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Chapter: Physical Quantities

▪ Physical Quantities: quantities that have a numerical value and a unit.
▪ Base Units: They are standalone units from which all other units are derived.
They cannot be expressed in the form of other units.
▪ Derived Units: they can be defined as products or quotients of base units and
can be expressed in the form of base units.
▪ Limitations of Homogeneity:
o We cannot check for constants
o We cannot check for any missing term.
o We cannot check if an extra term is added.

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Chapter: Measurements
▪ Least Count: the smallest reading that can be taken on any instrument.
▪ Zero Error: a type of error in which an instrument gives a reading when the
true reading at that time is zero.
It is a technical term which means how far away from zero is the reading of the
instrument.
o Positive zero error: when reading is greater than zero.
o Negative zero error: when reading is less than zero.
▪ Precision: the smallest change in value that can be measured by an
instrument. A precise measurement is a measurement made several times,
giving the same, or very similar, values.
▪ Accuracy: an accurate value is the one which is closer to the true or actual
value of the quantity.
▪ Errors: deviation from standard.
▪ Uncertainties: are the range of possible values within the true value of the
measurement lies.
▪ Random Errors: are errors that causes the readings to lack precision and
scatter around the mean value. They occur due to carelessness or
inexperience of observer.
▪ Systematic Errors: error that cause the readings to be inaccurate and are
repeated throughput the experiment, producing a constant absolute or
percentage error. They occur due to faulty apparatus, limitation of observer,
wrong assumption or wrong method.

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Chapter: Scalars and Vectors

▪ Scalar Quantities: quantities that have unit and magnitude only.
▪ Vector Quantities: physical quantities that have unit, magnitude and
direction.
▪ Coplanar Vectors: vectors that lie in the same plane.
▪ Resolution of Vectors: is the splitting of vectors into two or more vectors in
such a way that their combined effect id the same as that of the given vector.
▪ Point Forces (Concurrent Forces): the forces that pass though one point are
known as point or concurrent forces. In case of concurrent forces, the line of
action of forces meet at one point.
▪ Equilibrium: A body will be in equilibrium (be balanced) if:
o The resultant force in any direction is zero (Translational equilibrium).
o Resultant moment about any point is zero (Rotational equilibrium).
▪ Weight: the force on an object caused by gravitational field acting on it. It acts
vertically downwards.
▪ Normal Reaction: is the perpendicular push of the surface on an object. It is
the apparent weight of an object.
▪ Friction: A force that opposes sliding motion and it acts along the surface. It
depends on Normal reaction and Nature of surface.
▪ Tension: force that acts along the rope and acts away from the fixed point. Its
magnitude is same throughout the medium (rope, wire, cable etc.)
▪ Newton: the force that will give 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/𝑠 −2 in the
direction of force.

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Chapter: Moments and Equilibrium

▪ Moment: is defined as force multiplied by the perpendicular distance of the
point from the line of force.
▪ Centre of Gravity: the point through which all the weight of the body appears
to act. It is the point through which the line of action of weight passes.
▪ Couple: A pair of equal, antiparallel forces having a turning effect but no
resultant force.
▪ Torque: is the product of one of the forces of a couple and the perpendicular
distance between them.
▪ Contact force: is the resultant force acting at the point of contact.
▪ Principle of Moments: for an object in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise
moments is equal to the sum of anti- clockwise moments about the same
pivot.

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Chapter: Kinematics
▪ Speed: distance covered per unit time.
▪ Displacement: is the distance in a particular direction from a fixed point. It is
the shortest distance from start to end.
▪ Velocity: rate of change of displacement of an object.
▪ Uniform velocity: velocity is uniform if an object covers equal distances in
equal intervals of time in the same direction.
▪ Average Velocity: is the ratio of total displacement and total time. It is the
overall velocity of the whole journey.
▪ Uniform motion: the motion of an object travelling with a constant velocity.
▪ Acceleration: rate of change of velocity of an object.
▪ Uniform Acceleration: acceleration is uniform if body undergoes equal
changes in velocity in equal intervals of time.
▪ Free Fall: the state of the body that moves freely under the influence of gravity
only.
▪ Projectile/ Sideways motion: is two-dimensional motion in which body
moves horizontally as well as vertically.
▪ Up thrust: The upward force, due to pressure difference at the top and
bottom, that a liquid exerts on a body floating or immersed in a liquid.
▪ Terminal Velocity: it is the uniform speed attained by a body moving in a fluid
due to balance of forces. The resultant force on the object is zero when it is
travelling with terminal velocity.
▪ Archimedes’ Principle: states that the upthrust experienced by an object
partially or entirely immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.
▪ Drag: A force that resists the movement of a body through the fluid.

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Chapter: Dynamics
▪ Momentum: product of mass and velocity.
▪ Impulse: change in momentum.
▪ Force: rate of change of momentum.
▪ Newton’s Laws of Motion:
o 1st Law: states that a body will continue to retain its state of rest or
motion with uniform velocity until or unless some net force acts on it.
o 2nd Law: states that rate of change of momentum is in the direction of
force and directly proportional to force.
o 3rd Law: states that if body A applies force on body B, body B will apply
equal and opposite force on body A.
▪ Collisions: a short interval of time for which the bodies interact with each
other.
o Elastic Collisions: collisions in which kinetic energy is conserved.
o Inelastic Collisions: collisions in which kinetic energy is not conserved.
▪ The principle of conservation of momentum: For a closed system, in any
direction, total momentum before collision is equal to total momentum after
collision.
▪ Two Dimensional Collisions: collisions in which bodies move in two
dimensions_ horizontally and vertically. Momentum is conserved in both
dimensions.
▪ Explosions: occur when energy is transformed from one kind e.g. chemical
potential energy to another e.g. heat energy or kinetic energy extremely
quickly.
▪ Gravitational Field Strength: the gravitational force experienced by an object
per unit mass.

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Chapter: Pressure
▪ Pressure: is defined as force acting per unit area.
▪ Density: is defined as mass per unit volume.

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Chapter: Work, Energy and Power

▪ Work: is defined as the product of force and the distance travelled in the
direction of the force.
▪ Energy: is defined as the ability to do work.
▪ Power: is work done per unit time.
▪ Efficiency: is useful output power divided by total input power.
▪ Kinetic Energy: is the ability to do work due to motion.
▪ Potential Energy: it is the stored ability to do work due to position in any force
field.
o Gravitational Potential Energy: is the stored ability to do work in a
mass due to its position in the gravitational field.
o Elastic Potential Energy: is the stored ability to do work in a body due
to change in length or shape or deformation of that body.
o Electric Potential Energy: is the stored ability to do work in a charge
due to its position in the electric field.
▪ Internal Energy: is the total amount of kinetic energy and potential energy of
all the particles in the system.
▪ Law of Conservation of Energy: states that energy remains constant and it
can not be created nor destroyed but it changes from one form to another.
▪ Joule: amount of work done when a force of 1N moves a distance of 1 meter
in the direction of force.

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Chapter: Deformation of Solids

▪ Elastic Behavior/ Elasticity: is the ability of an object to regain its original
shape when force is removed.
▪ Elastic Limit: is the maximum force or point up to which the deformation is
temporary.
▪ Extension: is the change in length. It is the difference between loaded and
unloaded length.
▪ Hooke’s Law: states that extension in directly proportional to force within the
limit of proportionality/ extension is directly proportional to force provided that
elastic limit is not exceeded.
▪ Spring Constant: is the ratio of force to extension/ it is force per unit
extension.
▪ Stress: is force acting per unit cross- sectional area.
▪ Strain: is the ratio of extension to original length.
▪ Young Modulus: is the ratio of stress to strain.
▪ Plastic Behavior: is the permanent deformation of a material. This means
that the material deforms irreversibly and does not return to its original position
even when force/ load is removed.
▪ Ultimate Tensile Strength (stress): is the maximum stress a material can
withhold without breaking.

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Chapter: Waves
▪ Waves: are travelling disturbances. They transfer energy, not medium.
o Transverse Waves: waves in which oscillations are perpendicular to

wave direction.
o Longitudinal Waves: waves in which oscillations are parallel to the
wave direction.
▪ Wavelengths: is the distance between two successive crests or troughs/ it is
the distance between two successive compressions and rarefactions/ it is the
distance covered by a wave in one time period.
▪ Amplitude: the maximum distance travelled by a wave from its mean position.
▪ Time Period: the time required to complete one oscillation.
▪ Frequency: the number of waves/ cycles produced per unit time.
▪ Intensity of a wave: is defined as rate of energy transmitted per unit area.
▪ Mechanical Waves: waves that require a medium to travel. They can be
either transverse or longitudinal.
▪ Electromagnetic Waves: waves which do not require a medium to travel.
They are transverse waves.
▪ In-phase particles: particles that move in the same direction and reach peak
position and mean position simultaneously.
▪ Wave front: is the line or surface joining in-phase particles. Wave fronts are
perpendicular to wave direction.
▪ Reflection of a wave: bouncing back of a wave.
▪ Refraction of a wave: is the bending of wave due to change in speed.
Diffraction of a wave: is the spreading of a wave when it crosses a gap or an
obstacle. It is bending of a wave around the edges.
▪ Superposition of waves: is adding of the same type of wave. It happens
when two or more waves reach a point simultaneously.

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▪ Principle of Superposition: states that when waves superpose, the resultant

displacement at the point of superposition is the sum of individual
displacements.
▪ Coherent Sources: sources having constant phase difference between them.
▪ Interference of waves: is the adding of same type of coherent waves when
they meet, such that the resultant intensity changes.
o Constructive Interference: is adding of two same type of coherent
waves in such a way that both have displacements in the same
direction. The resultant amplitude and intensity decrease.
o Destructive Interference: is the adding of two same type of coherent
waves in such a way that both have displacements in the opposite
direction. The resultant amplitude and intensity decrease.
▪ Path Difference: is the distance difference from the sources to the point of
superposition.
▪ Anti-nodal Line: is the line where path difference is constant and constructive
interference takes place.
▪ Nodal Line: is the line where path difference is constant and destructive
interference takes place.
▪ Progressive Waves: are travelling waves which means that energy transfer
takes place.
▪ Stationary Waves: are standing waves which means that no energy transfer
takes place.
▪ Doppler Effect: is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave observed
when the source of the wave is moving towards or away from the observer (or
the observer is moving relative to the source).
▪ Electromagnetic Spectrum: is the family of waves that travel through
vacuum at the speed of 3.00 × 108 m/s.
▪ Node: a point on a stationary wave with zero amplitude.
▪ Monochromatic: is the light of a single frequency.

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▪ Compressions: a region in a sound wave where air pressure is greater than

its mean value.
▪ Rarefactions: A region in a sound wave where air pressure is less than its
mean value.
▪ Slit Separation: is the distance between the center of two slits.
▪ Fringe Separation: is the distance between the centers of adjacent bright (or
dark) fringes.
▪ Slit-to-screen distance: is the distance from the midpoint of the slits to the
central fringe on the screen.
▪ Wave speed: is the product of frequency and wavelength.

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Chapter: Electricity
▪ Elementary Charge: is the smallest unit of charge that a particle or an object
can have.
e = 1.6 × 10−19 C
▪ Quantization of Charge: means that charge has a specific value.
▪ Electric Field: is the region around a charge up to which other charges will
experience an electric force/ region around the charge up to which a charged
body can attract or repel other charges.
▪ Electric Field Lines: lines drawn to represent strength and direction of an
electric field. The tangents to the electric field line gives the direction of the
resultant electric force on the test positive charge (which is in the direction of
electric field).
▪ Uniform Electric Field: electric field that exists between two equal and
oppositely charged metallic parallel plates.
▪ Electric Field Strength: is the force acting per unit positive charge.
▪ Electric Current: is the rate of flow of charges.
▪ Electrical Circuit: is the closed path for the flow of current.
▪ Electric Charge: is the property of a body that gives rise to a force on the
body when it is within an electric field.
▪ Current Direction: it is the direction of movement of positive charges.
▪ Number Density: number of free electrons per unit volume.
▪ Electromotive Force (e.m.f): is the non- electrical energy converted into
electrical energy per unit charge/ it is the energy supplied to each coulomb
charge to move it around the complete circuit.
▪ Potential Difference (P.d): is the change in electrical energy into other forms
of energy between two points per unit charge.
▪ Coulomb: is defined as ampere second.
▪ Volt: is joule per coulomb.

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▪ Ohm’s Law: states that current flowing through the conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends provided that
temperature and other physical factors remain same.
▪ Resistance: is the ratio of voltage to current.
▪ Ohm: id defined as volt per ampere.
▪ Resistivity: is resistance per unit length of a material having unit cross-
sectional area.
▪ Resistors: are devices that offer resistance to control the current.
o Fixed Resistors: have fixed resistance and they obey ohm’s law.
o Variable Resistors: are resistors whose resistance can be changed by
changing some physical conditions.
➢ Thermistor: resistance inversely depends on temperature.
➢ Light-dependent Resistor (LDR): resistance inversely depends
on light intensity (Brightness).
➢ Rheostat: resistance depends on length of resistance wire.
▪ Diode: resistance depends on polarity or current direction.
▪ Kirchhoff’s Laws:
o 1st Law (Current): states that sum of currents at any junction (node) is
zero. It confirms conservation of charge.
o 2nd Law (Voltage): states that in a closed loop, sum of e.m.f s is equal
to sum of potential difference. It confirms conservation of energy.
▪ Internal resistance: the resistance of an e.m.f source. The internal resistance
of a battery is due to the chemicals in it.
▪ Drift velocity: the average speed of a collection of charges particles when
current flows.
▪ Potential Divider: A circuit in which two or more components are connected
in series to a supply. The output voltage from the circuit is taken across one of
the components.

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▪ Potentiometer: A circuit which allows the measurement of an e.m.f by

comparing it with a known e.m.f

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Chapter: Nuclear Physics

▪ Nucleus: the tiny central region of an atom the contains most of the mass of
the atom and all of its positive charge.
▪ Nuclide: A specific combination of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
▪ Nucleon: is a particle found in the nucleus of an atom i.e. proton or neutron.
▪ Nucleon Number: the sum of number of protons and number of neutrons.
▪ Isotopes: are atoms of the same element having same proton number but
different nucleon number.
▪ Quarks: are fraction of elementary charges and cannot exist independently.
▪ Anti-particles: an anti- particle has the same mass as that of a particle but
equal and opposite charge.
▪ Hadrons: are heavy particles that interact with each other with strong nuclear
forces. They consist of quarks.
o Baryons: consist of three quarks.
o Mesons: consist of two quarks.
▪ Leptons: lighter particles which interact with each other with weak nuclear
forces. They are not made of quarks.
▪ Radioactivity: is the random and spontaneous emissions from the unstable
nuclei to attain stability.
▪ Neutron number: is the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
▪ Positron: is an anti-electron.
▪ Neutrino: A lepton, released during beta decay.
▪ Half-life: is the mean time taken for half the number of active nuclei in a
radioactive sample to decay.
▪ Count rate: the number of particles (either alpha or beta) or gamma photons
detected per unit time by a Geiger- Muller tube. Count rate is always a fraction
of the activity of a sample.

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▪ Background radiations: are the radiations from surroundings that are always
present in the environment. These can be from cosmic bodies (sun, stars etc.),
from terrestrial bodies (like earth) and internal radiation (which is in all living
things).
▪ Alpha Particle: is a helium nucleus carrying double positive charge and has
mass 4u (u: unified atomic mass).
▪ Beta Particles: are fast moving electrons or positrons emitted from the
nucleus. They carry single negative charge.
▪ Gamma rays: are high frequency electromagnetic waves emitted from the
nucleus.
▪ Photon: a photon is a packet of electromagnetic radiation.
▪ Ionizing effect: is the ability to produce charged particles (ions).

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