“Antenna Fundamentals Chapter 2”

In this chapter mainly focused on antenna fundamentals concepts, feeding

structure and radiation mechanism of the antenna. Also discussed about the design of
microstrip patch antenna with various feeding techniques.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Antenna is a metallic wire or as a metallic structure which is used for either

radiating or extracting the radio signals in free space. In other sense antenna is nothing
but an electronic transducer between the free space the guidance device is given in
Figure.2.1.

Figure.2.1: Antenna radiation mechanism.

2.2. ANTENNA FUNDAMENTAL

In today’s world with technology development people can able to communicate to
long distances within seconds of time. Because of wireless communication world
becomes very small user can able to communicate to any place within no time. Antenna
plays a key role in communication system.

Figure.2.2: person to person communication.

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2.2.1. What is an Antenna?

An Antenna is an electronic device which acts as a transducer, which converts
electrical power into electromagnetic waves in either direction. At different time
instances antenna can be used either for transmitting or receiving applications. Various
types of antennas are shown in Figure.2.3a.

Figure.2.3:a. “Dipole antenna”, b. “Yagi Uda antenna”. c. “Dish antenna”, d. “parabolic reflector antenna”
e. “Rod antenna” f. “Array antenna” g. “Helical antenna” h. “Dipole antenna”.
2.2.2. Need of Antenna
In the field of communication systems, whenever there is a need for wireless
communication that demands antenna usage. The antenna has the ability to send or
receive EM waves for the sake of communication, where you cannot expect to establish a
communication through wire. In remote places it is very difficult to set the path using
wire as shown in Figure.2.4.

Figure.2.4: a Establishment of communication throughout the area, including valleys and mountains
b The antennas help the communication to be established including the valleys and mountains

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From the Figure.2.4, the antennas used to establish communication .This process would
obviously be easier than installing a wiring system in the entire area.
2.3 ANTENNA RADIATION MECHANISM
2.3.1 Radiation mechanism for single wire antenna
Antenna is the metallic structure that allows the movement of charge carriers
inside the structure. Assume that a charge density of “volume charge qv (coulombs / m3)”
is evenly disseminated in a circular cable of “cross-sectional area A” and “volume V”, as
shown in Figure.2.5. “The total charge Q (meters/second)”. Current density Jz (amp/m2)
with volume V moves in the z direction with a “uniform velocity vz (m/s)” in the cross
section of the cable.

Figure.2.5: Charge equally scattered in a cylindrical cable.

(2.1)
Surface current density (amp/m2) of the cylindrical current carrying conductor is

(2.2)
For a thin current carrying conductor current flowing through the wire is

(2.3)
In the above question ql (“coulombs/m”) is nothing but the “charge per unit length”
Among all three current densities present we mainly consider the case of the fine wire
and from equation 2.3
𝑑𝐼𝑧 𝑑𝑣𝑧
= 𝑞𝑙 = 𝑞𝑙 𝑎𝑧 (2.4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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𝑑𝑣𝑧⁄ 2
In the above question 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎𝑧 is nothing but acceleration (m/s ). Now the question
2.4 is modified for a wire of length l can be given as

𝑑𝐼𝑧 𝑑𝑣𝑡
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑞𝑙 = 𝑙𝑞𝑙 𝑎𝑧 (2.5)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

This basic relation between the current and charge in the equation 2.5 serves as a primary
relation of the electromagnetic radiation. It clearly explains that there must be an
acceleration of charge is a variable current in time to create the radiation. In generally a
wire has to be bent, curved discontinues are finished in order to create deceleration in
charge carriers. The wire that is used must be bent, curved, discontinues are finished in
order to create charge velocity variation. The acceleration (or deceleration) of the
periodic charge or the current that varies with time is created while the oscillating load is
in a harmonic movement of time.

Figure.2.6: Half wave dipole antenna current distribution..

1. No radiation is observed if the charge does not move as the current is not created
2. When the charge progress with a speed that is uniform
a. when the wire is infinite there is no radiation.
b. when the wire possess some curves, bents, discontinues, terminations it is
Suppose to emit radiation.
3. The wire emits radiation even the wire is straight because of the charge that is
oscillating in a moment of time.

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Figure.2.7: Wire configuration for radiation.

2.3.2 Radiation mechanism for two wire antenna

A transmission line consists of two conductors excited by using voltage source

due to the voltage excitation between the wire of transmission line can be observed in the
Figure.2.8(a).”This electric field” comprises of “electric lines of force” which is oriented
tangentially to the electric field at each and every point. This phenomenon of the moment
of charge particles develops a current which intend creates a magnetic field strength.

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Figure.2.8: Antenna field detachment from the transmission line

The charge distribution between the two conductors can visualised with the help
of electric field lines. The arrow indicates the relative electric field strength. The
generation of electromagnetic waves that propagate along transmission line is possible
with the creation of varying magnetic and electric fields over time in between the
conductors. These electromagnetic waves enter into the antenna which creates associated
electrical charges and corresponding currents. Because of discontinuity in the structure
free space waves are formed is shown in Figure.2.8 (b). The Figure.2.9 clearly shows the
generation and propagation of free space waves.

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Figure.2.9: Free space wave electric field lines for an antenna” λ / 2 at t = 0, T / 8, T / 4 and 3T / 8”.

2.4 ANTENNA TYPES

Based on their physical construction antennas can be classified into several types
like “wire antennas”, “aperture antennas”, “microstrip antenna”, “array antennas”,
“reflector antennas”,” lens antennas”.
2.4.1 Wire Antenna
The wire antennas are widely in use in varies practically applications like
automobiles, ships, buildings, spacecraft etc many forms of wire antennas are shown in
Figure.2.10. Loop antennas need not be exactly circular but can posses different shapes
like ellipses, rectangle, square, are any other possible configurations. The most simple
and widely used configuration is the circular loop because of its easiness in its design.

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Figure.2.10: Wire antenna configurations

2.4.2 Aperture Antenna

Due to raising demand for antennas at high frequencies Aperture antennas are
gaining a lot of familiarity. A Figure.2.11 show varies aperture antennas. Most of the
spacecrafts and aircrafts applications use these types of antennas since they can be
mounted easily on the surface of any moving terminal.

.
Figure.2.11: Aperture antenna configurations

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2.4.3. Microstrip Antenna

Most of the space applications are utilising microstrip antennas for the past 3
decades. At present these antennas are used for commercial and government applications.
The basic construction of these antennas includes metallic patch placed on substrate and
connected to the ground. Figure.2.12 gives idea about the different configurations that are
possible for a metallic patch design. Figure.2.13 gives some popular patch shapes like the
rectangular, circular patches. Microstrip antennas have low profile, easily compatible flat
surfaces, less expensive to manufacture with modern printed technology. These antennas
are mechanically strong enough when placed on rigged surfaces. These antennas can be
used in missiles auto mobile, aircrafts, satellites and even high performance mobiles
phones.

Figure.2.12: various possible shapes of Microstrip patch antenna

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Figure.2.13: Basic microstrip patch antenna of rectangular and circular shape.

2.4.4 Array Antennas
Single element antennas cannot provide suitable radiation characteristics for
certain applications. More than one element is used for radiation purpose called an array.
The design should be such that the radiation that is emitted by each element should be in
additive manner to give maximum possible radiation in the wanted direction and
minimum in the unwanted direction. Different examples of array antennas are shown in
Figure.2.14.

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Figure.2.14: Typical configurations of antenna arrangements.

2.4.5 Reflector Antennas

To increase the radiation efficiency of the antennas are constructed with reflector.
To transfer the information through longer distances very sophisticated forms of antennas
were used. One of the most common antennas that are widely used is the parabolic
reflector antenna shown in Figure.2.15 (a) and (b). Because of its large dimensions the
gain of the antenna is very high. Another form of reflector which is not that much popular
as parabolic reflector is the corner reflector is shown in Figure.2.15(c).

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Figure.2.15: Configurations of reflector antennas

2.4.6 Lens Antenna

Lens antennas usually collimate the incident divergent energy to avoid the energy
to propagate in the undesired directions. By using a proper geometric configuration and
suitable lens material it is possible for the lens antennas to convert the divergent energy
into flat waves. At lower frequencies lens antennas becomes very large and expensive
numerous models are given in Figure.2.16.

Figure.2.16: Lens antenna configurations

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2.5 PARAMETERS OF ANTENNAS

To illustrate the performance of an antenna, possible with the study of parameter
of antenna. In general significant parameters of the antenna are “Gain”, “Directivity”,
“Return loss”, “VSWR”, “Band width” and “Radiation pattern”.
2.5.1 Gain
Gain is one of the prominent measures that estimate the performance of the antenna.
Whereas directivity describes only about the “directional characteristics of the antenna”.
The gain of the antenna is defined as the” ratio of intensity in given direction to that of
the radiation that would be obtained if power radiated by the antenna isotopically”. The
gain equation of the antenna can be given as

Radiation intensity 𝑈(𝜃,𝜙)

Gain (dB) =4Π Total input accepted power = 4Π (2.6)
𝑃𝑖𝑛

2.5.2 Directivity
“Directivity of the antenna is termed as the ratio of the power radiated in the
desired direction to the intensity that is averages over all the other directions”.

Maximum radiation intensity of subject antenna

Directivity = Radiation intensity of an isotropicantenna

Φ(θ, Φ)max (from subject antenna)

D=
Φ0 (from an isotropic antenna)

U 4𝜋𝑈
D= =𝑃 (2.7)
U0 𝑟𝑎𝑑

For Undefined radiation direction the directivity is defined as

𝑈|𝑚𝑎𝑥 4πUmax
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷0 = = (2.8)
𝑈0 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑

Where “D=Directivity (dimensionless)”

D0= “Maximum directivity (dimensionless)”
U=”Radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)”
Umax=”Maximum radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)”

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U0= “Radiation intensity of isotropic source (W/unit solid angle)”

Prad =”Total radiated power (W)”
Directivity is a dimensionless quantity; it is usually expressed in dBi.
2.5.3 Return loss
Return Loss, also known as reflective loss, is a parameter used to estimate the
reflected from antenna to source due to impedance mismatch.

“Return Loss = Reflected power/ Incident power”

𝑃𝑟
𝑅𝐿(𝑑𝐵) = 10log10 (2.9)
𝑃𝑖

Pi- incident power

Pr-“Reflected power back towards the source due to impedance mismatch.”
RL- Loss due to reflection in dB.
Amount of mismatch is low in a particular case amount of power reflected back is very
low and return loss is also very less.

Figure.2.17: Return loss curve

2.5.4 VSWR
“Voltage Standing Wave Ratio is the ratio of Vmax to Vmin”. Standing waves
are formed inside the structure due to the existence of incident and reflected waves. If the
reflection coefficient is given by Γ,

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1+|Γ|
VSWR = 1−|Γ| (2.10)
Vreflected Z−Z
Γ= = Z+Z0 (2.11)
Vincident 0

Where “Vincident is the incident voltage, Vreflected is the reflected voltage”. “Where
Z is the load impedance of the system”, the value Z usually contains real and reactive
components. “Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the measurement system”.

Figure.2.18: Voltage Measured Along a Transmission Line.

2.5.5 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is “range of frequencies over which antenna can maintain a
satisfactory performance”. Operating band width of the antenna can be estimated from
the return loss curve of the antenna.”Impedance bandwidth of antenna is the range of
frequencies over which the reflection value is less than -10dB” is given in Figure.2.19

Figure.2.19: Impedance Bandwidth Measurement

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2.5.6 Radiation pattern

“Is the graphical representation of radiation property of the antenna, is function of
the spatial coordinates (θ,Φ) at a fixed point r”.
𝑷 𝑷
S=𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 (2.12)

P- The total power radiated

R- Radius of the sphere
Ui- The radiation intensity
𝑃
Ui=r2S=4𝜋 (2.13)

In general practical antennas are “directional antennas, which radiates more power in
some directions and less power in other directions” shown in Figure.2.20.

Figure.2.20: Radiation pattern of a directional antenna

From Figure.2.20

 HPBW: “The half power beam width (HPBW) is the angular separation between
the two half power points in the major lobe direction”.
 Main Lobe: “Lobe in the desired direction with maximum radiation”.
 Minor Lobe: “All the lobes exist in the undesired direction are called minor
lobes”.
 Back Lobe: “This is the minor lobe exactly 1800 out of phase with main lobe”.

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 Side Lobes: “These are the minor lobes adjacent to the main lobe and are isolated
by different nulls. Side lobes are commonly the biggest among the minor lobes”.
In practical antenna design always try to decrease the side lobe level of the antenna.

2.6 MICRO STRIP PATCH ANTENNA

2.6.1 Introduction
The microstrip antennas are low profile high gain antennas. These antennas are
suitable for planers or forming surfaces. The developments of these antennas are simple
and economical. These antennas have applications in aircraft, satellites, spacecraft and
missiles. They are also used in wireless applications in commercial and government
sectors.

2.6.2 Basic Features of Microstrip Antennas

Microstrip antennas attracted electromagnetic engineers in the 1970s. The basic
configuration of the antenna includes three parts of patch, substrate and ground planes.
Patch is the conductive surface that assumes the responsibility of radiating energy into
space with the help of two other elements. In general, the length L of the patch is “λo/3 <
L < λo/2”. These antennas are normally designed for broad side radiation (Normal to the
surface of the radiating element). The end fire radiation can also be obtained by selecting
the appropriate mode. Typical schematic of the microstrip is shown in Figure.2.21.

(a) Microstrip antenna

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(b) Side view of the antenna

Figure.2.21: Structure of Microstrip patch antenna
Several substrates are available to design patch antennas. Generally, the dielectric
constants of the substrate materials vary as, 2.2 ≤ €r ≤ 12. The performance of the
designed patch antenna depends on the thickness of the substrate material. In general,
micro-strip antennas can provide high gain, high efficiency and a weakly delimited field
to radiate into space at low dielectric constant. Bandwidth of Micro Strip patch antennas
is generally low. A typical patch antenna structure is shown in Figure.2.12.

2.7 FEEDING TECHNIQUES

Micro Strip patch antennas can be powered by a variety of systems. Feeding network
can be designed in two ways one is contact method and second is non contact method. In
first method feeding can be done by directly connecting source and antenna and in later
one coupling is through electromagnetic coupling.
2.7.1 Microstrip Line Feeding:

A conductive strip is directly related to the edge of the patch. The front strip has a
smaller width with respect to patch dimension is shown in Figure.2.22

Figure.2.22: Line Feeding For Patch Antenna.

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2.7.2 Coaxial Probe Feeding

Coaxial feeding a particularly common technique used to excite the micro strip
patch antenna. Coaxial feeding technique is physically strong and can with stand for
longer time. Typical coaxial feeding structure is shown in Figure.2.23.

Figure.2.23: Coaxial probe feeding.

2.7.3 Coupling through Aperture

In this feeding method, the emanating patch and the small micro strip line are
limited to the ground surface. “The coupling between the patch and the ground plane is
done through a space or an opening in the ground plane” is shown in Figure.2.24. Because
of placing multilayer thickness of the antenna increases and also it provides narrow
bandwidth.

Figure.2.24: Aperture Coupled Feeding.

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2.7.4 Proximity Coupled Feeding

This is also known as “electromagnetic coupling method”. The two dielectric

substrates are used and the transmitter patch is the extreme upper patch is shown in
Figure.2.25. Main advantage of this feeding technique is to reduce the spurious radiation.

Figure.2.25: Proximity Coupled Feeding.

2.7.5 Coplanar wave guide (CPW) feeding

The CPW is a planar electrical transmission line used to transmit “microwave
frequency signals”. The conventional coplanar is shown in Figure.2.26.

Figure.2.26: Coplanar waveguide feeding.

2.8 ARRAY ANTENNA

2.8.1 Introduction
The radiation characteristic of the single-element antenna is relatively low. To meet
the requirements of long-distance communication, high gain and directive radiation
characteristics are needed. If the electrical size of the antenna increases, beam becomes

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narrow and side lobes become larger, so the directivity of the antenna is limited.
Generally, “N-number of identical elements” used to make an array considers that each
element has the same current. “The total field of an array is given by the vector sum of
the fields of individual elements of the array”.

2.8.2 Concept of array antenna

Antenna array is set of N identical elements. N may vary from two to thousand. The
total electric field irradiated (without coupling between elements) is equal to the sum of
the fields of the individual elements. The field in the far zone of a uniform array can be
expressed as the field of a single element multiplied by a factor called the array factor.

E (total) = [E (single element at reference point)] X [array factor]

Figure.2.27: Array antenna

2.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In this chapter, the emphasis is on the investigation of the theoretical back ground
of different parameters of UWB antennas. Discussed about various types of antennas and
significant of various parameters of the antennas. Also discussed about feeding method of
antennas and methods to follow for improving efficiency of the antenna. Finally
discussed about parameters like “return loss, VSWR, gain, bandwidth, directivity and
radiation pattern” of UWB antenna.

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