values: 10 ohms, 20 ohms and 30 ohms, respectively

are connected in series across a 12 volt battery supply. Calculate: a) the
total resistance, b) the circuit current, c) the current through each
resistor, d) the voltage drop across each resistor e) verify that
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, KVL holds true.

Applied Physics 71
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) contd.

Applied Physics 72
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) contd.
o Another example with two loops where we have values of
resistors and voltage source as follows:
R1=5Ω, R2=10Ω, R3=5Ω and R4=10Ω and V=20V

Applied Physics 73
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) contd.

Applied Physics 74
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) contd.

Applied Physics 75
Semiconductors
• What is conductor ?

• Copper (29 e-) is a good conductor as it has only one electron is its
valence band

• Similarly the materials which has 4 electrons in their valence band

are semiconductor materials

• Examples are Si (14 e-), Germanium (32 e-), Carbon (4 e-) etc.

Applied Physics 76
Semiconductors (contd.)
• Why silicon is widely used ?

• Reason is the atomic structure of both materials

• Silicon has 4 electrons in its 3rd shell while Germanium also has 4
electrons but in 4th shell

• Germanium valence e- require small energy to escape from the atom

• This makes Germanium unstable at high temperatures

• That’s why Silicon is most widely used in electronics

Applied Physics 77
Semiconductors (contd.)

Applied Physics 78
Semiconductors (contd.)
• Concept of Hole

• At room temp, some valence electrons

absorbs energy and jump to the
conduction band

• This causes a vacancy in the valence

band of crystal called hole

• Recombination is the process when an e- falls in the hole

Applied Physics 79
Semiconductors (contd.)
• When voltage is applied to pure semiconductor, then e- can easily
move towards positive side

• Known as electron current

Applied Physics 80
Semiconductors (contd.)
• Other type is hole current, which is explained well in diagram

Applied Physics 81
Semiconductors (contd.)
• There are two types of semiconductors
• n-type semiconductor: in which pentavalent materials added by doping to
achieve certain electrical characteristics
• Doped materials can be: Arsenic, Phosphorous, Bismuth and Antimony
and called donner atoms

• p-type semiconductor: in which trivalent materials added by doping to

achieve certain electrical characteristics
• Doped materials can be: Boron, Indium and Gallium and called acceptor
atoms

Applied Physics 82
Semiconductors (contd.)

Applied Physics 83
Diode Theory
• Intrinsic semiconductor doped with trivalent and pentavalent
material, a boundary called pn-junction is formed between the p-
type and n-type material
• Diode created………

Applied Physics 84
Diode Theory (contd.)
• For every electron which diffuse at the boundary, a positive charge
is left in the n-region and a negative charge is left in the p-region
• This is barrier potential of diode which forbids further diffusion
• The region where this electron hole recombination occurs is called
depletion region
• Certain amount of voltage equal to barrier potential is required to
flow the electrons across the junction
• Typical barrier potential for Silicon diode is 0.7V and for
Germanium 0.3V at 25°C

Applied Physics 85
Diode Theory (contd.)
• Typical diode structure and symbol is shown in fig
• p-type region is called Anode and n-type region is called Cathode
• pn-junction is in between the Anode and Cathode

Applied Physics 86
Diode Theory (contd.)
• Biasing of diode is when it is connected with a voltage source
• When n-type material is connected with -ive and p-type material is
connected with +ive side of source, it is called forward biasing
• Vbias should be greater than the barrier potential

Applied Physics 87
Diode Theory (contd.)
• when voltage is greater then the barrier potential, free electrons
crosses the barrier potential and move into the p-type material
• Electron current induced inside the diode

Applied Physics 88
Diode Theory (contd.)
• More electron flow towards the depletion region, positive charge
reduce and same is true for holes
• This causes the depletion region to becomes narrow
• Also the concept of energy hill

Applied Physics 89
Diode Theory (contd.)
• Reverse biasing is the condition prevents the flow of current
through diode
• When p-type is connected with -ive and n-type is connected with
+ive end of source

Applied Physics 90
Diode Theory (contd.)
• V-I curve of diode is shown in figure

Applied Physics 91
Diode Models
• Ideal Diode Model
• It is the least accurate approximate model
• The diode can be replace by a simple switch
• When diode is forward bias, diode acts like a closed switch
• When diode is reverse biased, diode acts like an open switch
• The barrier potential, dynamic resistance of diode and reverse current are
neglected
• Only used for troubleshooting purpose, whether diode is working or not

Applied Physics 92
Diode Models (contd.)

Applied Physics 93
Diode Models (contd.)
• Since, barrier potential and dynamic resistance is neglected, the
voltage across diode in forward bias is zero and current can be
calculated as
𝑉𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

• Since, reverse current is neglected, means reverse current is zero

and reverse voltage is equal to the bias voltage
𝐼𝑅 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠

Applied Physics 94
Diode Models (contd.)
• Practical Diode Model:
• In this approximation, the barrier potential is considered i.e.
0.7V for Si
• In forward bias, a voltage source is considered with a closed
switch
• The +ive side of the source is at anode
• Bias voltage should be greater then that voltage source in order
to conduct a diode
• In reverse bias, voltage source will not effect the circuit as
diode acts as an open switch
Applied Physics 95
Diode Models (contd.)

Applied Physics 96
Diode Models (contd.)
• As diode has a voltage drop of 0.7V so
𝑉𝐹 = 0.7𝑉
• The current through the diode can be calculated by KCL, hence
𝑉𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠 − 𝑉𝐹
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
• In reverse bias, reverse current is zero and reverse voltage is equal
to the bias voltage
𝐼𝑅 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠
• This approximation is useful when dealing with the low voltage
calculations and designing basic diode circuits

Applied Physics 97
Diode Models (contd.)
• Complete Diode Model:
• It is the most accurate diode approximation

• It includes the barrier potential, a small forward internal dynamic

resistance and a large internal reverse resistance

• Reverse resistance is taken because it provides a path for reverse current

which is included in the approximation

Applied Physics 98
Diode Models (contd.)

Applied Physics 99
Diode Models (contd.)
• The values for the forward voltage and current can be calculated
as:
𝑉𝐹 = 0.7𝑉 + 𝐼𝐹 𝑟𝑑

and

𝑉𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠 − 0.7𝑉
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 + 𝑟𝑑

Applied Physics 100

Diode Models (contd.)

Applied Physics 101

Diode Models (contd.)

Applied Physics 102

Diode Models (contd.)

Applied Physics 103

Half Wave Rectifier
• Diodes are mainly used in the power supply circuits

• Power supply converts the standard 230V AC to some DC voltage

level

• Main part of a dc supply is the rectifier

• There are two types of rectifiers

• Half wave rectifier
• Full wave rectifier
Applied Physics 104
Half Wave Rectifier (contd.)

Applied Physics 105

Half Wave Rectifier (contd.)
• During the positive cycle diode conducts and current flow through
the resistor
• For a negative cycle, diode goes into reverse biasing and do not
operate, no current flows through resistor
• Net result is that only positive cycle of AC source appears across
load resistor
• No polarity change at the output so a pulsating dc voltage appears
across diode

Applied Physics 106

Half Wave Rectifier (contd.)
• Average value of half wave output voltage can be calculated as:
𝑉𝑃
𝑉𝐴𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋
• Equation shows that Vavg is approx. 31.8% of Vp (Ideal Diode Case)

• When a practical model is used peak output voltage can be

calculated as:
𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃(𝑖𝑛) − 0.7𝑉

Applied Physics 107

Full Wave Rectifier
• Full wave rectifier allows unidirectional current for entire 360° of
input cycle
• It is combination of two half wave rectifiers
• For this purpose two diodes are used with a centre taped
transformer which provides two separate voltages (out of phase)
across its secondary winding
• One diode conducts and other diode is reverse biased during
positive input cycle and vice versa
• As a result current is continuously flow through the load resistor

Applied Physics 108

Full Wave Rectifier (contd.)

Applied Physics 109

Full Wave Rectifier (contd.)

Applied Physics 110

Full Wave Rectifier (contd.)
• The average value of full wave rectifier can be calculated as:
2𝑉𝑃
𝑉𝐴𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋

• Equation shows that Vavg is approx. 63.6% of Vp (Ideal Diode Case)

• The frequency of full wave rectifier will be equal to

𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2𝑓𝑖𝑛

Applied Physics 111

Full Wave Rectifier (contd.)
• Another type of full wave rectifier is Bridge Rectifier

Applied Physics 112

Full Wave Rectifier (contd.)

Applied Physics 113

Full Wave Rectifier (contd.)
• the bridge output voltage in case of ideal approx. can be calculated
as:
𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃(𝑠𝑒𝑐)

• By using the second approx. the bridge output voltage can be

calculated as:
𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃(𝑠𝑒𝑐) − 1.4𝑉

Applied Physics 114

Full Wave Rectifier (contd.)

Applied Physics 115

Power Supply Filtering
• For a power supply there must be a constant voltage amplitude
without fluctuations
• The output of a Full wave or Half Wave rectifier is not constant
• There must be some filtering to smoothen the output of rectifiers

Applied Physics 116

Power Supply Filtering (contd.)
• Capacitor input filter is used for filtering
• Capacitor is attached at the output of rectifier
• when the positive cycle arrived, diode becomes forward bias
• The capacitor start charging and it continues as voltage is
increasing, when voltage starts decreasing, capacitor starts
discharging and diode becomes reverse bias
• The time constant RC determines the discharging rate of capacitor
• Larger the time constant, lesser the capacitor discharge

Applied Physics 117

Power Supply Filtering (contd.)

Applied Physics 118

Power Supply Filtering (contd.)
• Capacitor quickly charge and slowly discharge during the complete
cycle
• Variation in the capacitor voltage due to charging and discharging
is known as ripple voltage
• Smaller the ripple, better the filtering

Applied Physics 119

Power Supply Filtering (contd.)
• Full wave rectifier has double the frequency as compare to half
wave rectifier
• It is easier to filter the full wave rectifier output as there is short
time between peaks
• When filtered with same load resistor and capacitor, full wave
rectifier has small ripple as compared to half wave rectifier
• Because capacitor discharges less during the short intervals
between full peaks

Applied Physics 120

Power Supply Filtering (contd.)

Applied Physics 121

Power Supply Filtering (contd.)
• The ripple factor (r) (amount of AC content present in DC
output) is effectiveness of filter and defined as

𝑉𝑟(𝑝𝑝)
𝑟=
𝑉𝐷𝐶

Applied Physics 122

Applied Physics 123
Zener Diode
• Zener diode is a typical diode which is designed to operate in
reverse-breakdown region

Applied Physics 124

Zener Diode (contd.)
• Two types of reverse breakdown in Zener diodes are observed i.e.
avalanche and Zener
• Avalanche breakdown occurs at higher voltage levels but Zener
breakdown occurs at low voltages
• Zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the breakdown voltage
• An intense electric field is generated in depletion region
• When applied voltage is near Zener breakdown voltage, the field is
intense enough to pull the electrons from valence band to
conduction band

Applied Physics 125

Avalanche and Zener Effect
• Avalanche effect is observed when the material is lightly doped

• Zener effect is observed when material is heavily doped

• Width of the depletion layer is depend on the amount of doping

• Heavily doped diodes has narrow depletion layer and lightly doped
diodes has wider depletion layer

Applied Physics 126

Avalanche and Zener Effect (contd.)
• In reverse bias, a small reverse current is observed due to minority
carriers
• When the applied voltage increases, it accelerate those minority
carriers
• Those minority carriers then collide with majority carriers and
knock them out
• This knocking out effect continues and hence current start to flow
because of those majority carriers

Applied Physics 127

Zener Diode (contd.)
• Main applications of Zener diode are voltage regulators
• It can be used where a constant voltage is required (without
fluctuations)

Applied Physics 128

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
• BJT is constructed when three different semiconductor regions are
joined together
• Three semiconductor regions are separated by two pn junctions
• Three regions are called Emitter, Base and Collector

Applied Physics 129

Bipolar Junction Transistors (contd.)
• The pn junction joining the base region and the emitter region is
called Base Emitter junction (Emitter Diode)
• The pn junction joining the base region and collector region is
called Base Collector junction (Collector Diode)
• Base region is lightly doped and very thin
• Emitter is heavily doped and collector is
moderately doped
• Schematic symbol of BJT is shown in fig

Applied Physics 130

Bipolar Junction Transistors (contd.)
• In normal configuration/operation Emitter diode is forward biased
and Collector diode is reverse biased
• Emitter has a job to emits its electrons so that they can inject in
the base region
• When emitter diode is forward biased, electrons can enter from
emitter to base

Applied Physics 131

Bipolar Junction Transistors (contd.)
• Because of biasing, the electrons which enter in base has two
options
• To enter to the collector OR E B C
• To go out from the base
• Majority of the electrons will enter the collector as base is lightly
doped and very thin
• Lightly doped means electrons have longer life in base and
because of very thin base electrons have to move very short
distance to enter into collector

Applied Physics 132

Bipolar Junction Transistors (contd.)
• When electrons enter into the collector, they feel a strong
attraction because of the source voltage
• Because of this electrons flow through the collector and reach to
the positive terminal of the source
• There are three useful configurations of transistors
• Common Emitter
• Common Base and
• Common Collector

Applied Physics 133

Bipolar Junction Transistors (contd.)

Applied Physics 134

Common Emitter
• In this type of configuration, ground side or common side of each
voltage source is connected to the emitter
• Hence it is called common emitter circuit/configuration
• The circuit has two loops which are
• Left loop is called the base loop and
• Right loop is called the collector loop

Applied Physics 135

Common Emitter (contd.)
• In the base loop, the voltage source VBB forward bias the emitter
diode with RB which is current limiting resistor

• If we change the VBB or RB, it means we can change the current

• Changing the base current will change the collector current it

means base current will control the collector current

Applied Physics 136

BJT Circuit Analysis
• From the circuit diagram, three different dc currents and three dc
voltages can be identified
• DC currents are IB, IE and IC
• DC voltages are VBE, VCB and VCE
• When a transistor is in normal
operation then
𝑉𝐵𝐸 ≅ 0.7𝑉

Applied Physics 137

BJT Circuit Analysis (contd.)
• By using Kirchof’s voltage law
𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
• By Ohm’s Law
𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵
• By substituting the values
𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐵

Applied Physics 138

BJT Circuit Analysis (contd.)
• The voltage at collector can be calculated as:
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑅𝐶
• Drop across the collector resistor is
𝑉𝑅𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
• By substituting the values
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
• Where
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐵

Applied Physics 139

BJT Circuit Analysis (contd.)

Applied Physics 140

BJT Circuit Analysis (contd.)

Applied Physics 141

Collector Characteristic Curves
• Collector characteristics curves shows us that how the collector
current varies the collector to emitter voltage for specific values of
base current
• Assume that VBB is producing a
certain values of IB and VCC is zero
• Current is flowing only through base
loop and IC is zero
• As VCC increases, VCE increases and
collector currents increases

Applied Physics 142

Collector Characteristic Curves (contd.)
• This region is known as saturation region, IC increases as VCC
increases because VCE remains less then 0.7V
• When VCE exceeds 0.7V, the collector diode becomes reverse
biased and transistor goes into active region or linear region
• Ideally IC remains constant as VCE increases but IC increases very
slightly because of mobility of minority carriers
• When VCE is large enough, the reverse biased collector diode goes
into the breakdown region and IC increases rapidly
• When IB is zero, then transistor is in cutoff region

Applied Physics 143

Collector Characteristic Curves (contd.)

Applied Physics 144

Q Point of BJT
• Q point is also called Quiescent Point of transistor or DC operating
point of transistor
• We have base bias circuit, means a fix base
current is flowing
• If RB has values of 1Mohm then base current
will be 14.3𝜇A and if 𝛽dc has value of 100
then collector current will be equal to
1.43mA and
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝑐
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 15 − 1.43 × 10−3 3 × 103
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 10.7𝑉
Therefore the Q point of the transistor will be (10.7V, 1.43mA)
Applied Physics 145
Graphical Solution
• Q point can also be find out by graphically
• We know that
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝑐
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝐼𝑐 =
𝑅𝑐
• If we plot this equation (Ic versus VCE) we will get a straight line and
that line is called Load Line (if represent the effect of load on
transistor)
• The end of this line can be easily found, first put VCE equal to zero and
then IC equal to zero

Applied Physics 146

Graphical Solution (contd.)
• When VCE equal to zero, we get
15𝑉 − 0
𝐼𝑐 = = 5𝑚𝐴
3𝑘𝛺
• So first end point will be (0V, 5mA)

• When IC equal to zero, we get

15𝑉 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸
0= ⇒ 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 15𝑉
3𝑘𝛺
• And second end point will be (15V, 0Amp)

• By plotting the above points we will get a straight line called Load Line
Applied Physics 147
Graphical Solution (contd.)

Applied Physics 148

Graphical Solution (contd.)

Applied Physics 149

 Load Line and Q point Plotting
• Draw the load line and plot the Q point for the following circuit.

• First of all we will find the end points of the

load line, which are 𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡) = 5𝑚𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶𝐸(𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑓) = 15𝑉

Applied Physics 150

Load Line and Q point Plotting (Contd.)
• Now if we change the value of beta
• If 𝛽𝑑𝑐 = 50 then Ic = 1.5mAmp and VCE = 10.5V
• If 𝛽𝑑𝑐 = 150 then Ic = 4.5mAmp and VCE = 1.5V

Applied Physics 151

Emitter Bias Configuration
• In previous configuration, the Q point was not stable on the load line so
the goal is to make it stable. The solution is Emitter Bias Configuration

• The resistor from Base is shifted to the

Emitter and Emitter voltage can be find

𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸

Applied Physics 152

Emitter Bias Configuration (contd.)
• If we want to find the Q point of the Emitter Bias configuration then

• So the Q point will be (8.8V, 1.95mAmp)

Applied Physics 153

Emitter Bias Configuration (contd.)
• The Q point for the Emitter bias circuit is immune to the changes in
current gain i.e. 𝛽 because there is no 𝛽 involved in the calculation of Q
point:
• Get the Emitter Voltage
• Calculate the Emitter Current
• Find the Collector Voltage
• Subtract the Emitter from the Collector voltage to get VCE
• The current gain has a minor effect on
collector current

Applied Physics 154

Voltage Divider Bias Configuration
• It is most widely used configuration
• At base a voltage divider network, hence called voltage divider bias

Applied Physics 155

Voltage Divider Bias Configuration (contd.)
• Analysis for the Q point can be as follows

Applied Physics 156

Voltage Divider Bias Configuration (contd.)
• Find the Q point for the circuit given

Applied Physics 157