Communication Systems

Characteristics Of Communication Systems

● Enables people/systems to send/receive data+information Transmitting and Receiving
● Communication occurs between T+R hardware/software over a network
● Each device on a network is a node (any device!)
1. As each message leaves its
source, it is encoded into a form
suitable for transmission along the
communication medium
2. The message may follow a variety
of different paths, through many
different networks and connection
devices.
3. Eventually the message arrives at
the receiver, who decodes the
message as it arrives at its
destination.

Levels of Protocols
1. Application level
* The actual data to be transmitted is
created by software application
• This data is organised in a format understood by the application that will receive the data
2. Control and Addressing level
• This is where communication with the network is established and maintained
• It manages the correct transmission of each packet of data
• Packets not reaching the destination are retransmitted
• The data is reorganised into a form suitable for transmission
3. Transmission level
• This layer defines how the transmission media is actually shared
• The device drivers control the physical transmission hardware and determine the size of
transmitted packets and the speed of transfer
• This layer performs the actual physical transfer
• Converse the bits to each message into signals that are transmitted down the transmission
media
Ways of Transmitting:
● Simplex means communication occurs in one direction only (feedback cannot be
received from the other end). Television and radio are examples of simplex
communication.
● Half-duplex means communication can occur in both directions, but never at the same
time. A walkie-talkie or two-way radio operates in half-duplex using a single channel.
● Full duplex, or just duplex, means data can be transferred in both directions at the same
time. Telephones/Online Gaming operates in this way using a single channel; it is
possible for both parties to talk at the same time.
 ● Synchronous, talking in real-time (telephone calls), trying to synchronise the receiving
and transmitting clock
● Asynchronous, there is a delay (emails and texts), only works successfully when small
amounts of data are transferred at relatively low speeds

Functions Performed between Source and Destination in Passing Messages

➔ Message Creation – Application Level
◆ Compiled at the source in preparation for sending
◆ This takes place using software application
➔ Organisation of packets at the interface between source and transmitter
– Communication Control and Addressing Level
◆ As messages descend the 3 levels of protocols, data packets are wrapped with
headers and trailers of the appropriate protocol

◆ At the (2nd) Control level, the protocols are managed by operating system
◆ Protocols = ensure the packets reach their destination correctly
● Uses Error Checks
● Checks Flow control
● Uses Source and destination address
◆ This process is reversed on the receiving end (trailers and headers removed)
➔ Signal generation by the transmitter – Transmission Level
◆ The transmitter is the physical hardware that encodes the data onto the medium
creating the signal
◆ Transmitters and receivers are contained in the same hardware device
◆ Hardware is controlled by protocols at transmission level
➔ Transmission – Transmission Level
◆ Transmission occurs as the signal travels through the medium
◆ Each bit/pattern of bits move from sender to receiver in particular waveform
➔ Synchronising the exchange – Transmission Level
◆ Transmitter/receiver uses a common clock so transmission can be synchronised!
◆ Synchronous communication transfer large packets of data
◆ While the transmitter is encoding the signal, the receiver is decoding the signal
AT THE SAME TIME!!
➔ Addressing and Routing – Communication Control and Addressing Level
◆ Data packets pass through many different varied links during transmission
 ◆ The packets (of the same file) may travel many different paths from the
transmitter to the receiver
◆ Each communication link will have its own protocol
◆ Each packet will ascend each protocol level until it reaches the addressing and
routing protocol
● Then they descend the level as it is prepared for transmission down the
next path
➔ Error detection and correction – Communication Control and Addressing Level
◆ As message descend the levels prior to transmission, many protocols calculate
checksum and cyclic redundancy check (CRC) values and include them within
header or trailer
◆ Once the message has been received, it ascends protocol levels where the
headers and trailers are examined
◆ Error check calculation is performed (by TCP, using inventory-like list) and if an
error is detected that packet is discarded and a replacement packet is sent
➔ Security and management – Communication Control and Addressing Level
◆ Many protocols restrict messages based on usernames and passwords
◆ Others escrypt messages during transmission
Roles of Protocols in Communication
● Formal set of rules and procedures that must be observed for 2 devices to transfer data
efficiently and successfully
● Developed to allow devices to communicate over a network
● When computers were first developed, different brands/models of computers would have
their own programming languages
● Instead of programming all computers to speak everyone else’s language, a separate
‘protocol’ was developed to allow them to communicate over a network
○ Each device now only had to learn new protocol to speak to lots of devices
➔ Handshaking = Process of negotiating and establishing the
rules of communication between 2+ devices. (Before two
devices can communicate they “handshake” to agree on
protocols to use)

The Client-Server Model

2 different types of computer present on a network
➔ Servers – provide specific processing services for clients
➔ Clients – request service, and wait for a response while the
server processes the request (e.g. web browsers and mail/web
servers)
● Advantage: many different users can have access to up-to-date
data and access it from many (remote and different types of)
computers
● Disadvantage: that clients may not have remote access to the server, and will need to
carry all files on local hard drive
- Other clients will not have access to these or any updates that may occur
 - Server function is compromised, clients will not be able to access the data or
service that the server controls

Client Server

Users interact with the client via application software Users often unaware of presence of servers

Users process files locally Server controls access to data by the use of log-on
procedures at the client end

Users transmit/retrieve data to or from the server as Server stores and supplies files as requested by the
required clients

User can communicate with servers Server can communicate with many clients

Client Server Processing

- Client-server Processing is a form of distributed
processing where different computers are used to perform
the specific information processes necessary to achieve the
system’s purpose
- Occurs sequentially: the client is processing, or the server
is processing, but not at the same time
● In a small LAN, computers act as both clients and servers
○ One machine may be connected to the Internet, and
hence, is an Internet server
○ Another Machine on the same LAN is connected to and controls the operation of
a shared printer, hence it is a printer server
Client Applications
- Provide the user interface and therefore they manage all interactions with end-users
- In many cases; the user is unaware of the server’s role
Virtual Servers
● A server may be dedicated server which means that it has been assigned a role, such as
a file server, that is the only thing it is able to do
● Virtual server is able to be used for different tasks and processes depending on the
needs of the network
○ One server may be used as a file server when needed and then as a print server
as well when needed

There are different types of clients existing on the same network. Thin or flat clients implies how
much processing is done at the user end of the client-server partnership

Thin Client Fat (thick) Client

Does little processing Does most of its own processing

 Has little (if any) application software installed Has most of its own application software

May not have a hard drive, and will rely on the server to Stores its application software on its hard drive
have the software application it needs

Example: remote desktop protocol Example: traditional LAN

Relies on network connection to servers Works if the network is down

Server Type Function Typical client

File server • stores files and programs shared by clients on the General application software, such as
network word processor, graphics application

Print server • controls one or more printers on the network and stores General application that requires
data waiting to be printed documents to be printed

Mail server • provides e-mail facilities, stores incoming messages Email application
ready for distribution to users and forwards outgoing mail
to appropriate devices.
• should also have virus and spam protection software
installed

Web server • provides a connection to the Internet, whereby web Web browser
pages can be retrieved and transmitted. Should have
firewall installed

Database server • stores and supplies database files or specific records Database application, DBMS

Proxy server • tries to perform the requested service on behalf of the Conventional clients and servers
real server, by keeping a record of recent requests and
responses within its large cache
• they can be set to block and/or filter inappropriate
content (like porn)

Examples of Communication Systems

➔ Teleconferencing systems
◆ Implies many people communication (conference) over large distances (tele)
◆ It might involve several people sharing telephone conversation
◆ Video presentation by one person to a large audience to another distant location,
or a multi-way web conference
➔ Messaging systems
◆ Includes email, voice mail, and VOIP (Voice over Internet Protocol). Traditional
telephone and fax services make way for more technologies.
◆ E-mail and voice mail are used by many people now
◆ VOIP is becoming a popular, cheap and easy alternative to transmitting voice
messages over traditional telephone lines.
 ◆ Sender of the message can connect with the service by plugging a telephone into
a modem that supports VOIP or can rely on ISP to provide this support
◆ Alternatively, they can install appropriate software onto computer and use that
◆ Recipients do not need a computer as VOIP can interface with public telephone
service if necessary
➔ E-commerce
◆ Includes most financial transactions over communications network (ATM)
◆ Electronic funds transfer at point of sale (EFTPOS), electronic banking and
shopping on the Internet (problems with fraud, negative impact on social groups)
ATM – Connection to network may be via Ethernet for terminal at a bank, or a phone line in a
shopping mall, operated by national networks and banks

EFTPOS – Customers pay for goods using credit cards. Communication with financial
institutions; EFTPOS machine connects machine owner’s server, which connects to customer’s
bank server, where the transfer of funds occurs (A public key system is used to encrypt data)

Internet banking – Customer’s web browser connects directly to the bank’s web server using a
URL that starts with https (connection is secure!). http protocol is used with security protocols in
middle of protocol stack (using public key encryption = padlock icon confirms secure
connection)

Trading over the Internet – PayPal system can be used to ensure that funds are transferred
appropriately, and that credit card details are kept secure

Requirements Teleconferencing Messaging – VOIP E-commerce

Report

Need/Purpose • The share ideas and Cheap and easy To provide fast and convenient
information alternative to the opportunities to shop, bank and pay
• Discuss options traditional telephone bills
• Make decisions system

Participants • Business people, • Educators • Individuals • Individuals

• Students • Business people • Bank
• Commercial enterprises

Data/Information Video, audio, text and graphics Audio • Personal details

• Transaction details

Information • Web camera and microphone Microphone, speakers, Terminals, networks including the
technology • High speed Internet Internet connection, Internet, servers complex and
(including connection instant messaging sophisticated software
computer) • large monitors or data software
projects
• web conference software

Advantages • Saves on travel-time and • Software free, • Accessibility from remote locations, all
 expense additional technology is day, every day
• Real-time and face-to-face not expensive, • Can be cheaper for both customer
discussion recipients don’t need and provider
computer

Disadvantages • May require IT specialist to
set up connections
• Low speed Internet
connection may compromise
quality of video
• If the Internet pathway • Can be subject to fraudsters, affecting
is busy, some data customer trust and loyalty
packets may be lost • Power failures prevent to system
causing poor quality being available
audio • User must have computer and
• Technology not Internet connection for banking and
available in power shopping
failure, bad for • Can impact on local shops and banks
emergencies in remote communities

Transmitting and Receiving in Communication Systems

Transmitted Media
- When discussion communication systems, MEDIA described the means through which
messages are sent as communication links

Transmission Medium Physical structure Where used Limitations Characteristics

(Wired) (Speed, Capacity,
Cost, and Security)

Twisted Pair • pairs of wires twisted LANs, 100 metres • Up to gigabits per
together telephone from computer second
• sometimes shielded with connections, to switch • Has only some
metal sheeting ADSL protection from
• Some coppah in there interference

Coaxial Cable • central copper or steel Broadband • Expensive • Protected from

core connections, • Not very interference
• surrounded by nylon cable flexible
insulator television
• then a metal wrap and
outer and insulator

Fibre Optic • consists of many optic • Major comm. • Repeaters • Supports high data
fibres and several protective links between are required to transfer rates over
layers continents and boost the large distances (in
• light travels down the fibre under sea. signal every the order of gigabits
 with little loss (refraction) • Backbones ~100 kms per sec)
• thin strands of glass fibre of LANs • The most • Interference does
• Aircraft, high Expensive not affect signal
security • Very secure against
networks tapping

Wireless

Transmission Where used Limitations Characteristics (Speed, Capacity, Cost, and

Medium Security)
(wireless)

Microwave Point to point at Direct line of sight required. Affected • Low security
ground level by interference • Low speeds, but can transmit across difficult
and to terrain and into space
satellites • Hardware devices that transmit and receive
data can be mobile

Radio Mobile phones, Low speed transfer • Low security

wireless LANs • Low speeds, but can transmit across difficult
terrain and into space
• Hardware devices that transmit and receive
data can be mobile

Infrared Between Direct line of sight require, short • Low security

portable distances only • Low speeds, but can transmit across difficult
devices and terrain and into space
computers, • Hardware devices that transmit and receive
remote controls data can be mobile

- Microwave, Radio and Infrared - These are all frequencies in the em spectrum and
signals are transmitted through the atmosphere and/or vacuum
● Microwave – widely used for long-distance data transmission. Antennae on high towers
can transmit across lines of sight but can be affected by interference (bad weather).
Needs repeated stations every 50km because of the curvature of earth. Carries high
bandwidth and uses repeater to amplify/retransmit signal along signal path
● Infrared – Infrared waves occur above microwaves and below visible light. They travel in
a straight line hence a direct line of sight is required between source and destination.
Used only over short distances. Traditionally, TV remote controls use infrared
● Wireless LANs (Radio) – Do not need cables to connect devices to LAN. Uses radio
frequency technology, transmit and receive data over the air. Mobile, adjustable and
provide security using WEP (wire encryption protocol). Can expand to allow internet
access, provided the user is within a range of phone connection. Quality of transmission
using Wi-Fi is not as high as other systems
 ● Satellite – a geostationary object that functions as a repeater. Maintains the same
position relative to earth. Very expensive but efficient and cost-effective over long
distances. High bandwidth and need to be replaced every 15-20 or if damaged
● Wireless Communications (3G and 4G) –

Communication Protocols

Application Level Protocol determined by the application

(data is organised into a form suitable for transmission)

http – Hypertext Transfer Protocol For web pages, to establish connection with an html server

smtp – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol For e-mails, to allow connection to the e-mail server, simple –
because most e-mails and their attachments are sent as text

ftp – File Transfer Protocol For direct file transfer from one computer to another, regardless
of operating system being used or whether the devices are
clients or servers. Most recent browsers can connect to ftp
servers

SSL – Secure Sockets Layer For transmitting data safely (usually e-commerce), it applies
encryption of data and digital certificates using a public key to
ensure that the message cannot be read or tampered with by
unauthorised agents.

Communication Control and Addressing Level Protocol determined by the operating system
(both TCP and IP are used in internet communications)

TCP – Transmission Control Protocol Error checking and data flow control, to ensure that the
messages are actually delivered correctly. Also works with IP,
cannot work alone. Responsible for transmission of most data
across the internet.

Uses ‘sliding windows’ (adjusting width) system to control the

flow of data/transmission speeds. This CONSEQUENTLY
ensures every byte is acknowledged once received

Packet in TCP terminology is a segment (a string of bytes

forming part of data to be sent). Checksum is produced prior to
the segment being sent.

IP – Internet Protocol Routes the data packets over the most efficient pathway for their
destination, using routers and IP addresses (4-byte number that
uniquely identifies each device on a network that uses Internet
Protocol. Always includes Host and Network ID). CAN work with
TCP.
 Causes data packets (“datagrams”) to move from sender to
receiver. Does not check to see if data packets have arrived, it
just sends them off and TCP does all the error checking –
Connectionless protocol. ARIP (Address Resolution Protocol)
helps it determine next hop for each datagram

Transmission level Protocol determined by the hardware

(built into the hardware device that accesses the network)

Ethernet Forms frames to contain the data packet, synchronises the

clocks (able to transmit frames at the same time), decides the
speed of transmission. but if they are on the same physical
transmission line, collision will occur → frame corruption! Uses
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) to deal with such collisions

Used for LAN (WAN uses Sonnet protocol instead). Uses CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Checks) for error checking. Replaced Token
Ring (one of the original protocols used at Transmission Level)

MAC Address = 6-byte number that uniquely identifies each

communication hardware device on a network. Used in
Transmission level protocols to identify particular NICs, switches
and other hardware devices.

Token Ring protocol Receives and transmits data packets to the next node on the
ring topology networks ONLY when it has received the ‘token’, to
which it attaches the data packet.

Strategies of Error Detection and Correction

Measuring speed

Bits per second • Number of bits transferred each second

• The speed of binary data transmission
• Networks may transfer typically at 100 Mbps

Baud rate • The number of signal events (baud) occurring each second along a
section of the transmission medium (e.g. change in voltage on a wire)
• If there are 4 possible types of baud, then 2 bits could be transmitted on
each baud, meaning an increase in rate of data transfer (negates the
change)
• Equivalent to the number of symbols per second.

Bandwidth • The range of frequencies that can be transmitted through a medium.

Higher bandwidth = increased capacity to transmit data, often in excess of
5Mbps (megabytes per second)
Network Topologies
● Describes the way in which devices (nodes) are connected and how data is logically
transferred between nodes.
● Basic topologies: BUS, RING, STAR (others common on larger networks: HYBRID/
TREE and MESH – Internet!)
Physical Vs Logical
➔ Physical: refers to the way that devices are actually connected together (tangible,
touchable, physical!)
➔ Logical: refers to the way in which data
travels around the network
Bus Topology
- A common cable (backbone/bus)
connects all nodes (requires little
cabling!)
- All nodes on the network receive the
data transmitted but only the node to
which it is addressed accepts and
processes data
- Not suitable for busy networks with many nodes!
- Fault in bus (backbone!) affects all nodes
● Media Access Control
○ Prevents collisions/deals with collisions after they occur
○ Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
○ Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Ring Topology
● Nodes are connected to a closed loop, so that each of
the stations on the network is physically connected to
two other devices –– TOKEN RING
● Data packets circulate the ring in one direction
● Each node receives the data from one node and
transmits it to the next node.
● A fault in cable/ 1 node affects the whole network
● All nodes needs to be powered up
Ring Topology – Token Ring Protocol
● Token (8-bit string) continually circulated the network
● When node transmits a message, the token is altered and the message is “attached” to
the token. Token then passes to the next node:
➔ If the message is addressed to node, it copies the message, then passes it on
➔ If the message is not addressed to the node, it simply passes onto the next node
Star Topology
● Nodes are attached to a central point (usually
switch) via its personal dedicated cable
● Most LANs use this arrangement
● Attaching other nodes will not affect other nodes
 ● More cabling is required
● HOWEVER, if switch is faulty, all nodes are affected
(since it’s centralised)
Hybrid/Tree Topology
● Looks like Tree! Uses combination of connected
Bus, Star, Ring topologies
● Often consists of a optic-fibre backbone that forms
a bus or ring topology with star topologies branching
off to the final nodes

Mesh Topologies
● More than one physical path between pairs of nodes
● The primary topology of the Internet
● Routers direct packets over a particular path (there’s
so many options!)
● Excellent fault tolerance as packets are
automatically routed around faults
Wireless Network Topologies
● A wireless access point provides the signal to
devices on the network
● Devices join the network with a password
● The wireless network will only have a limited area
which devices will receive the signal
● Devices can be moved around easily within the
network and can be easily added when needed.

Functions of Hardware

Hub Amplifies and retransmits data packers to all attached

nodes. May be used as centre node for star network
topology

Switch Determines address of the sender and receiver (next node)

from the data packet and sets up a connection between the
two. The data packet is then transmitted
Router Directs messages over the most efficient path in the network
to get to the destination. Uses IP address of the destination
(included in datagram). Includes functionality of gateway

Many include security features like blocking access to and

from specific websites and IP addresses

Small businesses/homes usually include a switch and

wireless access point, while those on the Internet connect to
any other router. These router need to read IP address for
destination of datagram and decide on best path to avoid
faults and congestion

Modem Modulates or changes the signal to an appropriate form for

transmission (from digital to analog, or different digital
voltage form).

ADSL modems change digital signals to form suitable for

high capacity, long distance transmission on conventional
telephone lines. Cable modems use coaxial cable to
connect to the optic fibre cables of the internet. Used in
conjunction with router to connect to the internet

Bridges Acts as an interface or translator between 2 sections of

network that are using the same protocol (ethernet or token
ring). Maybe a network dispersed in multiple floors of the
same building

Gateways Does the same between sections of a network that are using
different protocols
Network Interface Cards (NIC) NIC is a device that links a computer processor to the
network. Often expansion cards that slot into the
motherboard and connect to the network using cable. But
they can also be built into the motherboard and function by
‘reading’ a link using infrared waves in the atmosphere

In order for any device to communicate with another device,

creating a network, the device needs NIC

Mobile phones Connect using radio waves and require cellular stations to
access the network. Stations must be within a specified
distance of the phone for the network to function. Stations
link to telephone networks. Portable and offer a range of
services (Voice mail, text messaging) expensive compared
to standard telephone networks.

1G (1980s) – voice-only, analog service, top speed 2.4kbps

2G (1991) – allowed for call and text encryption as well as
SMS, picture messaging and MMS, top-speed 50kbps
3G (1998) – more data, video calling, mobile internet, top
speed 2 mbps
4G (late 2000s) – 500 times faster than 3G, can support
high-definition mobile TV/video-conferencing, speeds are
typically 10s mbps for moving devices, up to 100s of mbps
for stationary devices.
5G – New technology, faster speeds, larger bandwidth size
and can support many more devices at a time.

Wireless Access Points Central node on wireless LANs, broadcast all data packets
to all wireless nodes within the local area. To avoid security
issues, encryption system should be used

Bluetooth devices A communication system for short-range transmission.

Bluetooth-enabled devices may include mobile phones,
PDAs, mp3 players, laptops and gaming consoles. They
recognise each other and form an ‘ad-hoc’ network system
that shares a common communication channel. One device
is designated as the amter, and this controls and manages
 the network. All connected devices are the clients. Does not
require line of sight to work

Characteristics of Network Operating Software

Network Software
● A set of core programs that manages the network, its resources and its users
○ Example, Microsoft Windows NT
- Most operating systems include network capabilities, but a NOS (Network Operating
System) has many more advanced network management and security features
● A NOS allows a network to be centrally controlled by network administrators
- Improves the security and efficiency of access to the network’s resources
- Workstation software on each local computer connects users with the NOS to allow for
the processes such as file sharing, data sharing, peripheral sharing and remote
processing where needed. Functions performed include:
➢ Security (authentication of users)
➢ Access to network resources (files, printers and servers)
➢ User management (privileges and profiles)
➢ Managing memory allocation to different tasks
➢ Controlling peripherals (cross platform access, allows different types of
workstations to access file servers).

Internet, Intranets and Extranets

Internets
● A worldwide packet switched public network (anyone can access it!)
● Based on Internet Protocol where all data moves between nodes within IP datagrams
● No connection is maintained between the sender and receiver (as opposed to PSTN
phone calls)
● Designed for asynchronous rather than synchronous transfers as IP datagrams may
follow different paths to the destination and may arrive out of sequence
Intranets
● A private network maintained by a company/organisation and is based on Internet
● Uses the infrastructure and standards of the Internet (Internet Protocol, like Internet)
● Only accessed by specific users with passwords
● Needs to be protected by security from intruders and viruses
● May include Virtual Private Networks (VPN) that use the infrastructure of the public
Internet to provide secure and private connections to company’s internal network
● Network of many interlinked LANs within an organisation used to securely share
information and software
Extranets
● Extension of intranet that allows secure access to customers and other users outside
organisation (extra of an intranet)
● Secured with passwords firewalls and encryption
● Allows companies to share (some) services to other companies (large back provides
online banking services to smaller banks via its extranet)
 Advantages of Intranets and Extranets
● Savings on operation costs and paperwork (limited environment boundary, modern tech)
● Improved communications and public relations (relevant documents+users in 1 place)
● Web browsers are used to access intranets + extranets + web browsers on any
computer, so the same electronic information can be viewed by an employee no matter
what platform their computer utilises (PC or Mac)
Disadvantages of Intranet and Extranets
➢ Security (less physical protection) – measures to be undertaken:
○ Firewalls required that provide a channel where all traffic must pass, so access
may be monitored and limited to permitted users
○ Usernames and passwords required
Internet Intranet Extranet

Main purpose is to share information Main purpose is to share information Main purpose is to share information

Not owned by anyone particular body Privately owned network Privately owned network that may be
hosted by external agent

A world-wide network of computers, Can be created by designating one Can be created by designating one
servers and LANs computer to act as a server to other computer to act as a server to other
(client) computers or LANs) (client) computers or LANs)

Can be accessed by the public, via Can only be accessed by specific users Can be accessed by specific users,
an ISP (Internet Service Provider) within Intranet including specified external bodies.

Very little protection from Viruses Can be protected from intruders and Can be protected from intruders and
viruses by use of security and software viruses by use of security and software

- Intranet and Extranet may include virtual private networks that use the Internet
infrastructure

Other information processes in Communication Systems

Data originates as a physical value (customer name or other information). If this has to be input
into a computer or terminal (collected) then it needs to be encoded into digital form After
transmission or processing (or both) it needs to be converted back into analog (physical) form
(text or speech) so that is can be understood by people (displayed)

Collecting (and Displaying) - Telephone, EFTPOS terminal and computer can be input
(collection) and output (display) devices
● Telephone
○ Phone is display device, leave or listen to a message on voicemail
○ Use in automated bill paying – input of payers’ details and transactions,
authorisation, then receiving transaction receipt number
○ Use in product-ordering systems - input requirement details then receiving order
number and transaction details
● EFTPOS terminal
 ○A display device for electronic banking
○Customer will input PIN and transaction amount
○Then receive output receipt or money to pay, to make cash withdrawal, or
transfer funds from one account to another
● Computer
○ Uses browser or e-mail application to collect and receive data at each end of a
communication system

Processing
Encoding
- Terminal devices can decide to encode data from analog to digital form (digitisation, like
scanning image), which involves sampling of analog data by ADC (analog to digital
converter) or a DAC on receiver’s end
- This is transmitting and receiving
Formation of data packets
- Protocols installed in the system will encode digital data into data packets ready for
transmission across the network/Internet. Each protocol will add a header and trailer in
the data packet which includes
● Type of application that created it, address of sender and receiver, and an error
detection code
Routing or the Actual Process
● Some layers break data packet into segments, each requiring the things above
● Transmission layer of protocol stack changes data into physical signal (voltage or light
signal) hat can be transmitted on cable or other medium
● Receiver needs to process the data segments at levels of protocol in reverse order so
that the original message can be displayed properly.
Encryption and Decryption
● May occur within the encoding process to ensure data is secure. Data will be calculated
for error checking purposes and included in the data packet.
● Routing and Encryption occur at several levels in the protocol stack
Error checking methods
● The internet may have congestion whilst routers direct data bits from server to user
● Congestion results in loss of bits, so we need to re-transmit data and discard old one
● Process of detecting errors during transmission/storage of digital data and correcting
○ Usually involves sending or storing extra data bits according to algorithm

Method What is it? Advantage/Disadvantage Where it is

used

Parity Bit One bit per byte/character • Simple. • Motherboard

is added to ensure an • Does not detect errors if components
even/odd number of ones transmission (e.g. even • Serial ports
(odd/even parity is parity. There are an even (keyboard and
predetermined in settings) amount of bits BUT the mouse)

Originally created from
ASCII code was in popular
use.
bits have been swapped) • Older modems
• If 2 bits are swapped,
there can be an error, but
parity bit will not identify it
because it’s still even!

Checksum Uses a formula to add the • Fairly simple • Within TCP/IP

values of all the bits • Way more accurate than protocol
(counting all the 1s), the rest
producing a 16 or 32 bit • May fail to detect one
number that is attached to error in up to about 105
the back as an additional transmissions
byte.
BUT...
This additional byte is
checked and if numbers
don’t match up, error is
detected, packet is
retransmitted

The checksums are

checked to see if it matches
up

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Uses the remainder after • The most accurate • Ethernet
dividing the value of the • Better at detecting errors protocol
data packet by a than checksums (and • Secondary
predetermined (complex) parity check) storage
number or expression. hardware
devices
Treats the message as an
enormous binary number

Managing Communication Systems

Network administration tasks
Network Administrators
● Various tasks in administration of network hardware and software is carried out by
Network Administrators
➢ Installing and configuring hardware devices (+ peripherals) on the network
➢ Installing/Upgrading software for users (like network-based applications)
 ➢ Installing and managing network protocols
➢ Configuring new clients (involves installing small client program on each workstation)
➢ Adding new user accounts by setting up a username, password, access level
➢ Removing users from the network
➢ Logon and logoff procedures
➢ Assigning users to printers and other peripheral devices
➢ Assigning permissions to directories/folders (e.g. full-control, read-only, hidden, archive)
➢ Managing data hence backup procedures (ensuring data protection)
➢ Ensuring security to prevent unauthorised use (logon/logoff procedures)
➢ Troubleshooting and repairing as needed

Issues Relating to Communication Systems

Security Protecting data and intellectual property from accidental or deliberate abuse.
Procedures acknowledge this issue (back-up or lock-up)

Globalisation Companies can benefit by associating with overseas partners but smaller Magents and
communities may be disempowered

Changing Nature of Work Easy trading and communication over the Internet for individuals, businesses can be
kickstarted from home but isolation can be a problem

Interpersonal People can communicate easier but choosing different modes of communication (email
Relationships vs phone call) can affect people. Relationships at home and work can be affected by
access to information which was not foreseen, like e-mail and data files

E-crime Individuals are made vulnerable to scams who use Internet anonymity to hide.
Government allocated considerable resources to fight this. Identity fraud, spam and
phishing are concerns.

Legal Issues Often individuals do not understand legal obligations (copyright and ownership of
material)

Virtual Communities Forming groups with individuals across the world is nice. But on-line dating and
media-sharing activities can result in breach of privacy.

Internet Fraud ● Fraud involves some kind of deception that includes false statements that
● Security intentionally aims to cause another person to suffer loss – eg, financial.
● E-crime ● Spam messages trying to convince users to purchase goods, reveal passwords,
or other personal details
● Identity theft
● Phishing – email that asks for personal details

Power and Control ● internet filtering – schools, parents, countries blocking access to Internet
● Security ● monitoring data – collection of metadata, eavesdropping on phone calls or emails
● infringing on privacy – who else can see my emails
 ● Globalisation ● who is allowed to store data about other people and who has access to it – who
makes the decision about who will have access, eg, politicians, police, etc
● if our data is stolen by another someone in another country – can our country's
laws prosecute that person

Removal of physical ● if our data is stolen by another someone in another country – can our country's
boundaries laws prosecute that person
● Globalisation ● determining if a website/business is legitimate – can be difficult to tell online
● Legalities ● shopping online – purchasing from other countries can raise issues of where tax is
paid, damage to business in Australia
● other countries can interfere in elections

Interpersonal issues ● Changes to way we communicate – snapchat, etc

● Relationships ● Facebook communities – good because you can connect with people who have
● Virtual communities something in common with you but not necessarily in your local area – bad
because you might not actual experience physical contact
● People can become isolated and lose the ability to communicate in person
● Can allow for people to be manipulated – if you are targeted for your views,
people can influence you in some way
● Online dating – changed the way we meet people
● Fraud – catfishing – someone isn’t who they say they are
● Cyberbullying

Work and employment ● Can work from home – collaborate with people in different locations (overseas!)
issues ● Can take away other forms of employment – data scientists, traditional forms of
● Changing nature of reporting, photographers that work for newspapers
work ● Online shopping – don’t need an actual shop front anymore, for example, etsy
● Mobile phones and emails mean that we can be contacted anytime anywhere –
being expected to respond to issues when on holidays/break
● People can feel isolated using technology to communicate and not working with
actual people

Emerging Trends:
● Blogs: A blog is a web page that serves as a publicly accessible personal journal for an
individual. Entries are usually displayed in data order or updated daily. Blogs reflect
personality of author, (an individual) who does not let visitors edit or change originally
posted material, only to interact and add comments
● Wiki: Collaborative website that shows collective work of multiple authors. Wiki allows
people to edit, delete, modify content that has been previously placed.
● RSS (Really Simple Syndication): describes syndication (sharing) of content/information
on the web. RSS is an XML-based format: like in distributing news headlines and
podcasts on the web. A website that wants to allow other sites to publish some of its
content creates the document as an RSS feed and registers the document with an RSS
publisher. A user that can read (subscribe to) the feed can use the content on a different
 site. Author does not know who has subscribed to the feed. Syndicated content includes
data such as event listings, project updates and excerpts from discussion forums/videos
and corporate info
● Podcasts: Collection of mp3 files that deliver audio files in compressed format, used for
communication. Distributed as RSS feeds and a reader software application (aggregator)
will store a set of subscriptions that are checked regularly for updates. Users can read
the feeds on their computer screens and listen to downloaded content (images or video)
on their audio player or similar device
● On-line/Internet radio: used by traditional/new radio broadcasters to deliver their
programs over the Internet. Streaming software is used to transmit and receive data and
programs can be listened to whenever (live or not). Wireless connectivity can feed
Internet broadcasts to many devices, so it has no geographic limitations. These
broadcasts can include photos, graphics, texts, links and interactive message
boards/chat rooms. Cost of getting on the air is small for new Internet broadcasters so
Internet radio can appeal to micro-communities of listeners of niche interests.
● Online TV or IPTV (Internet protocol TV): Allows digital television service to be delivered
using Internet Protocol over network infrastructure, like delivery by broadband
connection. This is television content that is received by the viewer through technologies
used for computer networks.
● Video on Demand (VOD): Is a system that allows users to watch video and clip content
over a network in an interactive television system. They stream content or download it,
where the program is bought in its entirety before viewing starts. User selects or buys a
movie or television program and just watches it.
● 3G Technologies for Mobile Communications: 3rd generation of mobile phone
technology. Offers a wider range of advanced services (greater network capacity and
improved efficiency). Services include most Internet applications including web browsing,
video calls, in a mobile environment at 5-10Mbps using wide area cellular telephone
networks