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ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

I. ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
NON- SCIENTIFIC THEORIES
- In India, there is a narrative that gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet, eyes,
and mind became the sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
- Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which narrate that the world arose from an
infinite sea at the first rising of the sun.
- The Kuba People of Central Africa, tell the story of a creator god Mbombo also called Bumba.
- The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim that a supreme being created
the universe, including man and other living organisms.
SCIENTIFIC THEORIES
- STEADY STATE THEORY
Proposed by British scientists Sir Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Sir Fred Hoyle in 1948. It states
that the universe has no beginning and no end.
- #1 EVIDENCE REDSHIFT
Proposed by Edwin Hubble. He observed that the universe is expanding (moving away from a central
point) because of the changes in the galaxies’ wavelength.
PROBLEMS OF THEORY
PROBLEM #1: CMB - In 1960, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a background radio
emission.
PROBLEM #2: QUASAR - Quasar was discovered in 1966. It is a massive black hole powering a
luminous galaxy core.
BIG BANG THEORY
Proposed by Alexander Friedman and Georges Lemaitre in 1920. According to this theory, around
13.7 billions years ago, there was nothing and nowhere. All matter and energy in the universe are
crammed into tiny compact point called singularity and followed by an expansion.
TIMELINE
Big Bang Era 0 to 10-43 s Infinitely Small, Infinitely dense primeval fireball.
SUPER UNIFIED FORCE
Gravitational force - Attraction between bodies.
Electromagnetic force - Binds atom into molecules.
Weak force - Break down an atom’s nucleus and produces radioactive decay.
Strong force - Binds protons and neutrons within atom’s nucleus
Planck Era 10-43 s - Gravity separated; unified forces included strong, electromagnetic, and weak
forces (Grand Unified Theory)
End of GUT Era 10-35 s - Strong force separated; unified forces consisted of electromagnetic and
weak force. Quarks and Leptons formed along with the Antiparticles.
Inflation Era 10-35 to 10-33 s - The size of the universe drastically increased.
End of the Unified Forces Era 10-12 s Split of weak forces and electromagnetic forces occurs.
Heavy Particle Era 10-7 s - Protons and Neutrons continues in production.
Light Particle Era 10-4 s- Electrons and Positrons formed.
Nucleosynthesis Era 100 s- Helium, deuterium other few elements formed.
Recombination Era 380 000 years - Matter and radiation separated. End of radiation domination
Galaxy Formation Era 500 million years- Galaxy formation and other large structures formed in the
universe.
SCIENTIFIC THEORY
COSMIC INFLATION THEORY- Proposed by Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhart, and
Andy Albrecht. It states that a period of exponential expansion of the universe prior to the more gradual
big bang expansion
OSCILLATING THEORY - Proposed by Richard Tolman.
This theory is a combination of a Big Bang Theory and a Big Crunch Theory.
A Big Bang Theory states the universe starts with a singularity of infinitely high density.
On the other hand Big Crunch Theory states that there will come a point that the universe will reach to
its maximum expansion then it will stop and slowly accelerate back to singularity then it will implode.
CYCLIC MODEL
Proposed by Paul Steinhardt and Neil Turok. It states that the universe undergo an endless sequence
of cosmic epochs each beginning with a bang and ending in a crunch.
MULTIVERSE THEORY
Proposed by Andrei Linde, Hugh Everette, and Bryce DeWitt. It is a theory that our universe is not
the only one, but there are many universe exist parallel to each other.
EARTH SUBSYSTEM
Science is knowledge gained through careful observation of objects and events
Objectivity – ability to see and accept facts
Verifiability – based on factual observations
Ethical Neutrality – value neutral knowledge
Systematic Exploration – organized plan
Reliability – reproducible in any circumstance
Precision – requires exact data
Accuracy – truth or correctness of statement
Predictability – attempt to explain and predict
Earth and Life Science is a broad spectrum of Science, that covers life science and physical science.
Advances in technology have allowed scientists to study the Earth in a variety of different ways.
Satellites and space craft allow us to view, photograph and map Earth from Space.
Submersibles and ships allow us to view, photograph and map the ocean floor.
Buoys and other monitoring devices provide us with data related to events such as tsunamis and
earthquakes.
Powerful computer programs called GIS (Geographic Information Systems) help scientists organize,
layer and interpret huge amounts of data in order to study how the Earth changes over time.
THE EARTH SYSTEM
TYPE OF SYSTEMS
A system is any set of interactions set apart from the rest of the universe for the purposes of study,
observation, and measurement
Athmosphere- air
Geosphere- Land and solid earth
Hydrosphere- Water
Crysphere- Ice
Biosphere – Life
Earth’s 4 sphere – Atmosphere, Biosphere, Hydrosphere, Geosphere
Geosphere: comprises the solid Earth and includes both Earth’s surface and the various layers of the
Earth's interior.
Atmosphere: gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth and constitutes the transition between its
and the vacuum of space
Hydrosphere: includes all water on Earth (including surface water and groundwater)
Biosphere: the life zone of the Earth and includes all living organisms, and all organic matter that has not
yet decomposed.
ATMOSPHERE- The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air, which we call the atmosphere.
LAYERS OF ATHMOSPHERE
TROPOSPHERE- This part of the atmosphere is the most dense. Almost all weather is in this region.
Stratosphere starts just above the troposphere, The ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar
ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer.
Mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere, Meteors burn up in this layer
Thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere, Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.
Exosphere is the upper limit of our atmosphere, It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000
km (6,200 mi).

Ionosphere is an abundant layer of electrons and ionized atoms and molecules that stretches from about
48 kilometers (30 miles) above the surface to the edge of space at about 965 km (600 mi), overlapping
into the mesosphere and thermosphere.
The biosphere is the “life zone” of the Earth, and includes all living organisms (including humans), and
all organic matter that has not yet decomposed.
The hydrosphere contains all the water found on our planet.
The geosphere is the solid Earth that includes the continental and ocean crust as well the various layers
of Earth’s interior.
ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS - It was derived from the Latin word “ignis” meaning fire. It is because all rocks
under this classification came from a crystallization of magma, also known as the molten volcanic
materials within or at the Earth’s surface.
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Volcanic rocks (extrusive igneous rocks)- form when magma rises to the top of Earth’s surfaces and
cooling molten materials takes rapidly.
Plutonic rocks (intrusive igneous rocks)- form when magma solidifies beneath the Earth’s surface and
cooling of molten materials takes slowly.
TEXTURE refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains and other constituents.
Rapid Cooling = Small Crystals Slow Cooling = Large Crystals
Color determines the silica content of minerals.
Light-colored = Rich in Silica Materials Dark-colored = Poor in Silica Content.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
It came from the word “sedimentum” meaning settling. It is commonly composed of sediments that forms
into layers.
Classification of sediment rich in silica materials in rocks are based on the identified composition and
process by which it was formed. Three types of these are:
Clastic Chemical Biochemical
Clastic/ Detrital sedimentary rocks originates from weathering and erosion
Chemical sedimentary rock came results from inorganic chemical reactions.
Biochemical sedimentary rocks are made by organisms.
The Three Stages of Formation
A. Generation- a process of physical and chemical breakdown of any rock through weathering to form
sediments.
B. Transportation- erosion happened where sediments moved from its origin to another location through
streams, wind and glaciers.
C. Lithification- refers to the processes by which sediments are transformed into solid sedimentary rocks.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS was related from the word metamorphism which means to transform.
Two kinds of metamorphism:
Burial metamorphism- happens when a rock are buried inside the crust because of certain depositions.
Pressure is the primary factor for this.
Contact metamorphism- occurs when an igneous rocks are heated.
Weathering is a process of breaking rocks into pieces. Erosion is the transportation of small piece from
one place to another. This can happened through water flow, wind or humans. Deposition, on the other
side, is the process where sediments are added to landform or landmass.