Sapphire

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Sapphire (disambiguation).

Sapphire

The 423-carat (85 g) blue Logan Sapphire

General
Category Oxide mineral

Formula Aluminium oxide, Al2O3

(repeating unit)

Crystal system Trigonal

Crystal class Hexagonal scalenohedral (3m)

H-M symbol: (32/m)

Space group R3c

Identification

Color Typically blue, but varies

Crystal habit As crystals, massive and granular

Twinning Both growth twins (in various orientations) and polysynthetic glide twinning on the

rhombohedron [1011

Cleavage Poor

Fracture Conchoidal, splintery

Mohs scale hardness 9.0

Luster Vitreous

Streak Colorless

Diaphaneity Transparent to nearly opaque

Specific gravity 3.98–4.06

Optical properties Abbe number 72.2

 Refractive index nω = 1.768–1.772

nε = 1.760–1.763,

birefringence 0.008

Pleochroism Strong

Melting point 2,030–2,050 °C

Fusibility Infusible

Solubility Insoluble

Coefficient of thermal expansion (5.0–6.6)×10−6/K[citation needed]

Other characteristics

relative permittivity at 20 °C

ε = 8.9–11.1 (anisotropic)[1]

Main sapphire-producing countries

Sapphire is a precious gemstone, a variety of the mineral corundum, consisting

of aluminium oxide (α-Al O ) with trace amounts of elements such
2 3

as iron, titanium, chromium, vanadium, or magnesium. The name sapphire is derived

via the Latin "sapphirus" from the Greek "sappheiros", which referred to lapis lazuli.  It is [2]

typically blue, but natural "fancy" sapphires also occur in yellow, purple, orange, and
green colors; "parti sapphires" show two or more colors. Red corundum stones also
occur, but are called rubies rather than sapphires.  Pink-colored corundum may be [3]

classified either as ruby or sapphire depending on locale. Commonly, natural sapphires

are cut and polished into gemstones and worn in jewelry. They also may be created
synthetically in laboratories for industrial or decorative purposes in large crystal boules.
Because of the remarkable hardness of sapphires – 9 on the Mohs scale (the third
hardest mineral, after diamond at 10 and moissanite at 9.5) – sapphires are also used in
some non-ornamental applications, such as infrared optical components, high-
durability windows, wristwatch crystals and movement bearings, and very thin electronic
wafers, which are used as the insulating substrates of special-purpose solid-state
electronics such as integrated circuits and GaN-based blue LEDs. Sapphire is
the birthstone for September and the gem of the 45th anniversary. A sapphire
jubilee occurs after 65 years. [4]

Natural sapphires[edit]

An uncut, rough yellow sapphire found at the Spokane Sapphire Mine near Helena, Montana

Sapphire is one of the two gem-varieties of corundum, the other being ruby (defined as

corundum in a shade of red). Although blue is the best-known sapphire color, they occur
in other colors, including gray and black, and also can be colorless. A pinkish orange
variety of sapphire is called padparadscha.
Significant sapphire deposits are found
in Australia, Afghanistan, Cambodia, Cameroon, China (Shandong), Colombia, Ethiopia
, India (Kashmir), Kenya, Laos, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Myanmar (Burma), 
Nigeria, Rwanda, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, United States (Montana) and Vietnam.
 Sapphire and rubies are often found in the same geographical settings, but they
[5]: 431–707 

generally have different geological formations. For example, both ruby and sapphire are
found in Myanmar's Mogok Stone Tract, but the rubies form in marble, while the
sapphire forms in granitic pegmatites or corundum syenites. [5]: 403–429 

Every sapphire mine produces a wide range of quality, and origin is not a guarantee of
quality. For sapphire, Kashmir receives the highest premium, although Burma, Sri
Lanka, and Madagascar also produce large quantities of fine quality gems. [3]

The cost of natural sapphires varies depending on their color, clarity, size, cut, and
overall quality. Sapphires that are completely untreated are worth far more than those
that have been treated. Geographical origin also has a major impact on price. For most
gems of one carat or more, an independent report from a respected laboratory such
as GIA, Lotus Gemology, or SSEF, is often required by buyers before they will make a
purchase. [6]

Colors[edit]
Sapphires in colors other than blue are called "fancy" or "parti-colored" sapphires. [7]

Fancy sapphires are often found in yellow, orange, green, brown, purple and violet
hues. [8]

Blue sapphire[edit]
Teardrop-shaped blue sapphire

Gemstone color can be described in terms of hue, saturation, and tone. Hue is

commonly understood as the "color" of the gemstone. Saturation refers to the vividness
or brightness of the hue, and tone is the lightness to darkness of the hue.  Blue [5]: 333–401 

sapphire exists in various mixtures of its primary (blue) and secondary hues, various
tonal levels (shades) and at various levels of saturation (vividness).
Blue sapphires are evaluated based upon the purity of their blue
hue. Violet and green are the most common secondary hues found in blue sapphires. [5]: 333–

 The highest prices are paid for gems that are pure blue and of vivid saturation. Gems
401 

that are of lower saturation, or are too dark or too light in tone are of less value.
However, color preferences are a personal taste, like a flavor of ice cream. [5]: 333–401 

The 423-carat (84.6 g) Logan sapphire in the National Museum of Natural History,

in Washington, D.C., is one of the largest faceted gem-quality blue sapphires in
existence.

Dark blue sapphire, probably of Australian origin, showing the brilliant surface luster typical of faceted corundum gemstones.

The 422.66-ct Siren of Serendip  in the Houston Museum of Natural Science is another
[9]

stunning example of a Sri Lankan sapphire on public display.

Parti sapphires[edit]
Particolored sapphires (or bi-color sapphires) are those stones that exhibit two or more
colors within a single stone.  The desirability of particolored or bi-color sapphires is
[8]
usually judged based on the zoning or location of their colors, the colors’ saturation, and
the contrast of their colors.  Australia is the largest source of particolored sapphires;
[10]

they are not commonly used in mainstream jewelry and remain relatively unknown.
Particolored sapphires cannot be created synthetically and only occur naturally. [10]

Pink sapphires[edit]

Pink sapphire

Pink sapphires occur in shades from light to dark pink, and deepen in color as the
quantity of chromium increases. The deeper the pink color, the higher their monetary
value. In the United States, a minimum color saturation must be met to be called a ruby,
otherwise the stone is referred to as a pink sapphire. [11]

Padparadscha[edit]

Faceted padparadscha

Padparadscha is a delicate, light to medium toned, pink-orange to orange-pink

hued corundum, originally found in Sri Lanka,  but also found in deposits
[12]

in Vietnam and parts of East Africa. Padparadscha sapphires are rare; the rarest of all is
the totally natural variety, with no sign of artificial treatment. [13]

The name is derived from the Sanskrit "padma ranga" (padma = lotus; ranga = color), a
color akin to the lotus flower (Nelumbo nucifera). [14]
Among the fancy (non-blue) sapphires, natural padparadscha fetch the highest prices.
Since 2001, more sapphires of this color have appeared on the market as a result of
artificial lattice diffusion of beryllium. [15]

Star sapphire[edit]

Star sapphire

68 carat star sapphire in round mogul cut - men's ring version - 750 yellow gold - Russian goldsmith - handmade around 1990

A star sapphire is a type of sapphire that exhibits a star-like phenomenon known

as asterism; red stones are known as "star rubies". Star sapphires contain intersecting
needle-like inclusions following the underlying crystal structure that causes the
appearance of a six-rayed "star"-shaped pattern when viewed with a single overhead
light source. The inclusion is often the mineral rutile, a mineral composed primarily
of titanium dioxide.  The stones are cut en cabochon, typically with the center of the star
[16]

near the top of the dome. Occasionally, twelve-rayed stars are found, typically because
two different sets of inclusions are found within the same stone, such as a combination
of fine needles of rutile with small platelets of hematite; the first results in a whitish star
and the second results in a golden-colored star. During crystallization, the two types of
inclusions become preferentially oriented in different directions within the crystal,
thereby forming two six-rayed stars that are superimposed upon each other to form a
twelve-rayed star.  Misshapen stars or 12-rayed stars may also form as a result
[17]

of twinning. The inclusions can alternatively produce a cat's eye effect if the girdle plane
of the cabochon is oriented parallel to the crystal's c-axis rather than perpendicular to it.
To get a cat's eye, the planes of exsolved inclusions must be extremely uniform and
tightly packed. If the dome is oriented in between these two directions, an off-center star
will be visible, offset away from the high point of the dome. [5]: 101 

At 1404.49 carats, The Star of Adam is the largest known blue star sapphire. The gem
was mined in the city of Ratnapura, southern Sri Lanka.  The Black Star of Queensland, [18]

the second largest star sapphire in the world, weighs 733 carats.  The Star of [19]

India mined in Sri Lanka and weighing 563.4 carats is thought to be the third-largest star
sapphire, and is currently on display at the American Museum of Natural History in New
York City. The 182-carat Star of Bombay, mined in Sri Lanka and located in the National
Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., is another example of a large blue star
sapphire. The value of a star sapphire depends not only on the weight of the stone, but
also the body color, visibility, and intensity of the asterism. The color of the stone has
more impact on the value than the visibility of the star. Since more transparent stones
tend to have better colors, the most expensive star stones are semi-transparent "glass
body" stones with vivid colors. [5]: 348–350 

On 28 July 2021, the world's largest cluster of star sapphires, weighing 510 kg, was
unearthed from Ratnapura, Sri Lanka. This star sapphire cluster was named
"Serendipity Sapphire". [20][21]

Color-change sapphire[edit]
A rare variety of natural sapphire, known as color-change sapphire, exhibits different
colors in different light. Color change sapphires are blue in outdoor light and purple
under incandescent indoor light, or green to gray-green in daylight and pink to reddish-
violet in incandescent light. Color change sapphires come from a variety of locations,
including Madagascar, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Tanzania. Two types exist. The first
features the chromium chromophore that creates the red color of ruby, combined with
the iron + titanium chromophore that produces the blue color in sapphire. A rarer type,
which comes from the Mogok area of Myanmar, features a vanadium chromophore, the
same as is used in Verneuil synthetic color-change sapphire.
Virtually all gemstones that show the "alexandrite effect" (color change; a.k.a.
'metamerism') show similar absorption/transmission features in the visible spectrum.
This is an absorption band in the yellow (~590 nm), along with valleys of transmission in
the blue-green and red. Thus the color one sees depends on the spectral composition
of the light source. Daylight is relatively balanced in its spectral power distribution (SPD)
and since the human eye is most sensitive to green light, the balance is tipped to the
green side. However incandescent light (including candle light) is heavily tilted to the red
end of the spectrum, thus tipping the balance to red. [22]

Color-change sapphires colored by the Cr + Fe/Ti chromophores generally change from

blue or violet-blue to violet or purple. Those colored by the V chromophore can show a
more pronounced change, moving from blue-green to purple.
Certain synthetic color-change sapphires have a similar color change to the natural
gemstone alexandrite and they are sometimes marketed as "alexandrium" or "synthetic
alexandrite". However, the latter term is a misnomer: synthetic color-change sapphires
are, technically, not synthetic alexandrites but rather alexandrite simulants. This is
because genuine alexandrite is a variety of chrysoberyl: not sapphire, but an entirely
different mineral.
[23]