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Qualitative Research
Qualitative research - An unstructured, primarily
Qualitative Research exploratory design based on small samples,
intended to provide insight and understanding.
► Researchers may undertake qualitative research to
help define a research problem.
► It is often used to generate hypotheses and identify
by variables that should be included in quantitative
approaches.
Dr. Anoop Kumar Gupta
► Qualitative research encompasses a variety of
MAIT methods that can be applied in a flexible manner, to
enable participants to reflect upon and express their
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views or to observe their behaviour. 2

A Classification of Marketing Research

Qualitative Research Designs
Research Design
► Qualitative research addresses research
objectives through techniques that allow the
researcher to provide elaborate interpretations of Exploratory Conclusive
Research Design Research Design
business phenomena without depending on numerical
measurement. Its focus is on discovering true inner Qualitative Quantitative Descriptive Causal
meanings and new insights. Research Research
► Qualitative research is less structured than Focus In-Depth Surv
Intervie
quantitative approaches. It does not rely on self- Groups
ws
ey
response questionnaires containing structured
response formats. Instead, it is more researcher-
dependent in that the researcher must extract Observation Causal
meaning from unstructured responses, such as text Projective Experimental
from a recorded interview. 3 Techniques
Co-relational

Nature of collected Data
► Qualitative data: Data that are not characterized
by numbers, and instead are textual, visual, or
oral. Like measuring attitude, motivations and
preferences of customers towards a product.
► Quantitative data: Represent phenomena by
assigning numbers in an ordered and meaningful
way. For example counting individual customers,
weighing of a product or measuring distances.
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Rationale for using Qualitative
Research
► Sensitive information. Participants may be
unwilling to answer or to give truthful answers to
certain questions that invade their privacy, embarrass
them, or have a negative impact on their ego or
status. Questions that relate to smoking is an
example of personally sensitive issues. In industrial
marketing research, questions that relate to corporate
performance and plans are examples of commercially
sensitive issues. Techniques that build up an amount
of rapport and trust, that allow gentle probing in a
manner that suits individual participants, can help
researchers get close to participants, and may allow
sensitive data to be extracted. 7 8
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Qualitative Research
► There is a close parallel in the
distinctions between ‘exploratory and
conclusive research’ and ‘qualitative and
quantitative research’.
► There is a parallel, but the terms are not
identical.
Rationale for using Qualitative
Research
► Subconscious feelings. Participants may be unable
to provide accurate answers to questions that tap
their subconscious.
► The values, emotional drives and motivations residing
at the subconscious level are disguised from the outer
world by rationalisation and other ego defenses.
► For example, a person may have purchased an
expensive sports car to overcome feelings of
inferiority. But if asked ‘Why did you purchase this
sports car?’ that person may say ‘I got a great deal’,
‘My old car was falling apart’, or ‘I need to impress my
customers and clients.’
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Rationale for using Qualitative Purpose of qualitative research

Research techniques
► Complex phenomena. The nature of what participants are
expected to describe may be difficult to capture with ► Qualitative techniques aim to draw out
structured questions. For example, participants may know deeply held views, issues that may be
what brands of wine they enjoy, what types of music they
prefer or what images they regard as being prestigious.
difficult to conceive or express.
They may not be able to clearly explain why they have ► Researchers need to be able to get
these feelings or where these feelings are coming from.
participants in the right frame of mind to be
► Preferences and/or experience of the researcher. Just
as some researchers enjoy the challenge of using statistical able to extract these rich data.
techniques, there are researchers who enjoy the challenges
of qualitative techniques and the interpretation of diverse
types of data.
► Preferences and/or experience of the research user.
Some decision-makers are more oriented to receiving
support in a qualitative manner. 9 10

Comparing Qualitative and A Classification of Qualitative

Quantitative Research Research Procedures

Qualitative Research
Procedures

Direct (Non- Indirect

disguised) (Disguised)

Projective
Depth Interviews Techniques
Focus Groups

Association Completion Construction Expressive

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Techniques Techniques Techniques Techniques
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A classification of qualitative A classification of qualitative

research techniques research techniques
These techniques are classified as either direct or indirect, ► In an In-direct Approach, the researcher wants
based on whether the true purpose of the project is known participants to behave as naturally as possible without any
to the participants. impediment of research purposes.
► Direct Approach is not disguised. The purpose of the ► In observation or ethnographic techniques, consumers
project is disclosed to the participants or is otherwise may be seen shopping, choosing products, using products,
obvious to them from the questions asked. Major direct interacting with other people and objects, hopefully in a
techniques are: natural environment and a natural manner.
► Focus groups ► The purpose of using projective techniques is to discover
► In-depth interviews underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings
► In-direct Approach is disguised from the participants. regarding consumer behavior. The techniques allow
indirect questioning to allow participants to discover novel
Major In-direct techniques are:
ways to think about and express their feelings, where
► Observation direct questioning would fail.
► Projective 13 14

Focus group discussions Focus group discussions

► A Focus Group is a discussion conducted by a ► They are used extensively in new product
trained moderator in a non-structured and natural development, advertising development and
manner with a small group of participants.
image studies.
► A Moderator leads and develops the discussion. An
individual who conducts a focus group interview, by ► One of the main characteristics and key
setting the purpose of the interview, questioning, benefits lies in the amount of creative
probing and handling the process of discussion discussion and other activities that may be
► The main purpose of focus groups is to gain generated.
insights by creating a forum where participants feel
sufficiently relaxed to reflect and to portray their
feelings and behavior, at their pace and using their
language and logic.
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One-way mirror

Focus group discussions

► Group members have the time to reflect upon

the discussion and range of stimuli that may be
presented to them.
► The stimuli may come from other group
members or from the moderator.
► Using their intuition and imagination, group
members can explain how they feel or behave,
in words they are comfortable with and using
logic that is meaningful to them. Layout of focus group room and
viewing room

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Viewing room looking into the focus

group room through one-way mirror Characteristics of Focus group

Source: www.campos.com/focusgs.htm 20
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In-depth Interviews Laddering – In-depth Interviews

► In-depth interview - An ► Laddering A technique for conducting in-depth
► unstructured, interviews in which a line of questioning
► direct, proceeds from product characteristics to
► personal interview user characteristics.
in which a single participant is probed by an ► Laddering requires interviewers to be trained in
experienced interviewer to uncover specific probing techniques in order to develop a
► underlying motivations, meaningful ‘mental map’ of the consumer’s
► beliefs, view towards a particular product.
► attitudes and ► The ultimate goal is to combine mental maps of
► Feelings consumers who are similar, which lead to the
on a topic. reasons why people purchase particular products.
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Laddering – In-depth Interviews Laddering – In-depth Interviews

► Laddering technique is made up of a linking or
ladder of elements that represent the link ► These associations are reinforced through consumers’
between products and the consumer’s buying behavior and, as a result, they learn to choose
perception process. products that have certain attributes in order to
obtain the consequences they desire.
► It enables an understanding of how consumers
► The laddering technique is therefore designed to
translate product attributes, through personal
meanings associated with them. identify and follow the chain of
► Theories of consumer behavior act as a
Attributes Consequences Values (A–C–V)
foundation to this approach, based on the
contention that consumption acts produce
consequences for the consumer. Consumers
learn to associate these consequences to
specific product attributes. 23 24
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Depth Interview Techniques:

Laddering Laddering – In-depth Interviews

In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from product
characteristics to user characteristics. This technique allows the
researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings.
Wide body aircrafts (product characteristic)
► The in-depth interview using the laddering
technique is based on comparisons of the
consumer’s choice alternatives.
► These can include, for example,
► Different products used for the same purpose, such

I can get more work done as an electric toothbrush and a conventional

toothbrush,
I accomplish more ► Varieties in a product line such as full-fat and
skimmed milk,
I feel good about myself (user characteristic) ► Product brands such as Amul and Mother Dairy milk,
► Kinds of packaging such as Juice in bottles and in
Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flying
our airline. “You're The Boss.” cartons. 26

Laddering – In-depth Interviews Laddering – In-depth Interviews

► In making the comparisons, the interviewer poses a
question that hopes to encourage the participants
to put aside their established rationale and
reflect upon their consumption behavior, in ways
that they would not normally do.
► In other words, questions are posed that make
participants think about consumption from other
points of view to try to release participants from
fixed attitudes, perceptions and values.
► The interviewer’s role is to build up a rapport with
participants and get them to relax and feel comfortable
to respond with whatever comes to mind.
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The interview revolves around three basic
questions based on the A–C–V chain. The
questions posed would be:
► Values. How important is this for you? (e.g.
health)
► Consequences. What does this difference
mean? (e.g. not fattening)
► Attributes. What is different about these
alternatives? (e.g. low calories)
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Depth Interview : Hidden Issue Depth Interview Techniques:

Questioning
In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not
on socially shared values but rather on personal
“sore spots;” not on general lifestyles but on
deeply felt personal concerns.
fantasies, work lives, and social lives
Symbolic Analysis
Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic
meaning of objects by comparing them with their opposites.
The logical opposites of a product that are investigated are:
non-usage of the product, attributes of an imaginary “non-
product,” and opposite types of products.
“What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?”

historic, elite, “masculine-camaraderie,” “Without planes, I would have to rely on e-mails, letters
competitive activities and long-distance calls.”

Advertising theme: communicate Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication.

aggressiveness, high status, and competitive Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a
manager as Federal Express does for a package.
heritage of the airline.

Focus Groups Versus Depth Focus Groups Versus Depth

Interviews Interviews
cont.
Characteristic Focus Depth Characteristic Focus Depth
Groups Interviews Groups Interviews
Interviewing competitors - +
Group synergy and dynamics + -
Interviewing professional respondents - +
Peer pressure/group influence - +
Scheduling of respondents - +
Client involvement + -
Amount of information + -
Generation of innovative ideas + -
Bias in moderation and interpretation + -
In-depth probing of individuals - +
Cost per respondent + -
Uncovering hidden motives - +
Time (interviewing & analysis) + -
Discussion of sensitive topics - +
Note: A + indicates a relative advantage over the
other procedure, a - indicates a relative disadvantage.

Projective Techniques
► Projective technique An unstructured and
indirect form of questioning that encourages
participants to project their underlying
motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings
regarding the issues of concern.
► They are useful techniques for drawing out
emotional values, exploring issues in a nonlinear
manner or for bypassing participants’
rational controls.
► They also help participants to verbalize
unframed, subconscious, or low-
involvement attitudes. 33
Types of Projective Techniques
► Association technique A type of projective
technique in which participants are presented
with a stimulus and are asked to respond with
the first thing that comes to mind.
► Word association A projective technique in
which participants are presented with a list of
words, one at a time. After each word, they are
asked to give the first word that comes to mind.
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Projective Techniques
► Participants are asked to interpret the behavior
of others rather than to describe their own
behavior.
► In interpreting the behavior of others, it is
contended that participants indirectly project
their own motivations, beliefs, attitudes or
feelings into the situation.
► Thus, the participants’ attitudes are uncovered
by analyzing their responses to scenarios that are
deliberately unstructured, vague and ambiguous.
The more ambiguous the situation, the more
participants project their emotions, needs,
motives, attitudes and values
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Word association
The words of interest, called test words, are
interspersed throughout the list which also contains
some neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose
of the study.
Responses are analyzed by calculating:
 the frequency with which any word is given as a
response;
 the amount of time that elapses before a
response is given; and
 the number of respondents who do not respond
at all to a test word within a reasonable period of
time. 36
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Types of Projective Techniques Types of Projective Techniques

Completion technique A projective technique ► Construction technique A projective

that requires participants to complete an
incomplete stimulus situation.
► Sentence completion A projective technique in
which participants are presented with a number
of incomplete sentences and are asked to
complete them.
► Story completion A projective technique in
which participants are provided with part of a
story and are required to give the conclusion in
their own words.
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technique in which participants are required to
construct a response in the form of a story,
dialogue or description.
► Picture response technique A projective
technique in which participants are shown a
picture and are asked to tell a story describing
it.
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Types of Projective Techniques A Cartoon Test

► Cartoon tests Cartoon characters are shown in a Big Bazzar
specific situation related to the problem. Participants
are asked to indicate the dialogue that one cartoon
character might make in response to the
comment(s) of another character.
► Expressive technique A projective technique in
Let’s see if we
which participants are presented with a verbal or
can pick up some
visual situation and are asked to relate the feelings house wares at
and attitudes of other people to the situation. Big Bazzar.
► Role playing Participants are asked to assume the
behaviour of someone else or a specific object.
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Types of Projective Techniques
► Third-person technique A projective technique
in which participants are presented with a verbal
or visual situation and are asked to relate the
beliefs and attitudes of a third person in that
situation.
► Personification technique Participants are
asked to imagine that the brand is a person and
then describe characteristics of that person.
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Applications of Projective
Techniques
► Word association, is commonly used to test
brand names and occasionally to measure
attitudes about particular products, brands,
packages or advertisements.
► Projective techniques should be used:
۞Because the required information cannot be
accurately obtained by direct questioning.
۞In an exploratory manner to elicit issues that
participants find difficult to conceive and express.
۞To engage participants in the subject, by having fun
in expressing themselves in interesting and novel
ways. 42

Comparison of Qualitative Techniques

Criteria Focus Depth Projective

Groups Interviews Techniques
1. Degree of Structure Relatively high Relatively medium Relatively low
2. Probing of individual Low High Medium
respondents
3. Moderator bias Relatively medium Relatively high Low to high
4. Interpretation bias
5. Uncovering
Relatively low
Low
Relatively medium Relatively high
Medium to high High THANK YOU
subconscious
information
6. Discovering innovative
information High Medium Low
7. Obtaining sensitive
Low Medium High
information
8. Involve unusual behavior
No To a limited Yes
or questioning
extent
9. Overall usefulness Highly useful Useful Somewhat
useful 43 44