Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

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Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Recent trends in solar PV inverter topologies T

⁎
Raveendhra Dogga , M.K. Pathak
Electrical Drives and Power Electronics Group, Electrical Engineering Department, IIT Roorkee, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The choice of the right type of power converters to meet the different requirements for any application has a
Single-stage inverters great influence on the optimum performance, especially in Solar Photovoltaic (PV) systems. In the last two
Multi-stage inverters decades, enormous developments have been taking place in PV systems in power electronics domain to meet the
Solar PV power converters utility/load requirements from the low voltage, non-linear, and highly sensitive (to environmental conditions)
Inverter topologies
power source (solar PV module/array). In particular, many inverter topologies have been introduced to in-
corporate the several unique features to fulfil PV system requirements, such as (a) intrinsic boost capabilities, (b)
isolation, (c) high efficiency, (d) good power decoupling, (e) dual grounding function, (f) single stage solar
power conversion capabilities, (g) compact design and (h) good power quality, for both stand-alone and grid-
connected applications. Since, inverter is an essential part in PV systems, a large number of research publications
have been published with new topologies/modifications, which leads to this persuasion of a critical review. In
this manuscript, a detailed analysis and classification about all the inverter attributes are presented for the 45
reviewed topologies, intended to serve as an expedient reference for selecting best power converter for a specific
requirement in PV systems.

1. Introduction 2009; Zgorena, 2004; I. Publications, 2000; Bründlinger et al., 2009;

Solar PV is progressively becoming the most appropriate source for
electrical power generation among all other sustainable energy sources
due to its merits such as abundance, pollution free (known as green
energy), no rotating parts, less maintenance, less noise, lower opera-
tional costs, and high modularity (Hacke et al., 2018; Moosavian et al.,
2013; Teodorescu et al., 2011). Moreover, many governments are
providing subsidies and incentives, and PV systems have great flex-
ibility for distributed power generation. By generating the power from a
solar panel near the load point reduces the transmission losses (Villalva
et al., 2010).
On the other hand, most important issue with solar power genera-
tion is PV system efficiency, which is quite low. To enhance the system
efficiency, it is desirable to track the maximum power point at all times,
by incorporating maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm in
Power Conditioning System (PCS) (Xue et al., 2004a; Faraji et al., 2017;
Kouro et al., 2015; Islam et al., 2015; Patrao et al., 2011; Jana and Saha,
2017; Myrzik and Calais, 2003; Bose, 2013). Also, PCS should meet the
requirements and recommendations such as power quality, islanding,
and DC current injection, imposed by different agencies of respective
countries for grid interface (Irwin et al., 2002; IEC, 2002; Basso and
DeBlasio, 2004; I. Standard, 2004; Vde, 2006; Tsili and Papthanassiou,
Spooner and Harbidge, 2001). Moreover, normally solar PV module
voltage is low, ranging from 30 to 60 V DC. To meet the voltage demand
(325 V peak for 1-ph and 565 V peak in case of 3-ph) of AC loads, there
is a need for inversion as well as a voltage boosting, whereas voltage
boosting is dependent on parameters like module voltage, the number
of modules, and their connection (Kouro et al., 2015; Islam et al., 2015;
Patrao et al., 2011). Series connection of solar PV modules decreases
efficiency and reliability over parallel connection (Patrao et al., 2011).
But, parallel connection of PV modules offers lower voltage. Thus, it is
clear that PCS must have following functionalities, such as voltage
boosting, MPPT Tracking and inversion. The voltage boosting stage can
be provided by either step-up dc-dc converter, or transformer followed
by an inverter (Jana and Saha, 2017; Myrzik and Calais, 2003; Bose,
2013; Irwin et al., 2002). But placing the line frequency transformer to
raise the voltage level is not a decent solution as it increases the cost,
size, and volume and lowers the efficiency of the system. Hence
transformerless topologies have been receiving a lot of attention in the
past few years (Patrao et al., 2011).
Two types of transformerless solutions are recommended in the
literature for PV systems, namely (a) Multi-Stage Power Conversion
(MSPC) and (b) Single-Stage Power Conversion (SSPC) (Jain and
Agarwal, 2007; Wu et al., 2011). Whether it is a single stage or multiple

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dogga.dee2014@iitr.ac.in (R. Dogga).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.02.065
Received 9 April 2018; Received in revised form 21 February 2019; Accepted 25 February 2019
Available online 08 March 2019
0038-092X/ © 2019 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

stage power conversion the most critical part of a PV system is inverter. 1: n 1: n

DC AC DC DC AC
In general, inverters are the principal cause of breakdown of large scale
PV systems (Bose, 2013). To enhance the life span and reliability sev-
AC DC AC AC AC
eral topologies are proposed as discussed in the following section.
Moreover, in addition to the quality and life span problems, solar PV (i ) (ii )
inverters also restricted power efficiency (Kouro et al., 2015). Nor- iA
DC DC
mally, inverter efficiency is around 94–96% with Si technology and as Irradiation PV iB
u DC AC Side
the load diminishes the efficiency can fall underneath 94%. Here, we Temperature u pv iC
Module DC AC
talked about most of the topologies (such as two stage power converters
(iii )
and inverter fed transformer) used in solar PV applications. However, ( A)
there are several topologies are existing of single stage nature in the iA
DC
literature which can offer more efficiency (around) for specific type of Irradiation PV iB
AC Side
configuration in PV systems. Similar to DC-DC converters, the majority Temperature u pv iC
Module AC
of the energy loss is dissipated as heat in the switching elements inside
the inverter (Faraji et al., 2017; Kouro et al., 2015; Islam et al., 2015; ( B)
Patrao et al., 2011; Jana and Saha, 2017). To reduce the switching
Fig. 2. PV inverter topologies classification: (A) Multi stage power conditioning
losses by using resonance concept or otherwise, with higher efficiency
topologies-(i) DC-AC-DC-AC inverter. (ii) DC-AC-AC inverter. (iii) DC-DC-AC
have been also reported, which are presented in the following section.
inverter and (B) single stage power conditioning inverters.
Moreover, inverter operates by modulation schemes which cause the
output varies between a positive and negative DC voltage value.
Switches will be operated periodically to create an average value of the between source and load, isolation, power rating, output wave shape,
output, which is equivalent to that of a true sinusoidal AC waveform. voltage gain, type of interface (grid/standalone), and soft/hard
Due to this reason, the output of the inverter is not a pure sine wave, switching. However, this review of inverter topologies is segregated
filtering elements such as capacitor and inductors will be needed at the based on the number of processing stages as shown in Fig. 2 for the
output terminals to filter out extraneous frequency content (Irwin et al., better presentation and then subcategorized based on their above-
2002). Boost and buck-boost type topologies which can meet the re- mentioned features.
quired grid conditions in terms of power quality without any ac side
filter are also presented. 2.1. MSPC topologies
To address specific issues/requirements in various types of PV
Systems such as central, string, multi-string and ac modules, numerous Number of power processing stages in PV systems are amalgamated
PV inverter topologies have been proposed in the literature for the ef- to provide specific features such as more gain and/or high-frequency
ficient and effective extraction of the solar power. isolation and/or wide range of operation and/or reduced burden on
Most of these topologies have been reviewed in this paper and control strategies (no. of power processing stages can share the burden
classified, based on several considerations such as no. of processing on the controller). In the literature, MSPC systems have been proposed
stages, isolation, the power rating of PV system, output shape, voltage with the variations in non-isolated DC-DC converters or isolated DC-DC
gain, type of grid interface, and soft/hard switching as shown in Fig. 1. converter structures including High-Frequency Transformer (HFT) and/
In the following section: 45 different topologies are presented along or DC-AC converter structures. These MSPC systems can be further
with their principle of operation, and classified based on their features, classified as
where as in Section 3: attributes of inverters and their presence in in-
verters are presented, and outcomes/conclusion of this review is pre- A. DC-AC-DC-AC topologies
sented in Section 4. B. DC-AC-AC topologies and
C. DC-DC-AC topologies

2. Inverter topologies 2.1.1. DC–AC–DC–AC topologies

The PV inverter research industry and manufacturing has under-
gone very fast growth in a couple of decades. Throughout these years,
even though several topologies have been developed by researchers, yet
limited promising technologies have been acknowledged by industries
for grid connection or stand-alone applications as determined by sev-
eral factors like structure, safety, reliability, efficiency, and cost. Hence,
in this paper the main emphasis is given to introduce comprehensive
review on PV inverter topologies, which can be a good reference for the
research as well as selection of suitable inverter to achieve desired
performance. In this paper, all reviewed inverter topologies are in-
vestigated about their features such as no. of power processing stages
In this type of topologies, firstly variable DC voltage coming from
PV array/module is made constant DC using HFT based DC-AC-DC
converter in the preceding stage with the required voltage boosting
ratio (can be achieved by proper duty ratio and HFT turns ratio). It is
then converted into AC in the last stage. Here, first stage isolated dc-dc
converter also offers MPPT operation and isolation. Generally, full
bridge- or half bridge- or dual active bridge based isolated dc-dc con-
verters are utilized to develop MSPC inverters, and the same are pro-
posed in the literature as shown in Figs. 4–6. Cost and losses of these
converters are high due to the more processing stages and large number
of components. With the variations in the DC link established after
isolated DC-DC converter stage as shown in Fig. 3, these DC-AC-DC-AC

Fig. 1. Organization of PV inverter topologies.

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R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

1: n iA
DC AC DC
Irradiation PV DC iB
u pv iC AC Side
Temperature Module AC DC Link AC

(i ) (ii ) (iii )

iA
DC DC
Irradiation PV DC iB
u pv uDC AC Side
Temperature Link iC
Module DC AC

Fig. 3. MSPC topologies classification based on DC link: (a) LC dc link. (b) L DC-
link and (c) pseudo dc link.
Fig. 5. Multiple-stage boost inverter by GEC (Bose et al., 1985).
topologies further classified as

i. LC-type DC-link based multi-stage systems

ii. L- type DC-link based MSPC systems
iii. Pseudo-DC-link between two stages

2.1.1.1. LC-type DC-link based MSPC Topologies. LC-type DC link placed

between DC-AC-DC converter and inverter stages is proposed in Bose
et al. (1985) as shown in the Fig. 4. The presence of LC based DC link
provides smoother DC input to the final stage inverter, results in better
power quality compared to other DC links and also offers better power
decoupling. However, this type of topologies suffers from cost and
reliability issues.
Fig. 6. Multiple-stage boost inverter with pseudo-dc-link (Saha and
Sundarsingh, 1996b).
2.1.1.2. L-type DC-link based MSPC systems. Another type of MSPC
topology is proposed with the small modification of DC link as shown
topologies with same degree of reliability. However, this topology is
in Fig. 5 (Bose et al., 1985). LC type dc link in previous topology is
suffering from poor power decoupling and more harmonic content
replaced with L-type DC link as the basic idea depicted in Fig. 3(b). Due
compared to previous two topologies.
to this, the last stage inverter functioning is modified from voltage
Common remarks on DC–AC–DC–AC topologies: Topologies discussed
source inverter to current type inverter i.e. half sine wave currents are
from Figs. 4–6 have a high-frequency dc-ac inverter at the input side,
generated at the intermediate inductor by proper control of power
which converts input DC into high-frequency AC. This high-frequency
switches of isolated dc-dc converter.
AC voltage level will be increased using HFT and then converted into
These half sine waves are converted into full sine waves by last stage
DC by using a bridge rectifier, which is placed after HFT. It is smoothen
inverter, and then fed to the load/grid through an LC filter. This to-
with the help of DC link placed after bridge rectifier. DC-link output is
pology doesn’t demand bulk sized DC link capacitor, results in better
fed to inverter stage, which converts DC into AC.
reliability and lower price compared to the previous topology, and also
offers better efficiency as the last stage inverter is operating at line
2.1.2. DC–AC–AC topologies
frequency, but this topology offers lower power decoupling capacity as
Beristáin et al. proposed an inverter as shown in Fig. 7 (Beristain
compared to the previous topology. A 10-kW grid-connected PV system
et al., 2003), in which AC-DC-AC stage used in previous topologies is
with this configuration has been commercially developed by General
replaced with AC-AC converter (high-frequency AC to line frequency
Electric Company.
AC converter). Firstly, PV voltage is converted into high-frequency AC,
then processed through HFT for voltage level changing. HFT output is
2.1.1.3. Pseudo-DC-link based MSPC systems. Pseudo DC link based fed to AC to AC converter for the conversion of high-frequency AC to
multi-stage inverter topology as proposed in Saha and Sundarsingh
(1996b) is shown in Fig. 6, in which DC link is replaced with a pseudo-
DC link shown in Fig. 3(b). As the dc link components are eliminated in
this topology, its cost, size and volume are lesser compared to previous

Fig. 4. Multi-stage inverter with a high-frequency transformer (Bose et al.,

1985). Fig. 7. Bidirectional dc–ac–ac converter (Beristain et al., 2003).

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R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

line frequency AC. This process eliminates the requirement of DC link as L D

discussed in previous topologies (Figs. 4–6), resulting in better relia-
bility. Also, reduction in one stage between the source and load results S1 S3
in higher efficiency. However, this topology suffers from poor power
decoupling, and power quality for high ratio frequency conversion PV
Irradiation Filter
compared to previously mentioned topologies. SB AC
C
Common remarks on HFT based MSPC (DC-AC-DC-AC and DC-AC-AC) Module
systems: All the above-mentioned topologies (Figs. 4–7) utilize HFT and Temperature S2 S4
offer electrical isolation between PV panel and load/grid resulting in
high gain and fault tolerant capability of the system. Usage of line
frequency inverter, on grid side reduces switching losses. MSPC topol-
ogies need more components for achieving the required voltage gain, Fig. 9. Transformerless PV inverters with voltage boost stage (Rahman and
which increases the overall price as well as reduces the system efficacy. Zhong, 1997).

2.1.3. DC-DC-AC topologies Ll

This type of power conversion scheme generally preferred in most of S5
D6 S1 S3
the PV systems is called Two-Stage Power Conversion (TSPC) systems
(Boutot and Chang, 1998; Rahman and Zhong, 1997). To enhance de-
L1
sign flexibility, voltage gain as well as energy harvesting capabilities, a CS
Vin Filter AC
dedicated dc-dc power converter is placed between PV module and Df C
inverter as shown in Fig. 2(iii). The main difference between dc-ac-dc-ac S6
D5 S2 S4
and dc-dc-ac power conversion scheme is isolated converter employed
in former method is replaced with non-isolated dc-dc converter in later
method. Boost, Buck-Boost, SEPIC and Cuk converters are widely pre-
ferred for developing TSPC systems.
A dc-dc boost converter fed Half Bridge Inverter (HBI) or Full Bridge Fig. 10. Two-stage nonisolated buck-boost inverter by Saha and Sundarsingh
(1996a).
Inverter (FBI) is shown in Fig. 8 (Boutot and Chang, 1998) and Fig. 9
(Rahman and Zhong, 1997) are respectively used to realise simple TSPC
system. They are treated as a conventional two-stage solution for PV L
applications. In the case of HBI topology, dc link is established through
S
two equal capacitors. These two capacitors act as a three-terminal dc S1 S2
supply to HBI, which converts dc power into ac power, which is pro-
cessed through the filter before feeding to load. In this case, only half of
the boost converter voltage is equal to peak value of converted ac. CS 1: n
Vin Filter AC
However, in case of FBI based TSPC systems, the full output voltage of C
boost converter is equal to peak value of converted ac. This means that
more output voltage is available in case of FBI based TSPC systems, and S3 S4
peak inverse voltage is half compared to HBI for the same rated TSPC
systems. Hence, FBI based TSPC is widely preferred. Similar to boost D
converter fed inverter topologies for TSPC, buck-boost based topologies
by replacing boost converter with the buck-boost converter is proposed
Fig. 11. Two-stage isolated buck-boost inverter by Saha and Sundarsingh
in Kang et al. (2002). Further, several modified buck-boost based
(1996a).
topologies have been proposed and explained in the following subsec-
tion.
Saha et al. proposed a non-isolated buck-boost dc-dc converter fed semiconductor devices needed in conventional non-isolated boost dc-dc
inverter as shown in Fig. 10 (Saha and Sundarsingh, 1996a), with the converter. Same authors extended their contribution and developed a
limited DC input voltage of 100 V to follow safety standards in PV simple topology based on the flyback transformer as shown in Fig. 11.
systems. Rectified DC is developed at the first stage buck-boost con- The operation of this topology is similar to earlier, which means in the
verter and fed to the last stage. Although this topology has a simple first stage rectified DC is developed and half-wave inversion took place
structure, but its voltage conversion ratio, and DC voltage variation in the last stage. Due to the HFT and half wave rectified natured dc-dc
range is limited. Moreover, this topology requires twice the number of conversion, this type of converters is not suitable for high power ap-
plications.
Funabiki et al. (2002) proposed a buck-boost inverter by eliminating
HFT, including the extended DC input operation capability by adding
an intermediate capacitor to the charging loop as shown in Fig. 12. For
wide input voltage variation, the performance of this two-stage inverter
topology was found to be superior. But the operation of the converter is
complex and the number of switching components are more which in
turn reduces the efficiency.

2.2. Active decoupling

Instantaneous power pulsates at twice the input frequency, which

creates a second-order ripple on the DC voltage or current. In the case of
Fig. 8. Half-bridge topology with dc-dc boost stage (Boutot and Chang, 1998). PV inverters, the voltage ripple reduces the PV conversion efficiency, if

60
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

All the switches used in these topologies mentioned till now are
operated in hard switching, resulting in high switching losses. To re-
S1 S2
duce the switching losses, resonant topologies have been proposed in
literature, which as presented them in the following subsection.
S6
C AC
Vin L 2.3. Resonant DC-AC-DC-AC topologies

CS In case of MSPC systems such as DC-AC-DC-AC inverters, losses are

S5 S2
S4 more due to more no. of stages. In such systems, it is beneficial to en-
D5 D0 S0
hance the efficiency by introducing soft switching concept as efficiency
is the major driving factor in PV systems. Several resonant topologies
have been developed for solar PV applications.
Theoretically, through the frequency modulation control output
Fig. 12. Buck-boost inverter by Funabiki et al. (2002). side impedance of resonant converters can be controlled from zero to
infinite (Severns, 1992). This is useful for matching the source (PV
Lf module/array) characteristics with load characteristics without any
D flyback additional shunt or serial resistors. Resonant converters are more ap-
S flyback S1 plicable than the traditional PWM isolated dc-dc converters for the
D1
CS Solar PV applications. Among numerous resonant converters, the series
Cf AC resonant converter (SRC) offers adequate efficiency, but it suffers from
output voltage regulation issue under light load conditions (Bhat,
1993b; Yang et al., 1992a). It can be overcome through parallel re-
sonant converter (PRC). However, in PRC circulating energy is much
higher than SRC, which impacts efficiency significantly (Yang et al.,
Cin 1992a; Johnson and Erickson, 1988). The series-parallel resonant
Vin 1: n : n converter (SPRC) retains the advantages of SRC and PRC, with smaller
circulating energy and reduced sensitivity to load changes (Bhat,
D2 1993a; Yang et al., 1992b). However, to obtain the required voltage
S2
gain all these three converters (SRC, PRC and SPRC) need to be operate
at very high switching frequency. Therefore, for more voltage gain
Fig. 13. Flyback inverter with active power decoupling by Shimizu et al. operation, SRC, PRC, and SPRC possess high circulating energy, which
(2006). lowers efficiency. In such cases, the LLC resonant converter shown in
Fig. 15 has smaller circulating energy than SRC, PRC, and SPRC (Lazar
not decoupled from the PV panels (Li et al., 2013; Larsson and Ostlund, and Martinelli, 2001; Zhang et al., 2016); hence, the efficiency of the
1995; Shimizu et al., 2000; Tsuno et al., 2004; Qi et al., 2014). Con- PV system can be significantly increased. However, input side DC-HFAC
sequently, inverters need a filtering solution in order to ensure a smooth inverter of this topology is of half bridge type, which causes more
DC voltage and current. stresses on the devices compared to full bridge topology on both sides as
An isolated flyback buck-boost inverter topology is proposed by shown in Fig. 16. Similar to these topologies, current fed topologies are
Shimizu et al. (2006) and Kjaer and Blaabjerg (2003b) is shown in presented in Figs. 17 and 18 with the advantage of high voltage gain.
Fig. 13. The proposed two-stage isolated inverter comprises of a buck-
boost converter with an intermediate capacitor followed by a flyback
2.4. Multi-level TSPCS
inverter in the last stage. MPPT algorithm is included in the foremost
converter i.e. buck-boost converter, and energy will be stored in the
An alternative transformerless topology that can deliver an answer
intermediate capacitor. The voltage across the intermediate capacitor
to the double grounding issue as well as high and medium power/
(utilized as energy buffer) consists of two components: DC component
voltage capability is multi-level inverter (MLI) concept. One of MLI
and AC component fluctuating at double the frequency of the load.
topology known as diode-clamped multilevel inverter (DCMLI) (three
Stored energy in the intermediate capacitor is processed by the Flyback
levels) shown in Fig. 19 (Lee et al., 2011). In this case half of the boost
inverter in the last stage and then injected into the grid through LC
converter output can be the peak value of AC. To make it twice, another
filter.
topology is developed with two individual boost converter fed DCMLI
as show in Fig. 20. In this figure, DCMLI topology is used and can be
S flyback1

replaced with the other MLI topologies such as capacitor clamped,

Lf
D fb1

S1
S synchronous D1
Cf AC

Cin
Vin CS

1: n
S flyback 2

D2
D fb 2

S2

Fig. 14. Flyback inverter with enhanced power decoupling by Kjaer and Fig. 15. LLC resonant Half-Bridge DC-DC Converter (Lazar and Martinelli,
Blaabjerg (2003b). 2001).

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R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

Fig. 16. LLC Resonant Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter (Zhang et al., 2016).

Fig. 21. Cascaded H-bridge multi-level inverter (Villanueva et al., 2009; Xiao
et al., 2015).

Fig. 17. Current fed resonant Half-Bridge DC-DC Converter (Wolfs, 1993).

Fig. 18. Current fed resonant Full-Bridge DC-DC Converter (Jalbrzykowski and
Citko, 2008). Fig. 22. Capacitor clamped inverter (Yuang et al., 2001).

cascaded H-bridge and modular multi-level converter, as shown in

L D S1 Figs. 21 and 22 respectively. Among all, modular multi-level and cas-
caded H-bridge inverters are widely preferred for solar PV applications.
PV C1 S2 Common remarks of dc-dc conversion in TSPC systems: From the above
Irradiation section, it is clear that there are two types of TSPC systems based on dc-
D1
Module dc (isolated/non-isolated) converter output
SB D2
Temperature S3
Filter AC 1. Constant DC based DC-DC converter fed PWM inverter
C2 2. Rectified DC fed line frequency inverter
S4
The first method is the conventional way of power conversion
scheme in case of solar PV systems, whereas in the second method
rectified sine wave will be produced at the output of dc-dc converter by
Fig. 19. Neutral point diode clamped inverter (Lee et al., 2011). adopting proper control strategies. Hence, one can replace high-fre-
quency inverter with line frequency inverter, results in efficiency im-
provement by reducing the switching losses. However, half sine wave
based dc conversion scheme suffers from complicated control strategy
and also this type of strategy demands the design of dc-dc converter for
peak power, rather than average power.
In overall, TSPC systems as shown in Fig. 23 suffer from the
common drawbacks such as a large component count, more losses, two
independent control structures, large size, cost, and weight. To over-
come these drawbacks several single stage power conversion (SPPC)
systems are proposed as discussed in the following section.

iA
DC DC
Irradiation PV iB
u DC AC Side
Fig. 20. Neutral point diode clamped inverter (Hinz and Mutschler, 1998, Temperature u pv iC
Module DC AC
1996).

Fig. 23. TSPC scheme.

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R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

PV S3
Irradiation S1
S1 S3 C1
Module
Temperature Lf
L
Filter AC
Cin
Vin PV
Irradiation
S2 S4 Module S2 S4
Temperature C2

Fig. 24. Typical single-phase PV inverter (Calais et al., 2002). Fig. 26. Multilevel (three levels) half-bridge diode-clamped inverter (HBDC)
(Blaabjerg et al., 2004).

2.5. Review on single stage topologies

If solar PV array voltage is sufficiently large, then the required boost
functioning provided by the DC-DC converter and/or transformer can
be eliminated (Xue et al., 2004b). In such cases, simple inverter (with or
without intrinsic boost capabilities) can fulfill the requirements of solar
PV system such as MPPT and inversion. Otherwise, inverter with in-
trinsic boost capabilities will be the best choice for Single Stage Power
Conversion System (SSPCS). Such systems can be classified as
A. Single stage voltage step-down topologies
B. Single stage voltage step-up topologies
2.5.1. Single stage step down topologies
In 1980s first generation inverters, line-commutated inverters were
designed for the purpose of electrical drives technology. They are
generally in the range several kilowatts. Later the self-commutated in-
verters have been developed and preferred for solar PV applications, as
shown in Fig. 24. This type of inverter offers high robustness, less cost
and fewer losses, but suffer from requirement high DC link voltage.
Classic transformer-less FBI configuration accompanied by higher
switching frequencies leads more switching losses, results in less effi-
ciency. Still, it’s attractive due to simple, robust, economical features
and well-known technology (Meinhardt and Mutschler, 1995). If the
required performance index is met, this system can be preferred over
other topologies.
Similar to dc-dc converter fed inverter shown in Fig. 9, VSI fed step-
up transformer configuration is also another solution as shown in
Fig. 25 (Calais et al., 2002), with the less input voltage requirement.
However, transformer based solution suffers from less efficiency, bulky
size, and higher cost. Hence, line frequency transformer less inverter
topologies are widely preferred.
2.5.1.1. Buck derived Multi-level SSPCs. Similar to full bridge VSI, multi-
level inverters also have buck characteristics. These multi-level
inverters are the best choice for medium and high voltage/power
solar PV systems (Blaabjerg et al., 2004). In Fig. 26, DCMLI based
systems have been presented and it can be replaced with other multi-
level topologies such as capacitor clamped, cascaded h-bridge and
modular multi-level inverters. When compared to conventional two-
level inverters, multi-level inverters offer several advantages such as
less common mode voltages, low dv/dt, lower input distortion, high
switching frequency and reduced harmonic distortion.
Topology shown in Fig. 27 uses generation control circuit (GCC)
(Shimizu et al., 2003), that consists of two switches (S1 and S2) and an
inductor L. Inclusion of GCC enables self-sufficiently maximum power
point tracking in both the PV strings even under partial shading con-
dition. The drawback with the design is characteristically a half-bridge,
displaying buck qualities. Because of this, a PV string of a substantial
number of PV modules would be necessary, which will probably get
influenced by partial shading conditions. In this specific case, the PV
characteristics of these strings might hold numerous peaks, which
makes difficult to track the global peak, if every PV module is not
supported by GCC.
2.5.1.2. High-performance buck natured single stage inverters. A patented
topology from sunways is presented in González et al. (2007), entitled
as Highly Efficient and Reliable Inverter Concept (HERIC). It utilizes an
amended version of the H-Bridge, by adding two parallel connected
additional switches in sequence accompanying diodes as shown in
Fig. 28 (Zhang et al., 2014; Cui et al., 2011). These two additional
switches (S5 and S6) comes into action during the freewheeling period
and results in increasing the inverter efficiency due to the reason that
the freewheeling current won’t drive back to the input side DC-link
capacitor, since it catches a route via S5 or S6 and the corresponding
diode, depending on the direction of the grid/load current. In Yu et al.

PV S 21
Irradiation C1
S1 S2
Module S 22
Temperature
1: n
D1 L
L
Vin CS C AC
AC
PV
Irradiation D2 S 23
S3 S4 Module
Temperature C2
S 24

Fig. 25. Traditional buck inverter and line-frequency transformer (Kjaer et al., Fig. 27. A novel high-performance utility-interactive photovoltaic inverter
2005). system (Shimizu et al., 2003).

63
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

Boost / Boost /
Buck Boost Buck Boost

S1 S3 DC DC
Irradiation PV Irradiation PV
u pv uDC u pv u DC
Temperature Module Temperature Module
DC u AC DC u AC

PV S5 DC DC
Irradiation Filter
C S6 AC DC DC
Module (a) (b)
Temperature Boost /
Buck Boost
Buck Boost

DC
S2 S4 Irradiation PV DC Irradiation PV
u u DC u AC u pv u DC
Temperature Module pv Temperature Module
DC DC u AC

DC
DC
Irradiation PV
Fig. 28. Highly efficient and reliable inverter concept from sunways (González Temperature
u pv
DC
Module DC
et al., 2007). Boost / Cuk
Buck Boost

(c) (d)
Fig. 30. Evaluation of Boost/buck-boost based in inverters.
S5 S1 S3

PV Load
Irradiation Filter AC
C S1 S3
Module
Temperature S2 S4
C1 L1 L2 C2

Fig. 29. H5 topology from SMA (Wang et al., 2012).

S2 S4

(2011), Araújo et al. (2010) and Poliseno et al. (2012), it has been
reported that the efficiency of this modified H-Bridge topology is in the
range of 98%. Fig. 31. Four-switch boost inverter by Caceres and Barbi (1999).
Another inverter topology patented by SMA also utilizes an H-
Bridge hybrid as shown in Fig. 29. SMA named it as ‘H5 topology’. This
topology comprises of a standard H-Bridge together with the addition of
one switch on the input DC side. Depending on the input voltage, this S1 S3
configuration offers the highest efficiencies up to 97% as reported in the CS Vin
literature (Wang et al., 2012). To decrease the requirement of high-
level DC input in SSPC systems, a number of inverter topologies with L1 L2
intrinsic boost capabilities have been proposed as discussed in below
subsection. V1 V2
S4 C1 C2 S2

2.5.2. Single stage step-up (boost/buck-boost derived) topologies Load

Similar to TSPC systems, single-stage boost or buck-boost inverters
can assure boosting and inverting functions in single power processing
stage, which is a major attraction for solar PV systems. Even though
buck-boost has both step down and step up capabilities, both boost and
buck-boost topologies have been presented and discussed in this sub-
section. Similar to dc-dc converters, these inverters also utilize in-
ductors to store energy or flyback transformers for both energy storage
and isolation. Most of these topologies have originated from the con-
cept of a combination of two isolated or non-isolated dc-dc converters
with their input connection in parallel/series and the load connection in
differential or additive manner as shown in Fig. 30.
The four switch boost inverter topology shown in Fig. 31, was
proposed by Caceres and Barbi (1999); in which DC inputs of dual boost
converters were tied together in parallel to the source, and the load is
connected in differential fashion between those two boost converter
output terminals as shown in Fig. 30(a). Modulation of each converter
is in such a way that they will produce unipolar dc-biased sinusoidal
output with a phase difference of 180°. A pure sinusoidal waveform can
be produced at the output. The design of converter was not specially
made for PV system, but still, the performance as single stage grid-
connected inverter was found to be superior. EMI difficulties and
switching losses of the topology was found to be large due to hard
switching.
By utilising the same concept depicted in Fig. 30(a), buck-boost
Vo
Fig. 32. Four-switch buck-boost inverter by Vázquez et al. (1999).
inverter was introduced by Vázquez et al. (1999) as presented in
Fig. 32; in which DC inputs of buck-boost converters are tied together
and linked in parallel to the source, and the load is connected between
the two outputs in differential fashion. The main difference between
previous topology and this topology is boost converters are replaced
with buck-boost converters. The connection of the source and load is
similar to the previous topology, but this topology can produce AC
output voltage either lesser or greater than the DC input voltage.
Output voltage flexibility was found to be superior in their design.
Kjær and Blaabjerg (2003a) proposed a new converter in which two
flyback converters are connected in back to back with a common DC
source as shown in Fig. 33. The load is connected in differential mode
between the two isolated converters outputs similar to earlier topology.
In contrast to earlier topology, in this topology is isolated buck-boost
(flyback) converters are used in the place of non-isolated buck-boost
converters. HFT used in flyback converter provides galvanic isolation.
Nevertheless, the need of two transformers is a costly solution.
Xue and Chang (2004) proposed another topology based on buck-
boost principle for the single-stage grid-connected PV system, as shown
in Fig. 34. The operation of this topology utilizes the concept of flyback

64
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

L Lf
AC S2 D1
1: n
n :1 1: n S1 Cf AC

C C
C1
Vin

S1 S2 Vin S3 S4
S3 D2

Fig. 36. Flyback inverter for small-scale photovoltaic power system (Kasa et al.,
Fig. 33. Four-switch isolated buck-boost inverter by Kjær and Blaabjerg 1999b).
(2003a).

systems is published in Kasa et al. (1999a).

Kasa et al. (1999b) modified their converter by replacing buck-boost
S1 S3 converter with flyback converter as shown in Fig. 36. This topology
D1
contains only three power switches and one isolation transformer.
L1 D3 Lf Working of this converter is similar to their old converter proposed in
Fig. 35. Because of control on the estimation of inductance of Flyback
Vin CS Cf converter, this topology can only be used for low power application
AC around 500 W (Kasa and Iida, 2002). Isolation transformer used in this
D2 topology also adds some extra losses.

S4 D4 S2
L2
Fig. 34. Closed-loop SPWM control for grid-connected buck-boost inverters
(Xue and Chang, 2004).
principle, however, a flyback transformer is replaced with coupled in-
ductors. During the negative half cycle, this topology utilizes Flyback
principle using coupled coils. This converter can be used just for low
power application because of coupled coils. The operation of the con-
verter during two half cycles are asymmetrical and the conduction and
switching losses are also on the higher side.
Kasa et al. proposed another buck-boost based single stage inverter
(Kasa et al., 2000) as shown in Fig. 35; in which DC input source is
divided into two to fed these two separate buck-boost converters. The
load is shared by both the converters where each converter operates for
half cycle and the operation of both converters are similar. However,
only one converter is used for the one-half cycle and another converter
is in idle state. Hence, effective utilization of converter and source is
half compared to earlier discussed inverter topologies. Due to the
availability of common ground for both DC and AC, this topology is
preferred schemes wherever grounding is needed for both DG and grid
neutral. Switching and conduction losses of this topology were found to
be less since only two devices are used during any half cycle of the grid
voltage. The application of this inverter is used for residential PV power
2.5.3. Mixed topologies
In addition to aforementioned topologies, Myrzik proposed a new
converter via interfacing Cuk converters and Zeta converters in parallel-
parallel connection, which is applicable to photovoltaic systems, as
shown in Fig. 37 (Myrzik, 2001). The high-frequency operation of all
the switches used in this circuit increases the overall loss, which is a
major drawback of this topology. Asymmetrical operation within po-
sitive and negative half cycle is another drawback of this converter.
This topology does not only demand complex control scheme, may also
cause asymmetrical current leading to DC component injection into the
grid current.
Flying inductor inverter topology is patented (Schekulin, 1999); is
shown in Fig. 38. To complete the inverter operation, this topology is
required to operate in buck, boost and buck-boost modes. During buck
mode, switch S1 and diode D1 are operating with PWM, whereas
switches S3 & S5, D2 are continuously on and switches S2 & S4 are
continuously off. During boost mode, switches S2 and D2 operate with
PWM, switches S1 diode S5 are continuously on and switches S3 & S4 are
continuously off. Whereas in buck-boost mode, switch S1 and diode D1
operates with PWM, switches S2 & S4 are continuously on and switches
S3 & S5 and Diode D2 are continuously off. During the positive half
cycle, till Vo < Vin this circuit operates in buck mode, and then circuit
operates boost mode to get Vo > Vin. Whereas in the negative half
cycle, circuit operates only in buck-boost mode. The major demerits of
this topology are operation is asymmetrical nature, demands compli-
cated control scheme, and has the possibility of DC current injection to

S1
S2 D1
C1 S1
C AC S4
Vin L1
C1

L1 Lf
L2 Vin C2
Vin C2
S4 D2
S3 AC
S2 D1 D2 S3

Fig. 35. Four-switch buck-boost inverter by Kasa et al. (2000). Fig. 37. Zeta and Cuk configuration (Myrzik, 2001).

65
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

S1 S2 T1
S4
S1 Lf Lf

D1
Cr Cf
L
L1 Lf Vin AC
Vin
D2

S2 S5 S3 AC T2
S3

Fig. 41. A novel single-stage series-resonant buck-boost inverter (Wang and

Fig. 38. Flying inductor inverter (Schekulin, 1999).
Chen, 2004).

L1 Lf PWM frequency and Thyristor T1 is in completely on during the positive

D1
S1 C2
Vin C1
AC
L2
D2
S2
Fig. 39. Single-stage grid-connected inverter topology for solar PV systems
with maximum power point tracking (Patel and Agarwal, 2009).
load/grid.
Patel and Agarwal (2009) proposed a single stage topology in view
of buck-boost principle as shown in Fig. 39. S1 works at PWM frequency
and S5 remains constantly ON throughout negative half cycle. S1 and S5
works at PWM frequency whereas S3 and S4 remains constantly ON,
during the positive half cycle. Switching and conduction loss and EMI of
this topology are low. This inverter offers better use of the existing PV
source contrasted with the topology proposed by Kasa et al. This to-
pology is straightforward, symmetrical and needs a basic sine-triangle
PWM control for its maximum power point tracking.
Same authors extend their contribution and proposed modern
single-stage 1 − φ transformer-less PV-fed grid inverter as shown in
Fig. 40. This topology is capable of providing dual grounding, designed
with fewer components and works using single PV string. The out-
standing qualities of this topology are there is no possibility of injecting
DC component into the grid since the fact that it uses the same oper-
ating principle (as that of a buck-boost converter) in both the halves of
the AC cycle, requires single buck-boost inductor and offers effective
utilization of the PV array. As mentioned earlier, several single stage
inverters are proposed with resonance concept to reduce the losses, and
discussed about them in the following subsection.
2.5.4. Single stage resonant topologies
A novel single-stage series resonant buck-boost inverter is proposed
by Wang and Chen (2004). This circuit operation involves buck-boost
principle as switches S1 & S3 operates in a complementary manner at
D1 S2
PV S1
Irradiation L1
Module C1
period. Whereas switches S1 & S2 operates in a complementary manner
at PWM frequency and Thyristor T2 is in completely on during the
negative period. Due to the resonance behavior, switching losses are
less, leading to improve efficiency. The same authors extended their
contribution and proposed single-stage full bridge buck-boost inverter
topology with zero current switching as shown in Fig. 42 (Wang, 2003).
In contrast to the previous topology authors replaced the semi con-
trolled switches used in previous topology with fully controlled
switches, without effecting the principle of operation (buck-boost op-
eration). Switches S1 & S3, and diode D2 are the main players during the
positive half cycle; whereas switches S2, S4, and diode D1 are the main
players during the negative half cycle. Switches S3 and S4 are turned on
at ZCS by the LC series-resonant tank that sequentially diminishes the
switching losses. This topology offers less EMI concerns, can operate at
the higher switching frequency, and high reliability. However, the
problem of this topology is an asymmetrical operation in both the half
cycles.
On the other hand, there are several impedance source converters
have been proposed in the literature with internal voltage boosting
capabilities which can suit for single stage conversion as discussed
below subsection.
2.5.5. Impedance source converters
Huang et al. (2006) proposed a split phase PV systems using a Z-
source inverter as shown in Fig. 43. Four hard switches are used in this
topology which increases the switching losses. Moreover, this topology
requires two bulk sized inductors and capacitors. Later quasi Z-source
topology has been proposed as shown in Fig. 44 with the objective of
reduced stresses on the capacitors, which leads to increase the life of the
converter. Improved z-source topology as shown in Fig. 45 has been
proposed to reduce the inrush current at the starting. Switched boost
inverter similar to ZSI has been proposed as shown in Fig. 46 with
power electronic switch, diode, indictor and capacitor based network
placed between source and switching network. This topology has same
voltage gain characteristics of ZSI along with reduced capacitor
stresses. All these mentioned impedance source converters offer high
S2 S1 S2 S1
Cs1
D2
D2 D1
Lf L2 L1
L L
Cf AC Vin L1 Vin CS

Temperature C1 C2 C C
S5 AC AC

S4 S4 S3
S3 D1
S4 Cs 2
D2
S3

D3 (a) (b)
Fig. 40. A single-stage single-phase transformer-less doubly grounded grid- Fig.42. (a) Half Bridge series-resonant buck-boost inverter (Wang, 2004). (b) 4-
connected PV interface (Wang and Chen, 2004). switch resonant buck-boost inverter by Wang (2003).

66
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

Fig. 47. A transformerless, voltage-boosting inverter for AC modules

(Kusakawa et al., 2001).

Fig. 43. Split phase PV systems using Z-source inverter (Huang et al., 2006).

Fig. 48. Six-switch isolated buck-boost inverter by Nagao and Harada (1997).

topology does not have any transformer, it offers compactness and this
feature makes it attractive for AC module inverter in solar PV systems.
Fig. 44. PV systems using quasi Z-source inverter (Li et al., 2009). Nagao and Harada (1997) proposed isolated buck-boost inverter as
shown in Fig. 48. It merges two buck-boost converters in a four-switch
H-bridge by means of two extra switches utilized for the purpose of
simultaneous change over in each half cycle of AC output voltage. This
S1 S3
Lf topology offers the isolation between the solar PV and grid.
Vin Rl
Lf Rl
L2 Vdc
Rl 3. Discussions on reviewed topologies
Cf
Cf
D The innovation turns out to be always refined and complex, results
S4 S2
C1 C2 in wide range of inverters assortment available and the decisions are
expanding constantly. Different distributed generation (DG) resources
L1 demand different types of requirements from the inverter systems. For
Fig. 45. PV systems using Improved Z-source inverter (Park et al., 2009). example, in the case of PV applications, power decoupling is one of the
major requirement in inverters. Direct connection of inverter to PV
array imposes strict power decoupling requirements than the link be-
hind an autonomous MPPT controller, that is generally realized by an
extra dc-dc converter called two-stage systems. However, in the case of
variable speed wind systems, the single-phase inverter is set amongst
the rectifier and the grid to manage the AC output of a variable speed
wind turbine generator. The basic prowess for DG inverters can be
outlined as to excerption of maximum energy from the sources.
Numerous major problems are considered here, with respect to the
abilities of inspected topologies to meet the diverse necessities of DG
resources and the grids or stand-alone loads. As entire world is cur-
rently perceiving a huge transition in its solar market. Among all the
devices used in solar PV system, the inverter forms the heart of a grid-
Fig. 46. PV systems using switched boost inverter (Ravindranath et al., 2013).
tied/off-grid solar PV system and is responsible for the several func-
tionalities while the power generated/injected into the grid/load. There
reliability since operation is possible even under shoot-through condi- are several important features that are proposed in most of technical
tions and hence don’t demand any time delay circuits for dead band publications, listed as Grid-connected/Stand-Alone Operation
generation. However, suffers from high inrush current. Capability, Isolation, Power Decoupling, No. of processing Stages, Dual
Grounding Capability, Power Handling Capability, Components count,
2.5.6. Six-switch topologies Size, Wide Range of Operation capability, Cooling Requirement,
Kusakawa et al. have proposed inverter topology shown in Fig. 47 Symmetrical operation in both half cycles, Filter requirement on AC
with buck-boost principle aimed for an AC module (Kusakawa et al., Side, and Complexity Level of Control strategy for Solar Applications. In
2001). This design utilizes only a single PV string and doesn’t accu- this section, different attributes and their necessity is presented and also
rately suit for dual grounding. However, either positive or negative which inverters have those attributes are further investigated in this
conductor of the PV stays grounded via the switches S1 and S4. As this section.

67
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

3.1. Grid-connected/stand-alone operation capability

Siemens Microinverter
Small and compact

Single, three phase

HF Flyback DC-DC

High input-output
Easy installation Requirements for grid-connected inverters and stand-alone inverters

HF transformer
are different in the sense of load characteristics, power flow, grounding,

voltage ratio

One module
190–260 W
AC module
and direction. In general, the power flow in case of grid-connected PV

System
96.3%
system is unidirectional i.e., at all times power flow is from PV panels to

45 V
the grid. Hence, in that case, the only unidirectional converter is re-
quired. Whereas in the case of stand-alone PV systems along with re-
HF H-Bridge DC-DC
Small and compact

Power One Aurora

active type loads, the used inverters must have the capability of ac-
High input-output
voltage ratio Soft
Easy installation

HF transformer
cepting load-fed reactive current and transients by granting adequate

MICRO-0.3–1
200 & 300 W
Single phase

One module
ways to the reactive power flow.
AC module
switching

Bidirectional power flow is possible by an inverter accompanied by

96.5%
60 V

simple feedback diodes or controlled bi-directional active switches. The

controlled bi-directional inverters could be beneficial if grid inter-
connection accompanied by a local load and when the power is not
available from the DG resource and also the batteries are drained. In
No freewheeling

SMA Sunny Boy

Transformerless

Transformerless

such cases grid is needed to charge the transitional batteries inter-

current losses

Special PWM

Single phase
modulation

Multistring

mittently in the opposite direction to conventional power flow. Most of

Two string
5250 W

5000TL

the topologies mentioned in this paper are suitable for both grid and
750 V

97%

standalone applications as shown in Table 1. Figs. 5, 6, 12–14, 34–36,

H5

39–41 and 48 are only proposed for grid-connected systems. However,

Mitsubishi PV-PN40G

these topologies also can be modified to serve the requirements of both

High power quality

standalone and grid systems by changing some modifications such as

Complex module
Complex control
Transformerless

Transformerless

replacing unidirectional switches with bidirectional switches.

Single phase

One string
1:2:4-CHB

3.2. Isolation
97.5%
String
380 V
4 kW

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 62109-1 (Xue

et al., 2004a) is a safety standard for solar power converters. This
High number of devices

ABB PVS 300 TL 8000

No 5-level waveform

standard defines the minimum requirements for the design and manu-
facture of Power Conversion Equipment (PCE) for protection against
Transformerless

Transformerless

electric shock, fire, mechanical and other hazards. This standard pro-
Single phase

One string
Low THD

vides general requirements applicable to all types of PV Power Con-

H-NPC

String
900 V

verters. It is important to know that galvanic isolated inverters can

8 kW

97%

provide better safety standards as compared to transformerless in-

verters, as galvanic isolated inverters don't establish a direct electrical
number of devices
HF isolation High

connection between the source and load circuits. It allows both DC side
Danfoss DLX 4.6
HF transformer

(PV array) & AC side (load or grid) to be grounded without any con-
Constant CM

Single phase

One string

flicts. After 2005, NEC stated that it is not required to the ground any
Low THD
3L-NPC

voltage

4.8 kW

97.3%

one of the array current carrying conductors. Therefore, transformerless

String
600 V

inverters found a better place on the basis of offering more efficiency

than transformer based inverters (Galvanic Isolated). Any metal parts
Bidirectional bypass

non-current carrier like PV modules frame or enclosures is normally

Sunways NT 5000
No freewheeling

grounded to prevent electrical chokes hazard. Never ground neither

Transformerless

Transformerless
current losses

positive nor negative DC wires with a transformer-less inverter.

Single phase

One string

Topologies mentioned in Figs. 4–7, 11, 13–18, 36 and 48 have high-

4.8 kW
HERIC

switch

97.8%
String
900 V

frequency transformer based isolation, whereas topology shown in

Fig. 25 has low-frequency transformer based isolation. Remaining
topologies don’t have any kind of isolation.
Higher THD Large
Simple and robust

Platform Equinox
trafo. Poor MPPT

LF transformer
Large capacity

Satcon Prism

3.3. Power decoupling

Three phase

Two arrays
550–850 V
1.5 MW
Central
2L-VSI

98.5%

Power decoupling is essential between the solar array and grid/

Different commercially popular inverters.

load, especially in the case of directly connected solar PV fed inverter

systems. It is very important since, PV module power is constant at
No. of Independent

maximum power point, whereas a grid or ideal single-phase inverter

Rated AC power
Grid connection
Configuration
Input voltage

Brand/model

demands a rectified sine wave natured (2*Fgrid) instantaneous power,

Efficiency
Topology

which is caused by sinusoidal current and voltage. In general, most of

Isolation

MPPT

the topologies use a large sized electrolytic capacitor (1000µF) for de-
Cons
Pros

coupling purpose, placed at the input terminals of the inverter. These

types of capacitors generally suffer from drawbacks such as large size,
less lifespan and reliability problems. In case of multi-stage topologies,
example
Commercial

dc link capacitor placed in between the first stage and last stage can also
be utilized for power decoupling. In such cases, shown in Figs. 4, 8–11,
Table 1

15–22, topologies don’t require high input side capacitor. Whereas re-
maining two stage topologies mentioned in this review do not have

68
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak
good power decoupling property. Apart from these, two-stage topolo-
gies shown in Figs. 13 and 14 have good power decoupling among all
topologies. On the other hand, most of the single stage topologies don’t
have any intermediate capacitor for power decoupling. Hence, there is a
need to place a high input capacitor for power decoupling. Some single
stage topologies mentioned in Figs. 31–33 offer good power decoupling.
3.4. No. of power processing stages
A unique characteristic of single-stage boost/buck-boost inverters
can eliminate the line frequency transformers due to intrinsic boost
capabilities. Consequently, they have a compact structure accompanied
by a better performance-cost ratio when distinguished from dc-dc
converters followed by pwm inverters or conventional pwm inverters
with line frequency transformers. Though single-stage inverters are
usually highly efficient and economical, they generally suffer from re-
stricted power handling capacity, negotiate output power characteristic
and narrow range of operation enforced to dc sources. The enrichment
of power handling capacity of the converter will result in the high peak
current stresses on the main power switches. Hence, the power hand-
ling capability of this type of inverters is bounded due to price and size
point of view. Therefore, in some applications where high power and
good performance for a wide range of input voltages are required,
multiple-stage inverters are preferred. Hence, multiple-stage inverters
are good for wide voltage operation, hence suitable for any geographic
and environmental varying conditions. And also increase in no. of
stages decreases the burden on controller requirements, means MPPT
and voltage boosting can be done at the primary stage whereas inver-
sion, power control, and grid/load interfacing can be done with later
stage converter. However, increase in power processing stages increases
the cost, size, volume of the system. Another side, single stage systems
are very compact in size, have a lower part count and less losses.
3.5. Dual grounding
The grounding requirements of the system at both the input and
output sides are discussed in this section. Grounding prevents some
electric shock, fire, mechanical and other hazards in non-isolated
topologies. And also for maintaining safety, electromagnetic coupling
(EMC) lessening, lightening assurance, and electromagnetic pulses
(EMP) protection point of view dual grounding is a good option. When
the solar PV input voltage is more than a specific level, in specific 50 V,
solar PV module is to be grounded. In general, single phase solar PV
inverter’s one terminal called neutral is grounded. In the aforemen-
tioned instance, the DG inverter needs to work typically beneath the
idea of “dual-grounding”. The Topologies which have physical isolation
among input DG resource and the utility grid, have no issue accom-
panied by the dual grounding. However, in the case of non-isolated
inverter topologies, it is a major problem for the grid interconnection.
Whenever the non-isolated topologies are unable to meet the double
grounding requirement, they possibly lose the grid interaction. In the
literature, a couple of non-isolated topologies were proposed with the
concept of a dual grounding concept. There are several topologies listed
in this review with dual grounding concept are shown in Figs. 19–22,
26, 27, 35–38 and 40.
3.6. Power handling capability
Based on the power handling capability solar PV inverters have
been categorized into central, string, multi-string and AC module
Inverters, most commercially popular inverters for these classes are
shown in Table 1.
String inverter topologies: H-Bridge or full bridge inverters are widely
used topologies in string inverters. Many improved and advanced
topologies are developed had been releasing into the market. A wide
69
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73
range of input voltages can be utilized with combination of grid side
transformer operating at low frequency and H-Bridge inverter pro-
vides a galvanic isolation, high voltage output provided by the
transformer, simple power circuit. Although common mode voltage
(CMV) is caused due to 3-level carrier based PWM control of con-
verter but leakage current is absent in this case since transformer
isolation is provided. Reactive current flow is avoided between dc-
link capacitor and filter inductor with bypass switching state.
Drawbacks of large sized transformer made this topology less fa-
mous over the time. A wide range of input voltage can be enabled by
using boost stage instead of Low-frequency transformer to avoid
drawbacks of transformer in transformerless H-bridge topology (H4
inverter) the inductor on grid side is split into neutral and phase
wires and switched CMV, leakage current problems are resolved by
implementing bipolar PWM (2-level). At any time, the dc link ca-
pacitor is connected to grid so through passive elements of circuit
and freewheeling diode reactive current flows at zero voltage instant
that reduces the efficiency and power quality at grid which is a
drawback of two-level modulation. Uncontrolled rectifier, trans-
former, full bridge Inverter are combined to form dc-dc stage with
isolation and dc-ac stage. In comparison with inverter topologies
based on low frequency transformers the two stage high frequency
based topologies have increased power density, small converter size.
High losses incur if number of stages are increased. The issue of
reactive current flow between dc link capacitor and filter connected
to grid in string inverter transformerless H-bridge topology was re-
solved by many manufacturers. To minimize flow of leakage current
and improve efficiency of H5 string inverter by SMA an extra switch
is placed between the H-bridge and dc-link in order to establish open
circuit between the passive elements. The entire H-bridge inverter is
bypassed by a bidirectional switch this concept of highly efficient
and reliable inverter was introduced by sunways, during free-
wheeling the converter and filter connected to grid are isolated. An
extra switch is added between the H5 topology and negative dc bar
known as H6 topology proposed by Ingeteam. In H6 topology two
types were presented: Parallel to dc side a diode is connected to H6
topology’s H-bridge this is called H6D1, instead of one diode two
extra freewheeling diodes were added this is known as H6D2. For
better unipolar output compared to H5 topology influence between
filter and capacitor is not allowed at the time of freewheeling. The
extra switches in H6D1 block total dc voltage whereas H6D2 will
block only half the dc voltage is main difference between these two
topologies. In PV string inverters many advancements and changes
in topology of three-level NPC (3L-NPC) inverter were done. Dc link
midpoint and grid neutral point are grounded at same voltage hence
switched CMV is eliminated in the three level output which is ad-
vantageous over H-bridge inverter. So effective utilization of con-
verters with modulation methods, elimination of leakage current
and transformerless operation are achieved with 3L-NPC. The main
limitation of 3L-NPC is, for same grid the DC voltage should be twice
that of the H-bridge. So an auxiliary boost stage or more number of
series modules is necessary. ABB developed the 5L-HNPC inverter
topology which was formed by two 3L-NPC’s. This converter needs a
distributed symmetrical grid filter essential in connecting the grid
neutral and grid phase wires with H-bridge. When operating without
transformer leakage currents can be avoided by implementing a
particular modulation strategy that results in CMV having line fre-
quency. Conergy proposed a transistor clamped three level or T-type
string inverter. Zero voltage level is created with a bidirectional
switch to clamp the phase of grid directly to the neutral. So without
transformer we can operate it for same as 3-L NPC. Two extra diodes
are not needed for the T-type inverter like 3L-NPC. The voltage
blocked by switch is half the voltage blocked by the phase leg
switches. Mitsubishi proposed an H-bridge topology that was
asymmetrically cascaded and three H-bridge cells of unequal voltage
ratios are connected in series. Active power of the grid is processed
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak
by a H-bridge cell connecting the PV system via step up dc-dc stage.
Other two cells generate a 13 level voltage to enhance the power
quality by utilizing the floating dc links. This allows in decreasing
the switching frequency without effecting the power quality. To
allow transformerless operation and eliminate leakage currents in
the system there should be less potential difference between the PV
system and ground so a large cell connected to the bidirectional
bypass switch is needed in this topology. Topologies mentioned in
Figs. 5–8, 12, 15, 17, 26, 35 and 42(a) are suited for string inverter
(1–10 kW) configuration, and offers merits such as: no string diode
losses, low cost as compared to central inverter topology, overall
higher efficiency, individual MPPTs can be applied for every string,
and suffering from demerits of necessary high voltage-amplification
may reduce the overall efficiency and increase the cost per kW of
power produced; and
Multistring topologies: If the entire system composed of two-stages
and more number of dc–dc stages are included it is known as multi
string configuration this is the main difference between multistring
and string configuration. Therefore, in multistring configuration all
topologies under “String Inverter Topology” can be used. Similar to
string inverters, with or without symmetric grid filters same con-
figurations of transformerless and isolated can be implemented.
SMA introduced the first multistring inverters by combining boost
dc-dc stages and half bridge inverter into practical implementation.
T-type converter, 3L-NPC, three-phase voltage source inverter, H-
bridge, H5 are some other topologies are also included. Multi string
configurations implemented practically are shown in Fig. 3. De-
pending on H-bridge, diode rectifier and HF transformer frequently
used dc–dc stages in multistring configurations are HF isolated
dc–dc switch mode converter and boost converter. Some topologies
shown in Figs. 4, 9, 10, 16, 18, 19, 24, 25, 28, 29, 31, 32, 37–48 are
well suited for multi-string inverter configuration (10–30 kW) and
offer merits such as: every string can be controlled separately, al-
lows the integration of strings of different technologies and of var-
ious orientations, small DC-link capacitor, high energy due to local
MPPT and optimum monitoring of the PV system. The demerits
being: the use of both DC-DC and DC-AC converters increases the
cost per kW of this inverter;
Central topologies: Large PV systems are interfaced to the grid using
central inverter configurations. Single dc link connected to three
half-bridge phase legs forms 2L-VSI, is widely used topology in
practice. Large strings are avoided because of PV module’s insula-
tion although dc side operating voltage of inverter is below 1000 V
i.e., between 500 and 800 V. Losses are decreased by raising the
voltage at the power plant collector this is done through low-fre-
quency transformer at grid connecting point. Fig. 3 shows three
phase 3-L NPC and 3-L T type converters were used recently in this
configuration. For central inverter topology the merits, demerits and
characteristics are same as of the single phase topologies for PV
systems. Only Inverter topology excluding dc-dc converters shown
in Figs. 20–22 and 27, are suitable for central inverter (≥30 kW)
configuration, and offer the advantage of high voltage and high
power applications and disadvantage of high voltage DC cables,
high power losses due to common MPPTs, module mismatch, non-
flexible design, losses in the string diodes, failure of central inverter
leading to shut down of PV plant.
AC-module topologies: An Interleaved fly back converter is commer-
cially available ac-module topology by Enphase Energy and Siemens
commercialized it present, Fig. 3. The H-bridge inverter controls
Active/reactive power, grid synchronization, voltage across the dc
link whereas voltage raise, MPPT and galvanic isolation are pro-
vided by fly back converter. High frequency switching is enabled
due to more number of fly back converters connected in parallel
further decreases HF transformer results in making inverter design
very compact. Phase-shifted carrier modulation decreases the input
and output current ripple of dc–dc stage this prolongs the capacitors
70
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73
life span. The Fly back converter developed by enecsys is replaced
with combination of a diode bridge rectifier and HF isolation
transformer as boost dc-dc stage included with a resonant H-bridge
is known as integrated converter ac module (Saha and Sundarsingh,
1996b) shown in Fig. 3. The power conversion performance of H-
bridge dc-dc stage is better than fly back converter. Topologies
shown in Figs. 11, 13, 14, 33, 34 and 36 are suited for Module in-
verter (≤300 W) and have merits of Low manufacturing and retail
costs, minimum power loss, maximum power extraction from the PV
module, easy expanding of the system due to the modular structure,
demerits are Reduced overall efficiency, higher amplification,
higher installation cost, main challenge for the designers is to de-
velop an inverter that can amplify the very small voltage
3.7. No. of components, size, and weight
Compact design, less size, and weight are always major selling
points in the inverter market. In most of the cases, passive and power
electronic components reduction leads to lowers the size weight, and
cost of the inverter as well as the complete system. In general, single
stage systems offer low component count, less size and weight com-
pared to two-stage systems. Components used in each topology are
listed in Table 2, provide better insight while selecting the topologies
based on no. of components.
3.8. Wide voltage range of operation
Systems with wider voltage variations are preferred in places where
there is a much variation in environmental conditions such as irradia-
tion and temperature. In general, comparatively multi-stage topologies
provide wider voltage variation. Specifically, topologies with high-fre-
quency topologies shown in Fig. 18 is best, and Figs. 13, 14, 33 and 36;
Figs. 10, 12, 32, 34, 35 and 37–47; and Figs. 4–7, 16, 25, 48 are also can
be a good choice in this point of view. High gain topologies can offer
this feature, and also topologies with this feature can be used for PV
arrays with lower voltage range, leads to better safety and low leakage
currents from the array to ground.
3.9. Losses and cooling requirement
Switching and conduction losses of semiconductor devices and
parasitic losses of passive components in the system are the causes for
losses in the system. Topologies with low component count and low
leakage currents in solar PV systems can offer fewer losses, it means
single stage systems are a good candidate in efficiency point of view. H5
and HERIC single stage inverter offer better efficiency among all the
single stage topologies. In addition to these, some single stage topolo-
gies with resonant switching shown in Fig. 35 to Fig. 36, lower no. of
switches operating at PWM frequencies (Fig. 36) also offer better effi-
ciency.
3.10. Symmetrical operation
Except topologies shown in Figs. 34, 37 and 38 are working sym-
metrical manner in both the half cycles result in less DC component
injection to grid/load. DC current injection to grid leads to over satu-
rate the cores of passive components mainly inductors and transfor-
mers. Also, this type of topologies are demanded complicated control
strategies.
3.11. Specific DG applications
Inverter reported here, in this paper is are mostly of small power
ratings, as listed in Table 2, and designed on behalf of photovoltaic
applications. The inverters of rated power nearby 300 W remains ap-
propriate being AC modules, whereas the inverters accompanied by a
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73

Table 2
Comparative analysis of all reviewed topologies.
Topology No. of stages G/S Isolation PDC DG PH No. of components Psw Pcond Symmetrical operation Wide voltage variation

HFT S D L C SW+ SW− On Off

D S D S

Fig. 4 M H Yes Large C NR M 1 8 4 2 3 8 8 2 4 2 4 Yes Yes

Fig. 4 M H Yes Small C NR M 1 8 4 2 3 4 4 2 4 2 4 Yes Yes
Fig. 5 M H Yes Large C NR M 1 8 4 2 2 4 4 2 4 2 4 Yes Yes
Fig. 6 M H Yes Small C NR M 1 8 4 1 2 8 8 2 4 2 4 Yes Yes
Fig. 7 M H Yes Large C NR M 1 12 4 1 2 12 12 0 6 0 6 Yes Yes
Fig. 8 M H No Large C No M 0 3 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 1 2 Yes Yes
Fig. 9 M H Yes Large C NR M 0 5 1 2 3 5 5 1 3 1 3 Yes Yes
Fig. 10 M H No Small C No M 0 6 3 3 3 6 6 2 4 2 4 Yes Yes
Fig. 11 M H Yes Small C NR L 1 5 1 2 3 5 5 1 3 1 3 Yes Yes
Fig. 12 M G Yes Large C No M 0 7 6 2 2 3 3 1 4 1 4 Yes Yes
Fig. 13 M H Yes Small C NR M 1 4 3 1 3 3 3 1 2 1 2 Yes Yes
Fig. 14 M H Yes Small C NR M 1 6 4 1 3 5 5 2 4 2 4 Yes Yes
Fig. 15 M H Yes Small C No M 1 6 2 2 4 6 6 1 3 1 3 Yes Yes
Fig. 16 M H Yes Small C No M 1 8 2 2 4 8 8 1 4 1 4 Yes Yes
Fig. 17 M H Yes Small C No M 1 6 2 3 5 6 6 1 3 1 3 Yes Yes
Fig. 18 M H Yes Small C No M 1 8 2 4 7 8 8 1 4 1 4 Yes Yes
Fig. 19 M H No Small C Yes M 0 5 3 2 4 5 5 1 3 1 3 Yes Yes
Fig. 20 M H No Med C Yes M 0 6 4 3 5 6 6 2 4 2 4 Yes Yes
Fig. 21 M H No Med C Yes M 0 10 2 3 5 10 10 2 6 2 6 Yes Yes
Fig. 22 M H No Med C Yes M 0 6 2 3 6 6 6 2 4 2 4 Yes Yes
Fig. 24 S H No Large C No M 0 4 0 1 2 4 4 0 2 0 2 Yes Yes
Fig. 25 S H Yes Large C NR M 0 4 0 1 2 4 4 0 2 0 2 Yes Yes
Fig. 26 S H Yes Large C Yes M 0 2 0 1 3 4 4 0 1 0 1 Yes No
Fig. 27 S B No Large C Yes H 0 4 2 1 3 4 4 1 2 1 2 Yes No
Fig. 28 S B No Large C No M 0 5 0 1 2 5 5 0 3 0 3 Yes No
Fig. 29 S B No Large C No M 2 6 2 1 2 5 5 1 3 1 3 Yes No
Fig. 31 S B No Small C No M 0 4 0 2 2 4 4 0 2 0 2 Yes No
Fig. 32 S H No Small C No M 0 4 0 2 4 4 4 0 2 0 2 Yes Yes
Fig. 33 S H Yes Small C NR S 1 4 0 0 3 4 4 0 2 0 2 Yes Yes
Fig. 34 S H No Large C No M 0 4 2 3 2 4 4 1 2 1 2 No No
Fig. 35 S H No Small C Yes M 1 4 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 Yes Yes
Fig. 36 S B Yes Large C NR S 1 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 2 1 2 Yes Yes
Fig. 37 S B No Small C Yes M 0 4 2 2 3 4 4 1 2 1 2 No No
Fig. 38 S S No Large C NR M 0 5 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 No No
Fig. 39 S S No Large C No M 0 4 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 Yes No
Fig. 40 S B No Large C Yes M 0 4 3 2 3 4 3 2 2 2 2 Yes No
Fig. 41 S S No Large C No M 0 5 0 2 3 2 2 0 3 0 3 Yes No
Fig. 42(a) S H No Large C Yes S 0 4 0 2 3 3 3 0 2 0 2 Yes No
Fig. 42(b) S S No Large C No M 0 4 2 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 Yes No
Fig. 43 S B No Small C No M 0 4 1 3 3 4 4 0 2 1 2 Yes No
Fig. 44 S B No Small C No M 0 4 1 3 3 4 4 0 2 1 2 Yes No
Fig. 45 S B No Small C No M 0 4 1 3 3 4 4 0 2 1 2 Yes No
Fig. 46 S B No Small C No M 0 4 1 2 2 5 5 0 3 1 2 Yes No
Fig. 47 S B No Large C No M 0 6 0 2 3 4 4 0 4 0 4 Yes No
Fig. 48 S B Yes Large C NR M 1 6 1 2 3 6 6 1 3 1 3 Yes No

*
M: Multi-Stage, S-Single Stage; SA: Standalone, G: Grid, B: Both; SC: Small Capacitor, MC: Medium Capacitor, LC: Large Capacitor; S- Small, M- Medium, H- High;
High Power: Power ≥ 10 kW, Medium Power: 0.5 kW ≤ power ≤ 10 kW, Low Power: power ≤ 0.5 kW; S: Switch, D: Diode, L: Inductor, C: Capacitor; NS+ and
NS−: No. of devices switching at high switching frequency all through positive and negative half cycles of the grid voltage; Symmetrical: whether there is sym-
metrical process of the converter during two halves of the grid voltage (asymmetrical operation of the converter might edge to DC current injection in grid).

power of higher than 500 W can be utilized for multi-string modules.
Inverters topologies accompanied by higher power rating and wider
voltage ranges as shown in Figs. 10–12 and 14 are applied for wind
energy system applications. Among them, inverters depicted in Figs. 2,
3, and 11 are industrially formed by some of the manufacturers. Most of
the topologies used in wind power applications consist of the low-fre-
quency or high-frequency transformers for galvanic isolation and high
voltage step-up. The size, cost, and weight of the inverters evaluated in
the indicated paper can be determined from the transformer type and
the numbers of passive elements containing inductors, small film ca-
pacitors, large electrolytic capacitors, power electronic switches and
power diodes, that are outlined in Table 2. Throughout a previous
couple of decades, researchers have developed numerous topologies
that are designed with the galvanic isolation arranged by the line-fre-
quency transformer (Li et al., 2013; Shimizu et al., 2000; Tsuno et al.,
2004). The primary benefit of the previously mentioned transformer is
that it gives isolation along with voltage transformation. A few other
single-stage inverter topologies in view of high-frequency transformer
likewise proposed (Li et al., 2013) to overcome the disadvantages, for
example, higher cost, lower efficiency and bulky size of the topologies
engaging line frequency transformer. A few technologists operated on
the transformer-less DC–AC PV-fed grid-connected inverter topologies
(Bose et al., 1985; Saha and Sundarsingh, 1996b; Beristain et al., 2003;
Qi et al., 2014; Kjaer and Blaabjerg, 2003b; Severns, 1992; Bhat, 1993b;
Yang et al., 1992a) and the concerns associated with their process
(Johnson and Erickson, 1988; Yang et al., 1992b). For suggesting a
simple, economical and compact architecture, the transformerless to-
pology might need to adjust on the double grounding aspect (Bose
et al., 1985; Qi et al., 2014). Several topologies, whatever suggest a
double grounding feature, are shown in, Fig. 37, Fig. 26: multilevel
(three levels) half-bridge diode-clamped inverter (HBDC) (Blaabjerg
et al., 2004) and Fig. 40. In view of this work, the significance of single-

71
R. Dogga and M.K. Pathak
stage grid associated PV systems has been emphasized. The enhanced
qualities of a proposed single-stage topologies were inspected.
4. Conclusions
This review has presented detailed review of 45 different inverter
topologies and their attributes such as Grid-connected/Stand-Alone
Operation Capability, Isolation, Power Decoupling, No. of processing
Stages, Dual Grounding Capability, Power Handling Capability,
Components Count, Size, Wide Range of Operation capability, Cooling
Requirement, Symmetrical operation in both half cycles, Filter re-
quirement on AC Side, and Complexity Level of control strategy for
solar applications were investigated. As a final point, the rudimentary
needs defined by the user have also been discussed, such as low cost,
long lifetime, and high efficiency. The conclusions from the classifica-
tions are as follows.
• central inverter preferred in case of large scale solar PV system since
inverter cost is less cost to other configurations. Single-stage cen-
tralized inverters should be dodged, except if the sufficiently high
voltage is available at input to avoid further voltage amplification.
In case of large scale central level PV configurations multi-level
inverters would be best choice to handle high/medium voltage and/
or power solar PV systems.
• The Multi-stage inverters (including HFT) are the best candidate for
ac cells and ac modules, since they can offer high voltage amplifi-
cation.
• In case of string configuration, two-stage inverters or single stage
inverters with medium power handling capability are the best
choice. Last, if several strings are to be connected to the grid, the
multi-string concept seems to be the apparent choice.
• Line-frequency inverters are appropriate for low power, e.g., for ac
module configurations. On the other hand, a high-switching fre-
quency VSI is also suitable for both low- and medium-power PV
systems, like the multi-string, the string, and the ac module con-
figurations.
• Single stage systems generally good candidate in terms of efficiency.
HERIC and H5 single stage inverter offer better efficiency among all
the single stage topologies. In addition to these, some single stage
topologies with resonant switching shown in Fig. 35 to Fig. 36,
lower no. of switches operating at PWM frequencies (Fig. 36) also
offer better efficiency.
• Topologies shown in Figs. 13 and 14 offer better power decoupling.
Hence these topologies developed with only small sized input ca-
pacitor (film capacitors), results in offering enhanced life span.
• In case of grid connected PV systems, the standards imposed by the
utility companies must be followed. In particular, IEC61727,
EN61000-3-2, IEEE1547 and the U.S. National Electrical Code
(NEC) 690 are mostly followed by most of the nations. These stan-
dards impose restrictions about several issues like power quality,
detection of islanding operation and grounding. Most of inverter
manufactures provide islanding operation while they design in-
verters.
• To meet the power quality standards single stage boost/buck-boost
inverters or multi-stage inverter with line frequency inverter are the
best choice to meet the power quality standards. In other cases, need
to use additional ac side filter to meet the grid standards.
• On the other hand, to avoid saturation of the distribution transfor-
mers, IEC and IEEE standards impose restrictions on the maximum
acceptable dc current injection into the utility. It can be mitigated
by placing a line-frequency transformer between the inverter and
the grid. Some inverters use a HFT between the PV modules and the
grid, however it cannot solve the dc current injection problem, but
offers the grounding of the PV modules easier.
•
The NEC 690 standard enforces that the one of the PV modules
terminals shall be grounded and monitored for ground faults, when
72
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 57–73
the peak output voltage of the PV modules reaches more than 50 V.
It can be worrying factor for many transformerless PV systems, since
a single-phase inverter with line-to-neutral grid connection already
is system grounded on the utility side. However, there are double
grounding inverters have been reported in this review which can
meet this double issue.
• Aluminium capacitors should be substituted with film dielectric
capacitors to enhance the reliability. However, it is a costly solution,
especially for high-power applications, where a bulky sized capa-
citance is required. On the other hand, impedance source inverters
don’t demand any kind of dead band time generation circuits since
those can operate even under short circuit conditions, which can
increase the reliability of the circuit. High reliability can be a key
sales parameter.
• HFTs based topologies should be applied for ac module and ac cell
concepts due to sufficient voltage amplification. It is also advanta-
geous to assimilate an HFT in larger systems to avoid the resonance
between PV modules and inductances in the current main paths. The
resonance can, however, also be mitigated with dual grounding
inverter topologies.
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