• The functions of our biological cell membrane.

• Cell membrane: 75% phospholipids, the fluidity of the membrane is

attributed to the presence phospholipids, but the specific functions is
attributed to the different type of integral protein.

Passive Processes

• Energy is not expended/required for the transport of substances across the

membrane.
• The transport of substances do not need energy because the substances
naturally diffuse down their concentration gradient. Area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
• Substances utilizes kinetic energy/pressure/gravity
• No ATP is needed
• Transports substances according to the concentration gradient

Active Processes

• Require the utilization of energy from ATP, because the movement of

molecules is from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration
• Transports substances against the concentration gradient
 PASSIVE PROCESSES

1. Diffusion/Simple Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated Diffusion
4. Filtration

SIMPLE DIFFUSION
• “The most passive of passive transport”
• Small, non-charged, non-polar molecules (e.g. CO2, O2), would have the
easiest time to diffusing through the cellular membrane;
• They’re small enough to get through the little gaps between the hydrophilic
heads, and since they have no charge nor polarity, they’re going to be fairly
indifferent as they pass through.
• Water molecules are small enough to pass through the gaps but they have
some polarity, so they’re not going to be able to get through super easily, but
they will be able to sip through.
• Charged particles (ions like Na+ and K+), even though they’re fairly small,
they’re going to interact a lot with the phosphate heads -> will make it hard
for them to penetrate through the membrane.
 • Substances move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration, and there would be net movement of molecules, as long as
concentration gradient exists.
• Concentration Gradient – there is a difference in the concentration
• The movement if driven by the kinetic energy of the molecules
• Both the water and dye molecules diffuse and scatter and mix together until
equilibrium of molecules is attained
• At equilibrium, the molecules would still be moving, but they will be at the
same rate.

Selective Permeability

➢ the membrane may or may not be permeable to different types of

molecules.
• Size of the molecules aids passive transport; smaller molecules can get pass
the hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
• Diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane
• Small, no charge molecules can diffuse quite well across a semi-permeable
membrane; CO2, O2 (molecular oxygen) -> They can be obstructed by the
structure and molecules in the cellular membrane. But they will still get
through.
 • Substances that will have a hard time passing through a cellular membrane:
Na+, K+ (charged ions) -> They might be attracted to the hydrophilic heads
that have some charge, the hydrophobic tails is not interesting for them.
• Water molecule is small enough and its charge is not strong enough for it to
not pass through a cellular membrane.
• Hydrophilic heads are “water-loving” so its only natural for them to attract
water molecules, however, water molecules are small enough and their
charge is not strong enough which is why they can cross the barrier.
• Water is a small molecule with little charge and has some polarity
• Large and bulky molecules would have a hard time passing through the gaps
because of their size, not to mention that some of its parts may be
hydrophobic or hydrophilic.

Diffusion in Biological Systems

Substances that can readily diffuse across the membrane:

➢ gases (O2, C02, N2)

➢ Steroids –> they are small have the same nature as the phospholipid bilayer,
which makes it easier for them to diffuse across the membrane
➢ Vitamins (A, D, E, K) -> Fat-soluble vitamins; have the same nature as
phospholipid bilayer
➢ Urea
➢ Glycerol -> has the same nature as phospholipid bilayer
➢ Small alcohols
➢ Ammonia
➢ H2O -> phosphate heads love water, they are “water-loving”
➢ Ions/salts: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl. HCO3- -> utilizes channels/pores (proteins acting
as channels/pores)

Factors that hinder diffusion across a membrane:

➢ Size – large molecules cannot diffuse across a membrane

➢ Having a different charge compared to the cell membrane
 ➢ Having a different chemical composition

OSMOSIS

• A type of simple diffusion

• Movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of
higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration.
• There is low probability of water molecules in an area with more solute to
move away, this is because the large molecules (solutes) can block the way to
 the semi-permeable membrane and bounce off the water particles; or, the
solute that’s being dissolved in water has some charge associated with it.
• The factor that affects the rate and direction of flow is the concentration
gradient

Semi-Permeable Membrane

➢ Allows some things to through and not other things.

➢ Allows water molecules to pass
➢ Does not allow solutes to diffuse through
➢ Particles have different velocities; in isotonic solution, they have the same
rate

• More water will be moving from A to B at a very fast rate

• The level of solution/volume in B increases
• Stops once equilibrium of is reached.

Example: Regular table salt has Sodium ions (Na+) and Chloride ions (Cl-). Because
these particles are ionic, they have charge, and water has partial charges, they
might stick to more of the water, and the waters that stick to them are not going
to be able to move through the membrane; Water molecules have oxygen with a
partially negative charge, and 2 hydrogens with a partially positive charge. The
oxygen away from the hydrogens, is going to be attracted to the sodium
molecule. The partially charged hydrogen ends of water molecules are going to
be attracted to the chloride ion.
 ➢ This is why the water molecules has a higher probability of moving from the
area with low solute concentration than from an area with high solute
concentration.
• A net migration of the water molecules from a solution that has a low solute
concentration to one that has a higher solute concentration (hypotonic ->
hypertonic)

TONICITY

• Plant Cells: the hypertonic solution is detrimental for these cells as they may
cause plant cells to wilt, leading to cell death.
➢ Are protected by cell walls
• Animal Cells: both hypotonic and hypertonic solution are detrimental to
animal cells. The hypertonic solution will cause the cell to wilt and die. The
hypotonic solution on the other hand may cause the cells to burst, also
leading to its death.
➢ Are only protected by a cell membrane
The Effects of Different Tonic Solutions on Animal Cells (RBCs)

ISOTONIC SOLUTION

Normal Saline Solution: 0.9% NaCl

Inside the Cell: 99.1% Water, 0.9% NaCl

Outside the Cell: 99.1% Water, 0.9% NaCl

• Animal cells are bathed in NaCl solution (exhibits when we sweat/cry, they
are salty; the fish and meat are naturally salty)
• The movement of water is at the same rate
• No net movement of water
• Important in animal cells so it can survive and maintain its shape

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION

Distilled Water -> strongly hypotonic solution with 100% water with no solute

Inside the Cell: 0.9% NaCl and 99.1% Water

• More water molecule will be going in than out

• The animal cell will swell and possibly explode/burst and all the cytoplasmic
contents will go out.
• Hemolysis – destruction of red blood cells
• Ghost Cells - the cell is not really bursting since the membranes have
openings, the contents will just go out leaving the cell membrane
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION

Outside the Cell: 1.5% NaCl and 98.5% Water

Inside the Cell: 0.9% NaCl and 99.1% Water

• More water molecules will be going out than in

• Causes the cell to shrink because of dehydration
• Crenation – happens in animal cells when it shrink/dehydrates
Hypotonic Solution

• Lower solute concentration than the inside of the cell.

• Water molecules will move from the outside to the inside of the cell.
• The water molecules on the inside are less likely to move out because they
are obstructed by the larger molecules (solutes)
• There is net inflow or water molecules
• Relative concentration of solute that can’t get through some type of
membrane
• “Hypo” = less of something; contains lesser amount of solute
• The water molecule that moved in the cell might put pressure (turgor
pressure) on the cell walls and might cause: turgidity (in plant cells), and cell
explosion (in animal cells).

Isotonic Solution

• Roughly equal concentration of solute outside and to the inside of the cell.
• The probability of water molecules to go outside to the inside or inside to the
outside is the same
• There is no net flow (inflow or outflow)
• There’s always going to be water molecules going back and fourth, but they
will all have the same rate
• “Iso” = things that are the same; same concentration of solute and solvent
(water)

Hypertonic Solution

• Higher concentration of solute on the outside than on the inside

• “Hyper” = having more of something (more solute)
• The probability of water molecules moving from the inside to the outside is
more compared to water molecules going from the outside to the inside.
• There is net outflow
• The movement of water molecules out of the cell may cause it to shrivel up
(shrink) since it causes the cell to lose pressure exerted to its cell
wall/membrane
FACILITATED DIFFUSION

• The movement of molecules is aided/mediated/facilitated by a membrane

protein acting as a transporter or carrier, not as a channel or a pore.
• Transporter/Carrier – before is can transport a substance, it has to change its
shape
• Permease - Allows glucose to enter the body cells
CHANNEL-MEDITATED FACILITATED DIFFUSION

• Makes it easier for molecules to diffuse through a cellular membrane,

particularly those large molecules, water molecules, and ions without passing
through the hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
• Happens through channel proteins
• Aquaporin – channel protein for water
• Channel proteins can opened, closed, or gated depending on different
conditions that are in different parts of the cell

CARRIER-MEDIATED FACILITATED DIFFUSION

• Type of facilitated diffusion that can occur through carrier proteins

• The molecules can potentially get attached to a compartment in carrier
proteins, and then that would trigger the carrier protein to change its shape
for the molecules to get in the cell.
• The carrier protein is initially opened towards the outside of the cell, the
molecules will get attached and get into a compartment, then the carrier
protein will change it shape so that it is opened towards the inside of the cell,
helping the molecules get in.
FILTRATION

• There is net movement of substances as long as there is pressure

• Pressure Gradient drives the net movement of substances across a membrane

Kidneys – major filtration sites

• The blood enters the efferent arteriole, and because of high pressure of
blood, that pressure gradient (there is high pressure in the capillary, and low
pressure in bowman’s space), smaller substances like water, ions, sodium
ions, hydrogen ions, urea, bicarbonate ions, etc., can actually pass through
the filtration slits, while the blood remains inside the structure.
• After passing through the network and filtration, blood exits the kidney via
the efferent arteriole.
 ACTIVE PROCESSES

• Takes energy (ATP) for

this to happen
• Transports things
against its concentration
gradient, which in turn
requires energy

PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT (SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP)

• Normal Case: There is a higher concentration of sodium ion in the outside of

the cell than the inside, and there is a higher concentration of potassium ion
on the onside than the outside of the cell.
• Since there is a concentration gradient, some of the Na+ will leap into the cell
and some of the K+ will leap out of the cell
• Na+/K+ Pump - maintains the normal concentration of sodium outside the
cell and the potassium inside the cell
• This is an example of a carrier/transporter protein because it utilizes energy
in order to pump and return sodium ions outside.
• As it pumps sodium ions outside, it also pumps potassium ions inside.
• Works really hard continuously pump in order to keep sodium ions out and
potassium ions in, and maintains the normal concentration of sodium ions
outside the cell and the concentration of potassium ions inside of the cell.
• For it to pump substances, energy in the form of ATP is expended.
• Called a “primary active transport” because it directly uses energy in the
transport of substances

1. The 3 sodium ions attach to the surface of the transporter protein

2. The binding of the sodium ions causes the splitting of ATP into ADP and a
high energy phosphate which now attaches itself to the protein
3. As the protein changes its shape, the energy is now utilized by the
transport/pump protein to pump the 3 sodium ions outside.
4. The confirmation of the transport/pump protein is now necessary for the
binding of potassium ions. The change in shape allows for the binding of 2 K+
5. The 2 potassium ions bind to the binding site, and this binding causes the
release of phosphate.
6. If the phosphate is released, no energy is available for the transport protein
and the transport protein returns to its original confirmation (shape),
pumping the 2 potassium ions inside the cell.
• Pumps sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+), but does it in different directions
• Transmembrane – protein complex; in its resting state, it is open to the inside
of the cell and has an affinity (natural liking) for sodium ions.
• The sodium ions bind to the pump, then its going to be phosphorylated by an
ATP, it’s a release of energy and it allows the confirmation of the actual
protein to change; the new confirmation of the protein is it’s going to open
to the outside, close off to the inside, and now it’s not going to have an
affinity for sodium ions, but an affinity for potassium ions.
• After the change of confirmation, the sodium ions are going to be released
outside of the cell; the potassium ions are then going to bind from the
outside, change of confirmation happens; it’s going to get dephosphorylated
and goes back to the original confirmation where there’s no longer an affinity
for potassium ions and they’re going to be released, and goes back in the
original phase.
• Because of ATP (energy), we’re able to pump 3 sodium ions out, and in the
process, we pump 2 potassium ions in.
• ^this makes the outside more positive than the inside, however it isn’t fully
responsible, it’s only partially responsible for the electric potential difference
between the inside of the membrane and the outside of the membrane;
• We have channel proteins that allow potassium ions to diffuse down their
concentration gradient.
• Sodium’s Concentration Gradient: because of the sodium-potassium pump,
we have a higher sodium concentration on the outside and it has a lower
concentration on the inside.
• Potassium’s Concentration Gradient: potassium is getting pumped from the
outside into the cell, it has a high concentration inside, and a low
concentration outside
• The inside of the cell is going to be less positive, and the outside of the cell is
going to be more positive.
• The concentration gradient allows potassium ions to pour out, but the
concentrations of potassium ions aren’t going to fully equalize because of the
electric potential difference
• Helps the cell establish its Resting Membrane Potential; it does so by actively
pumping three sodium ions out for every two potassium ions it pumps in,
having a ratio of 3:2, but this itself doesn’t establish the full resting
membrane potential, but then, the potassium ions are allowed to start
diffusing down their concentration gradient from the inside back to the
outside, the balancing force/factor is the charge, because if the outside is
more positive than the inside, a positively-charged ion, which the potassium
ions are, they’re not going to want to go outside because of their charge, it’s
more positive outside than the inside, they’d actually want to go back, but
their concentration gradient, they’re going to be bumping into the
 bottom (inside), more than the top (outside), and so there’s going to be a
balance. They’re going to start diffusing through, but you’re not going to
have equal concentrations, because the charge is going to keep them back
inside.
• The sodium ions is more concentrated outside, and outside is getting more
and more positive, if the sodium ions were left to their own devices, if there
was no membrane, they would naturally want to diffuse down their
concentration gradient (outside to inside), and since we have a positive
potential difference between the outside and the inside, so the positively-
charged ions, like the sodiums outside, would want to go in because of their
charge.
• Discovered in the 1950’s; the 1997 Nobel Prize was awarded for the
discovery of sodium-potassium pump and how it works
ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT & SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• The combined combination of sodium ions to go down their concentration

gradient and to a less positive area (outside to inside) is called the
electrochemical gradient; it is the combination of the electric gradient (if it’s
more positive on the outside than the inside, the positive ions would want to
go in) and the chemical gradient (if you have a higher concentration outside
and lower inside, you would want to diffuse down, and more things are going
to bump on the outside area of the membrane than the inside area of the
membrane; so there’s going to be a net flow down if we have no membrane)
• Electrochemical Gradient is the source of potential energy, cells use this
gradient, the sodium electrochemical gradient as a source of energy.
• Symporter Protein uses the electrochemical gradient of one ion, in this case
sodium (the fact that the sodium wants to go through the membrane), and it
uses that energy (like a water falling down a waterfall and it can turn on a
water mill). It uses that energy of the sodium flowing down its
electrochemical gradient to transport other things.
• Glucose is the most famous transporter with sodium. The sodium and the
glucose is going to go together, and the glucose is going to get transported
against its concentration gradient. (there is a high glucose concentration on
the inside and a low glucose concentration on the outside)
Secondary Active Transport
• A type of active transport where you’re using the energy that was stored up
through another form of active transport, the sodium-potassium pump.
• Sodium-Glucose Symporter uses the energy from the electrochemical
gradient of one molecule (stored energy) to drive the active transport of
another molecule, glucose, going against its concentration gradient

• When sodium ions diffuse into the cell, it can take with it another
compound/sodium ions.
• Potential Energy is present inside the water molecules
• The kinetic-potential energy is generated by the primary active transport
• The ATP is directly utilized by the primary active transport to generate a
sodium gradient with potential energy
• Energy from ATP is indirectly used in the transport of substances, indirectly,
because the energy from ATP is converted to a potential energy that is found
in the sodium ions
• The potential energy is converted to kinetic energy in the transport of
molecules across the membrane.
SYMPORT/COTRANSPORTER Secondary Active Transport

• When sodium ions utilizes transporter proteins, and the sodium ions are
bounded in the protein, the kinetic energy is utilized and allows the transport
of other substance in the same direction.
• Transports glucose into the cell

ANTIPORT/COUNTERTRANSPORTER Secondary Active Transport

• As sodium ions move into the cell, other molecules move out of the cell
(opposite).
• Example are H+ and Ca2+ moving across the cell membrane
VESICLE TRANSPORT/BULK TRANSPORT

• Allows the transport of larger molecules through the membrane

• “maramihan ang paggalaw”, “malalaki”

ENDOCYTOSIS

• The process where the cell membrane wraps around a substance (solid or
fluid form) and pinches of for that substance to be a part of the cell until it is
processed/digested by lysosomes.
• Substances enter the cell
• Encloses the material and forms a sac to bring the content into the cell’s
interior
Phagocytosis

• Process of engulfing larger things

• “Phago” = to eat (Greek)
• Cell eating
• Some of our body cells specially white blood cells are phagocytes, they eat a
lot of substances in order to protect us
• Food Vacuole is the membrane-bound compartment where the (large
substance) engulfed material of the cell is being stored (temporarily) until it is
processed or digested by lysosomes

1. When a phagocytes encounter a bacteria, there will be an outward folding of

the membrane (shows that the cell is aggressive),
2. Then forming Pseudopods, it will enclose the engulfed material forming a
phagosome
3. Phagosome is a transient or temporary inclusion of the cell that contains the
engulfed, usually solid particle
4. The phagosome fuses with the lysosome which contains as much as 40
digestive enzymes
 5. The lysosomes degrade/digest the particle -> intracellular digestion

Pinocytosis

• “Phino” = to drink
• “cell drinking”
• Vesicle a general term for membrane-bound compartments inside of cells
that contains the fluid substance that was engulfed by the cell
• The cell is drinking and also getting the other stuff that’s in that fluid
• The substances that are up took by the cell is said to be fluid in nature
• some of the body cells are phagocytes, and most of it are pinocytes
• passive because the cell waits for the fluid to enter

1. The membrane folds inward

2. It waits for the fluid to somehow enter into a pocket
3. After some time, the phospholipid bilayer will fuse forming a pinocytic vesicle
or a pinosome
4. The fluid can be utilized by the cell
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

• An endocytosis in which the entrance of particles is aided by a protein acting

as a receptor
• The uptake or the entrance or the movement of substances into the cell is
aided/facilitated by a protein acting as a receptor.

1. Initially, the membrane is straight, placed with a receptor

2. When a ligand (general term for a substance received by a receptor), which
can be a bacterium (usually solid like in phagocytosis), binds to a receptor,
there is an inward folding of the membrane (like in pinocytosis)
3. The folding forms endocytic vesicles or endosomes
4. The smaller endosomes will then merge forming a larger endosome because
the membrane is phospholipid in nature
 5. The ligand and the receptor separates
6. The part of the endosome containing the receptor will now undergo
exocytosis to recycle the receptor going back to the membrane
7. The part of the endosome containing the particle fuses with the lysosome
and the ligand will now be degraded

EXOCYTOSIS

• Allows the cell to release its products (hormones, enzymes, proteins to be

utilized by the body)
• The sac moves through the membrane, fuses with it then releases the
content

1. The secretory vesicle moves from the golgi complex

2. Fuses the cell membrane
3. Releases the content out of the cell
• Allows the cell to release larger molecules that might be used by the rest of
the body, other cells, or it could be a part of the extracellular matrix.
• Reverse of endocytosis
• Produces a protein in the endoplasmic reticulum, bud off in their own little
vesicles, which then merge with the golgi apparatus where they are further
processed. Eventually, they will bud off the golgi apparatus in new vesicles,
and those vesicles are going to make their way over to the cell’s outer
membrane, the plasma membrane, and the membrane of the vesicles are
going to merge with the membrane of the cell, and in doing so, they’re going
to release their contents -> Classic Exocytosis
• “Kiss and run method” - Merges partially, releases the contents, and then
buds back
• The vesicles can actually ride on certain structures of the cytoskeleton (e.g.
microtubules filaments), and you can actually have motor proteins that are
using ATP to actively push the vesicle containing its contents, so it’s really like
a transportation/factory to push them towards the membrane so they can be
released.