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► A research design is a framework or blueprint for
Research Design conducting the business research project. It details
the procedures necessary for obtaining the
information needed to structure or solve business
research problems.
► Although a broad approach to the problem has
by
already been developed, the research design
Dr. Anoop Kumar Gupta specifies the details—the practical aspects—of
implementation of the approach.
MAIT ► A research design lays the foundation for
1 conducting the project. 2
1. Define the information needed ► In formulating a research design, the researcher has
2. Design the exploratory, descriptive, and/or to balance the perspectives of business decision‐
causal (experimental) phases of the research makers and target respondents.
► Research design involves the researchers developing
3. Specify the measurement and scaling
an understanding of
procedures
1. Type of data decision‐makers have confidence in
4. Construct and pretest a questionnaire 2. Understanding of how respondents may respond to
(interviewing form) or an appropriate form for different techniques.
data collection ► This involves understanding research design from the
5. Specify the sampling process and sample size decision‐makers’ perspective;
6. Develop a plan of data analysis ► And understanding the respondents’ perspective.
3 4
Research design from the decision- Research design from the decision-
makers’ perspective makers’ perspective
Business decision‐makers seek support from business
researchers that is of practical relevance to the decisions they ►Current, i.e. as up to date as possible. This is
face. To give practical support, decision‐makers expect particularly important where consumer
information that is:
attitudes, lifestyle or behaviour change
► Accurate
rapidly, perhaps due to rapid technology
► the most valid representation of the phenomena under
investigation, changes or new product offerings in a highly
► that has come from the most reliable or consistent form of competitive market.
measurement or understanding,
► Sufficient, i.e. the completeness or clarity of a
► that is sufficiently sensitive to the important differences in
individuals being measured or understood. ‘picture’ that reflects the characteristics of the
► Combining these three criteria refers to the degree to business problem the decision‐makers face.
which information may be deemed as ‘accurate’. 5 6
►A subject of study may be complex and
need time for respondents to reflect upon
and put words to the questions posed. Responses
to
►Certain methods are more likely to build interviewing
up a rapport and trust, in these
circumstances putting the respondents in
the right frame of mind, and getting them
to respond in a full and honest manner.
2-10
9
• Conventional questionnaires
e.g. telephone
surveys If the decision-maker wants to know-
Communicable
ended questions to
allow probing
e.g. face-to-face
►After death experiences
surveys
unstructured
interviews on an
individual or group almost impossible to know
Non-communicable
basis
interviews and
observations
2-11 12
Research design from the Research design from the
respondents’ perspective respondents’ perspective
► In Figure, the box under the heading ‘Layers of ► For example, if questions were posed on which
response from respondents’ represents how newspapers someone reads, it is a reasonable
respondents may react to questions posed to them. assumption that respondents are aware of the
► In the FIRST LAYER of ‘Spontaneous, Reasoned, title(s), the title(s) can be communicated and the
Conventional’ are questions that respondents can topic is not a sensitive issue.
express a view about quickly, and that are simple for ► In these circumstances, where answers to
them to reflect upon, relating to common everyday questions on reading habits are relatively easy to
occurrences that are at the forefront of their minds. access and respond to, highly structured
► In such circumstances, simple structured questioning questionnaires are appropriate.
in a standardised manner is possible.
13 14
personal and more sensitive. respondents to be creative.
► For example, if respondents were to be asked about their
► A great amount of business‐to‐business research
attitudes and behavior towards eating Ice‐cream, this
can be added to these in terms of commercially
could be done in a very structured manner. Questions
sensitive information. could be set to determine when it was eaten, favorite
► An amount of rapport may be needed to induce flavors and brands, where it was bought, how much was
respondents to trust the interviewer and reveal spent, etc.
their ‘more personal’ attitudes and behaviour. ► The same can be said of alcohol consumption, though
this could well be a sensitive issue for many respondents.
► Now imagine a new product idea that mixes Ice‐cream
15 and alcohol. 16
Research design from the Research design from the
respondents’ perspective respondents’ perspective
► What combinations of alcohol and ice‐cream would ►Answering these questions demands a
work?
great amount of creativity and imagination.
► What types of consumer would be attracted to
them? ►It demands that respondents reflect upon
► Should any fruits be added? ideas, can play with ideas and words and dig
► How would the product be packaged?
deep to draw out ideas in a relaxed manner.
► What name would best suit it? ►Structured questionnaires cannot do this;
► What price level would it sell at? such a scenario would work best with the
► On what occasions would it be consumed? use of focus groups.
17 18
► In circumstances where the marketing researcher is Research designs may be broadly
digging deep into topics that respondents do not
normally think about or articulate, polite responses classified as:
to questions may be very misleading. ►exploratory or
► The characteristics of the individual respondent may
determine what is the best way to probe and elicit ►conclusive
appropriate responses.
► Nothing is standardised or consistent in these
circumstances, the researchers having to shape the
questions, probes and observations as they see fit in
each interview.
21 22
► The primary objective of exploratory research is to ► Exploratory research may also be used in cases where
provide insights into and an understanding of you must define the problem more precisely, identify
business phenomena or a research problem. relevant courses of action, or gain additional insights
► It is used in instances where the subject of the study before going on to confirm findings using a conclusive
cannot be measured in a quantitative way. design.
► For example, if a researcher was trying to understand ► In an example of a flexible, loosely structured and
what ‘atmosphere’ meant in a restaurant, exploratory evolutionary approach, consider conducting personal
research may help to establish all the appropriate interviews with industry experts. The sample,
variables and how they connected together. What selected to generate maximum insight, is small and
role did music play? What type of music? How loud? non‐representative.
What types of furniture? What colors and textures?
What types of lighting? What architectural features? 23 24
Exploratory Research design Exploratory Research design
► However, the emphasis in the sampling procedure is ► There is an exception to exploratory designs being
focused upon ‘quality’ individuals who are willing to built around qualitative techniques.
open up, use their imagination, be creative and reveal
► There are examples of quantitative findings being
perhaps sensitive thoughts and behaviour.
used for exploratory purposes.
► ‘Quality’ also may emerge from their level of expertise;
► For example, within a survey that examines specific
for example, there may only be a small population of
research questions and hypotheses lies the
chief executives in airline companies in Europe.
opportunity to examine additional connections
► If a small sample of, say, six chief executives from the
between questions that had not been initially
largest and fastest developing airlines allowed access
considered.
to a marketing researcher and revealed their attitudes
and behaviour, insights may be gained that no
conclusive study could achieve. 25 26
► To summarise, exploratory research is meaningful in ► It rarely involves structured questionnaires, large
any situation where the researcher does not have samples and probability sampling plans.
enough understanding to proceed with the research ► Rather, researchers are alert to new ideas and insights as
project. they proceed.
► Exploratory research is characterised by flexibility ► Once a new idea or insight is discovered, they may
and versatility with respect to the methods, because redirect their exploration in that direction. That new
formal research protocols and procedures are not direction is pursued until its possibilities are exhausted or
another direction is found.
employed.
► For this reason, the focus of the investigation may shift
constantly as new insights are discovered.
► Thus, the creativity and ingenuity of the researcher play a
27 major role in exploratory research. 28
A summary of the uses of exploratory A summary of the uses of exploratory
research designs research designs
► To obtain some background information where ► To identify relevant or salient behaviour patterns,
absolutely nothing is known about the problem area beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations, etc., and to
► To define problem areas fully and to formulate develop structures of these constructs
hypotheses for further investigation and/or ► To develop an understanding of the structure of beliefs
quantification and attitudes in order to aid the interpretation of data
► To identify and explore concepts in the development of structures in multivariate data analyses
new product or forms of marketing communications ► To explore the reasons that lie behind the statistical
► During a preliminary screening process such as in new differences between groups that may emerge from
product development, in order to reduce a large secondary data or surveys
number of possible projects to a smaller number of
probable ones
29 30
► To explore sensitive or personally embarrassing issues ► Qualitative research
from the respondents’ and/or the interviewer’s Focus Groups
perspective In‐depth Interviews
► To explore issues that respondents may hold deeply, Observation Techniques
that are difficult for them to rationalise and that they Projective Techniques
may find difficult to articulate ► Quantitative Research
► To ‘data‐mine’ or explore quantitative data to reveal Survey of experts
hitherto unknown connections between different Pilot surveys
measured variables Causal (Experimental or Co‐relational)
► Secondary data analyzed in a qualitative way
31
Summary of the uses of conclusive
Conclusive Research Designs research designs
► The objective of conclusive research is to: ► To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such
► describe specific phenomena as consumers, salespeople, organisations,or market
► to test specific hypotheses and areas
► to examine specific relationships ► To estimate the percentage in a specified population
► This requires that the information needed is clearly specified. exhibiting a certain form of behaviour
► Conclusive research is typically more formal and structured ► To count the frequency of events, especially in the
than exploratory research. It is based on large, representative patterns of consumer behaviour
samples, and the data obtained are subjected to quantitative
► To be able to integrate findings from different sources
analysis.
in a consistent manner, especially in the use of
► Conclusive research designs may be either descriptive or
causal (experimental), and descriptive research designs may management information systems and decision
be either cross‐sectional or longitudinal. support systems
33 34
► To measure marketing phenomena to represent larger
populations or target markets Exploratory Conclusive
Research Design Research Design
► To determine the perceptions of product or service
characteristics Qualitative Quantitative Descriptive Experimental
Research Research
► To compare findings over time that allow changes in
Focus In- Pilot
the phenomena to be measured Groups Depth
Surv
Intervie Longitudinal Cross-Sectional
► To measure marketing phenomena in a consistent and ws ey Design Design
universal manner
Observation Experimental Single Cross- Multiple Cross-
► To determine the degree to which marketing variables Sectional Design Sectional Design
are associated Projective
Techniques Causal Co-relational
► To make specific predictions 35
Exploratory & Conclusive Research
5-38
► As the name implies, the major objective of
descriptive research is to describe something, usually
market characteristics or functions.
► A major difference between exploratory and
descriptive research is that descriptive research is
characterised by the prior formulation of specific
research questions and hypotheses.
► The information needed is clearly defined. As a result,
descriptive research is preplanned and structured. It is
typically based on large representative samples.
42
A descriptive research design specifies the Examples of descriptive studies in marketing research are as
follows:
methods for selecting the sources of information
► Market studies describing the size of the market, buying
and for collecting data from those sources.
power of the consumers, availability of distributors, and
Descriptive research can be further classified into consumer profiles.
cross‐sectional and longitudinal research ► Market share studies determining the proportion of total
sales received by a company and its competitors.
► Sales analysis studies describing sales by geographic
region, product line, type of account and size of account.
► Image studies determining consumer perceptions of the
firm and its products.
43 ► Product usage studies describing consumption patterns.44
Methods of Descriptive Research Cross-sectional designs
►Secondary data analyzed in a ►A type of research design involving the
collection of information from any given
quantitative manner
sample of population elements only once.
►Surveys (Cross‐sectional‐single or
►The cross‐sectional study is the most
multiple) frequently used descriptive design in
►Panels (longitudinal) marketing research.
►Observational data ►Cross‐sectional may be either single cross‐
sectional or multiple cross‐sectional
45 46
►A type of research design involving a fixed ► A longitudinal design differs from a cross‐sectional
sample of population elements measured design in that the sample or samples remain the
same over time. In other words, the same people
repeatedly. are studied over time.
►The sample remains the same over time, ► In contrast to the typical cross‐sectional design,
providing a series of pictures that, when which gives a snapshot of the variables of interest
viewed together, vividly illustrate the at a single point in time, a longitudinal study
situation and the changes that are taking provides a series of ‘pictures’.
► These ‘pictures’ give an in‐depth view of the
place
situation and the changes that take place over
49 time. 50
Time T1 T2
2-52
51
Comparison of longitudinal and Comparison of longitudinal and
cross-sectional designs cross-sectional designs
► A major advantage of longitudinal design over cross‐
sectional design is the ability to detect change as a
result of repeated measurement of the same
variables on the same sample.
► Longitudinal data enable researchers to examine
changes in the behavior of individual units and to
link behavioral changes to marketing variables, such
as changes in advertising, packaging, pricing and
distribution.
53 54
► Since the same units are measured repeatedly, ► Panel data can be more accurate than cross‐
variations caused by changes in the sample are sectional data.
eliminated and even small variations become ► A cross‐sectional survey requires the respondent to
apparent. recall past purchases and behavior; these data can
► Another advantage of panels is that relatively large be inaccurate because of memory lapses.
amounts of data can be collected. Because panel ► Panel data, which rely on continuous recording of
members are usually compensated for their purchases in a diary, place less reliance on the
participation, they are willing to participate in respondent’s memory.
lengthy and demanding interviews
55 56
Experimental (Causal) research Relationships between exploratory,
designs descriptive and causal research
►A type of conclusive research where the General guidelines for choosing research designs:
major objective is to obtain evidence ► When little is known about the problem situation, it is
desirable to begin with exploratory research. Exploratory
regarding cause‐and‐effect (causal) research is appropriate for the following:
relationships ۞ When the nature of the topic under study cannot be
►Marketing managers continually make measured in a structured, quantifiable manner.
۞ When the problem needs to be defined more precisely.
decisions based on assumed causal
۞ When alternative courses of action need to be identified.
relationships. For example, the common ۞ When research questions or hypotheses need to be
assumption that a decrease in price will lead developed.
to increased sales and market share . ۞ When key variables need to be isolated and classified as
dependent or independent.
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