Enzymes (2.

5)

Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the cell.

A special region on the enzyme, called the active site, has a shape that fits with specific
substrate molecules.

An enzyme works by binding to one or more specific molecules called reactants or

substrates. Binding occurs at the active site.
The enzyme and substrates form an enzyme-substrate complex. The interactions between
the substrates and the enzyme stress or weaken some of the chemical bonds in the
substrates.

The stresses encourage a link between the two substrates leading to the formation of a
different molecule.
As a result, of the chemical interactions within the active site, a new product is formed. The
product is released from the active site, and the enzyme assumes its original shape and is
free to work again.

Although this reaction has specifically illustrated the formation of a single product from two
substrate molecules, other enzymes catalyse the formation of two products from a single
substrate.

ENZYME RECAP:
What are enzymes? What do they do?

Enzymes are proteins which speed up the rate of reactions such as in photosynthesis,
respiration and protein synthesis. Enzymes are known as biological catalysts because they
lower the activation energy of the reaction, hence speeding it up. Unchanged at end of the
reaction, and can be reused.

Collision
theory
states:
- Co
llisi
on

must occur with sufficient energy and specific orientation

Substrate and active site fit together using a lock and key method, to form an enzyme-
substrate complex, then react to create the required product.

Examples:
Protease which breaks down proteins into amino acids
Amylase which breaks down starch into maltose, then maltase breaks down maltose into
glucose.
Lipase which breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerols

Optimum conditions

1) Enzymes also have optimum pH and temperature conditions.

- Up to a point, increased temperate causes increase rates of reactions, because
there is more heat energy. More heat energy means there are more collisions.
However, above a certain temperate the rate of reaction drops due to denaturation.

-> optimum temperature: 37 C

-> optimum pH - varies by enzyme depending on site of action.
6 key symptoms of lactose intolerance:

1) Abdominal Pain and Cramps

2) Bloating
3) Nausea
4) Diarrhoea and strong-smelling stool
5) Gas
6) The quick onset of symptoms

How to produce lactose free food:

Lactose —----------------------------> galactose and glucose (using lactase enzyme)
Lactose-free food is sweeter

Enzyme catalysis and collision theory

• The coming together of a substrate molecule and an active site is known as a collision

• Most enzyme reactions occur when the substrates are dissolved in water

• Collisions are the result of the random movements of both substrate and enzyme

• The substrate may be at any angle to the active site when the collision occurs

• Successful collisions are ones in which the substrate and active site happen to be
correctly aligned to allow binding to take place

Denaturation of proteins

The 3D conformation of proteins is stabilized by bonds between R groups of amino acids

within the molecule. When these bonds are broken, this results in a change to the
confirmation of the protein, which is called denaturation.

Heat can cause denaturation: vibrations within the molecule breaks intramolecular bonds or
interactions

Extremes of pH can cause denaturation: charged on R groups are changed, breaking ionic
bonds within the protein or causing new ionic bonds to form.

—---------------

Effect of temperature on enzyme activity graph

Enzymes - key points

● Large globular proteins - tertiary structure

● Biological catalysts - catalyze (speed up) reactions

● For a reaction to occur they must ‘collide’ in the correct orientation and have
sufficient energy (activation energy) to actually work.

● They work best at their ‘optimum’ pH and temperature. This is when the rate of
reaction is quickest or the enzyme activity is highest.

● The rate of reaction/activity of the enzyme is increased by increasing the

concentration of substrate.

● Enzymes are unchanged / remain unused once the reaction is complete.

Digestion (6.1)
Important:

Muscles and peristalsis

Peristalsis is the muscular movement to push food along the digestive tract. It involves
longitudinal and circular muscles

Small intestine structure

The small intestine is composed of four main tissue layers, which are (from outside to
centre):

■ Serosa – a protective outer covering composed of a layer of cells reinforced by

fibrous connective tissue
■ Muscle layer – outer layer of longitudinal muscle and inner layer of circular muscle
■ Submucosa – composed of connective tissue separating the muscle layer from the
inner mucosa
■ Mucosa – a highly folded inner layer which absorbs material through its surface
epithelium from the intestinal lumen
Human digestive enzymes

*IMPORTANT to remember=enzymes are specific to their substrates and each enzyme has
its own optimum pH.
The 3 main types of enzymes in human digestion:

Adaptations to
Absorption
The villi structure (know how to draw)