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The role of mass customisation in the apparel industry

a a a b b
Rajkishore Nayak , Rajiv Padhye , Lijing Wang , Kaleshnath Chatterjee & Sheetal Gupta
a
School of Fashion and Textiles, RMIT University, Brunswick, Australia
b
The Technological Institute of Textile & Sciences, Bhiwani, India
Published online: 27 May 2015.

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To cite this article: Rajkishore Nayak, Rajiv Padhye, Lijing Wang, Kaleshnath Chatterjee & Sheetal Gupta (2015) The role of
mass customisation in the apparel industry, International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education, 8:2, 162-172,
DOI: 10.1080/17543266.2015.1045041

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 International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education, 2015
Vol. 8, No. 2, 162–172, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17543266.2015.1045041

The role of mass customisation in the apparel industry

Rajkishore Nayaka∗ , Rajiv Padhyea∗ , Lijing Wanga , Kaleshnath Chatterjeeb and Sheetal Guptab
a School of Fashion and Textiles, RMIT University, Brunswick, Australia; b The Technological Institute of Textile & Sciences,
Bhiwani, India
(Received 2 November 2014; accepted 22 April 2015 )

During the past decade, the textile and apparel industries around the globe have been trying to adjust to a rapidly changing
business environment. While the manufacturing bases have moved into the developing countries, the developed countries
have gone high tech in a bid to maintain an edge over the low-cost competitors. Apparel purchasing is moving out of the
physical domain into the virtual domain and mass customisation seems to be the only way to win and retain buyers. Ten
years back, jeans maker Levi Strauss announced something just as revolutionary: It will begin offering customised versions
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 08:53 16 August 2015

of its classic denims to fit every woman’s body type. The term Mass customisation well defined the aforementioned process
of providing fit garments according to the body size. Mass customisation in the apparel industry is a revolutionary one.
It provides a product according to the choice of the consumers. This paper reviews the role of mass customisation in the
competitive apparel industry. The requirements and future challenges for mass customisation are also discussed.
Keywords: mass customisation; digital printing; apparel manufacturing; 3D body scanning; mass production

1. Introduction described as a new strategy where customised goods are

Mass customisation in the apparel industry is defined as a
process by which the customer is able to walk into a store,
be measured by a computer-controlled camera or laser
beam, browse through the computer database of virtual 3D
garments from a library of choices, try the garments on
one’s own figure in virtual space, select the most appropri-
ate one, return in a few days, or even within hours to pick
up the new, hot-off-the-assembly-line, customer-tailored
suit, blouse or a pair of jeans (Fralix, 2001; Istook, 2002;
Yeung & Choi, 2011). Mass customisation is the process of
providing the consumers unique products when, where and
how they want them and necessarily at an affordable price.
Mass customisation is a technology-assisted production
process where consumers can modify a company’s prod-
uct line to produce their own required design styles and
fit requirements (Fralix, 2001; Westbrook & Williamson,
1993). As it meets the growing desire of consumers for
product personalisation, it is rapidly emerging as the new
business principle of the twenty-first century (Fogliatto, Da
Silveira, & Borenstein, 2012).
Davis was the first to identify the concept of ‘mass
customisation’ as an oxymoron combining opposite terms
of ‘mass production’ (Davis, 1989). In mass customi-
sation, each product is manufactured as a unique item
for each costumer, whereas a large numbers of identi-
cal items are produced in ‘mass production’ (Lee, Kunz,
Fiore, & Campbell, 2002). Mass customisation can be
produced within a given product line to fulfil individual
consumer’s demands in a cost-effective way. Technolog-
ical advancements in computer-aided design (CAD), the
Internet revolution and flexible manufacturing have helped
to identify and fulfil individual customer’s needs (Berman,
2002; Nayak, Chatterjee, & Khandual, 2007). The concept
of mass customisation can be applied to apparel products,
automobiles, computers and other electronics products
(Zipkin, 1997). In apparel production, a growing number
of companies are adopting the concept of mass customi-
sation to cater to consumers’ demands (Anderson-Connell,
Ulrich, & Brannon, 2002; Lee & Chen, 1999).
Mass customisation involves many variables and
concepts, and needs extra tools and services, for which it
is considered as a complex system to be adopted. The con-
cept of mass customisation can be successfully achieved
by altering the standard product and designing customised
products as per the needs of individual customers. Gilmore
and Pine (Gilmore & Pine 2nd, 1996) described four
approaches, namely cosmetic, transparent, adaptive and
collaborative to customisation from the perspectives of
customisers as discussed in the following (Lee et al.,
2002).
• In Cosmetic Customisation the representation of a
product, such as its packaging, is changed, but not
the product.

*Corresponding author. Emails: rajiv.padhye@rmit.edu.au; rajkishore.nayak@rmit.edu.au

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

 International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education
• In Transparent Customisation the nature of the prod-
uct for individual customers is changed, but the
standard representation of the product is the same.
• In Adaptive Customisation neither the product nor
the representation of the product for an individual
customer is changed. However, this system provides
flexibility to individual customers to independently
manipulate the products to suit their own needs
without any additional interaction with the company.
• In Collaborative Customisation the design of the
product as well as the representation of the product
can be changed.
Unlike mass production, which produces some variety
of an item or style in high volumes, mass customisation
is characterised by very small volumes; in many cases,
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the lot size is only one (Addis & Holbrook, 2001; Davis,
1989). It is characterised by competitive cost, timely deliv-
eries and a move away from centralised manufacturing to
more distributed production (Ulrich, Anderson-Connell, &
Wu, 2003). Mass customisation not only benefits the con-
sumer, but also offers the manufacturer significant benefits
such as a high degree of product/service flexibility, reduced
inventory risk and a competitive edge in the marketplace.
Without mass customisation, these manufacturers tend to
have high inventories of finished products and must fore-
cast demand many months in advance. If forecasting goes
wrong, it leads to surplus of some products. The follow-
ing table (Table 1) summarises the difference between mass
production and mass customisation.
2. Mass production vs. mass-customised production
The mass customisation service is provided by the man-
ufacturers or retailers having arrangements with flexible
manufacturering to produce clothing items according to
customer specification. In mass customisation, a customer
can make the decision on the product style, colour, fabric,
Table 1. Comparison between mass production and mass-customised production.
The old methods of mass production
Low cost, consistent quality and standardised product
Homogeneous market
Stable demand
Long product development cycle and life cycle
Large lot sizes
Inflexible production
High overhead
High inventories: build to plan
Separation of thinking and doing
Lack of investment in worker skills
Poor management–employee relations
Separation of innovation and production
Poor supplier relations
Disregard for many customer needs and wants
Short-term managerial decisions
163
trims and size from a group of options; create the cus-
tomised product in an interactive system and obtain the
personalised clothing as per the body size measurements
done manually or by body scanners (Fan, Yu, & Hunter,
2004). Once the customer confirms the order for a cus-
tomised style and pays for it, the production process for the
order starts. The order is completed and either delivered to
the customer or kept ready for collection.
Many companies such as Levi Strauss, Swimwear, Sec-
ond Skin and Custom Foot are providing this service to
their customers. The mass customisation process starts in a
retail store where the services are provided for customised
products and a line of ready-to-wear is allocated for the
same. Individual customers are assisted to develop their
customised products after examining ready-to-wear and
trying on garments to establish size and fit (Da Silveira,
Borenstein, & Fogliatto, 2001). On the other hand, mass
production starts with the design requirements of the buyer
or retailers or the pre-decided styles as per the fashion
trend. The completion of a style in mass production is a
time-consuming process, whereas mass customisation pro-
vides the complete clothing in a few days or even within
few hours after the order is placed by the consumers.
Tables 1 and 2 describe the major differences between the
two methods of production.
3. Tools used for mass customisation
Mass customisation is viable due to the technological
advancements in production, measurement systems and
communication (Day & Montgomery, 1999). In the apparel
industry, cutting-edge technologies have evolved for mass-
customised clothing, which include the 3D body scanners
for collecting body measurements; CAD and Computer-
Aided Manufacturing (CAM) systems that can convert cus-
tomer designs into cut pieces of cloth; single-ply cutters,
digital printing and Virtual try-on visualisation techniques;
the Internet for communication between the customer and
The new methods of mass customisation
Affordable cost, high quality and customised product
Heterogeneous and segmented market
Demand fragmentation
Short product development cycle and life cycle
Lot size of even one
Flexible production
Low overhead
Low inventories: make to order
Integration of thinking and doing
Sense of community
Better relationship
Integration of innovation and production
Supplier interdependence
Quick response to changing customer desires
Sound long- and short-term decisions by managers and workers
 164
Table 2. A comparison of the traditional model of mass production (today) with a future scenario for custom production (tomorrow).
Today . . . Mass production of proportionally sized garments,
based on fit models
Designer’s Concept– The clothes
you buy off the rack begin as
a designer’s concept; each new
style begins as a sketch
Fit Model– A pattern is developed
and fitted to a fit model. The
fit model is chosen because its
body size and shape represents
the designer’s vision of the ideal
customer for this style. The
pattern is perfected on the fit
model and then proportionally
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increased and decreased (i.e.
graded) to make a size range of
patterns
Mass Production – Garments of
all sizes are sewn at the same
time using mass production
methods. The mass production
process provides a volume–cost
advantage
Inventory Shipped to Store–
Garments are shipped to the store
to be sold in size sets of identically
styled and proportioned garments
Misfit– The dress designed for the fit
model cannot fit all bodies well.
In this example, the wrinkles
indicate misfit at the armhole,
bust and high hip area
retailer or manufacturer; and modular production system
and computerised processes that assist in accurate and
rapid production and delivery.
3.1. Use of computer and Internet
Before the use of the computers, the companies were used
to contact their customers via letters written in paper,
which contained minimum information to reduce the cost.
However, mass customisation works on the richness of
information to avoid misfit or rejection (Papathanassiou,
2004). The customer integration and co-creation processes
should be adequately supported for successful implementa-
tion of mass customisation (Kamali & Loker, 2002; Piller,
Moeslein, & Stotko, 2004). Internet helps in the quick
R. Nayak et al.
Tomorrow . . . Mass customisation with body scanning and
flexible production
Your Concept– You can have the
garment you imagine by being
involved in the design process
Individual Fit– You are scanned in a
3D body scanner to collect quick,
accurate body measurements
which will be used to achieve
individualised fit
Flexible Production– Your
individualised garment is made
using sophisticated machines
and flexible processes that
accommodate one-of-a-kind
production. Increases in
production costs are offset by
reduced inventory
Delivery to Your Home– Your
custom garment is delivered to
your home
Custom Fit– Your uniquely styled
garment fits you well in size and
proportions
transfer of data and rapid communication with the cus-
tomers, suppliers and retailers in the global marketplace
(Ansari & Mela, 2003; Feitzinger & Lee, 1997).
3.2. CAD/CAM systems
The CAD/CAM systems are becoming increasingly impor-
tant as they accelerate, streamline and increase the effi-
ciency of various processes related to mass customisation
(Davis, 1989). The CAD systems help in creating the
appropriate design by changing the colour, fabric and
texture and finally applying the virtual clothing into the
personalised measurements. These systems in combination
with the Internet technology help in finalising the cus-
tomised design (Theodorou & Florou, 2008). Without the
 International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education
CAD/CAM systems, the concept of mass customisation
can never be a reality.
3.3. 3D body scanner
3D body scanners capture the image of the outside sur-
face of the human body by the use of optical techniques
or other similar techniques (Apeagyei, 2012; Istook &
Hwang, 2001; Nayak & Padhye, 2015). The body scan-
ning systems consist of one or more light sources, image
capturing devices, computer systems, operating software
and monitor screens in order to visualise the data cap-
ture process (McCulloch, Paal, & Ashdown, 1998). The
body scanning systems play a very crucial role in mass
customisation.
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3.3.1. Technology of 3D body scanning
The very first thing needed to customise apparel products
is the precise measurements of individual consumers
(Cordier, Seo, & Magnenat-Thalmann, 2003; Senanayake
& Little, 2001). Body scanning system fulfils this require-
ment, which works with highly developed electronic
devices for precise body measurement (Simmons & Istook,
2003). Usually, a consumer can be measured by hand, by a
laser body scanner or by a video camera. 3D body scanner
is the most developed measurement device which measures
the entire body three-dimensionally using a laser beam
(Xu, Huang, Yu, & Chen, 2002). These scanners resemble
roomy photo booths. After disrobing and slipping into min-
imal clothing or body fit clothing, the subject is asked to
hold two handlebars posing in what is called the modified
anthropometric position (i.e. standing with the legs slightly
apart (about 30 cm) and the arms abducted away from the
body). Other positions often result in holes or missing data
as there are some areas where the camera cannot record
data (example underarm area).
The scanning system consists of optical devices (light
projectors, Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs) and light
Figure 1. 3D body scanning systems.
165
sources (halogen, laser or infrared)), a control box, a
parallel port, a computer and so on (Daanen & van de
Water, 1998). All scanning and measuring commands are
sent from the PC through the parallel port to the control
box, which drives the scanning units to proper positions,
turns on the laser projectors and then triggers the cam-
eras to grab images. The scanner projects a series of
laser (eye-safe) onto the person being measured. Two or
more cameras capture the distortions created by the body.
From this the scanner produces a so-called point cloud
of 100,000–300,000 data points in just about 12 seconds,
which is then ‘skinned’ and the body ‘landmarks’ – shoul-
ders, chest, navel, hips and so on – are identified using
image processing software. Finally, a virtual tape mea-
sure is applied relative to the body landmarks to extract
nearly 130 key sizes and shape measurements (although
only a few of those are needed to manufacture a suit or a
lady’s costume). The 3D body scanning system is shown
in Figure 1.
After the scanning cycle, the customer’s personal data
are edited in the computer and immediately transmitted to
the manufacturer online. Then, a stock pattern is set up and
graded using commercial grading practices using CAD.
The fit areas that can be altered are chosen and the rules
for making the alterations are set up. When a customer’s
measurements are submitted, the graded size requiring the
least alterations is selected. The adjusted measurement is
sent to a fabric-cutting machine which cuts the cloth in a
single layer. Then the cut parts are stitched together, creat-
ing the customised garment piece. The finished customised
garments are labelled with a bar code and then retailed
(Nayak et al., 2007). The customer receives the order in
two to three weeks.
The measurement information is stored in a central
database or on a smart card. The consumer uses this smart
card to select the garment of own choice later on. Also, the
consumer can go for virtual try-on, which is the computer-
generated visual display of how garments will look on
his/her body. So the body scanned data are helpful for
 166 R. Nayak et al.
Table 3. Manufacturers of 3D body scanning systems.
Company Product Technology
Cyberware WB4,WBX Laser line/CCD
Hamamatsu BL Scanner Infrared
Hamano Voxelan Laser line/CCD
Inspeck 3D Full Body Photogrammetry
TC2 Image Twin 3T6, 2T4 White light projection
Telmat SYMCAD White light projection SYMCAD, SYMCAD Body card
Vitronics Vitus Pro, Vitus Smart Laser line/CCD
Wicks and Wilson TriForm Body Scanner White light projection Body scanner
Tecmath RAMSIS, Contour Laser
LASS Loughborough Photogrammetry
the selection of particular styles. The system is accurate
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enough to get you within an eighth of an inch of perfection.
3.3.2. Manufacturers of 3D body scanners
The 3D body scanners are based on a wide range of prin-
ciples such as white light, light emitting diode, laser-based
systems and other similar devices. 3D scanning systems
can be used in a variety of areas such as statistical anal-
ysis, modelling, animation, medicine, anthropometry and
apparel production. Leading manufacturers of 3D scanners
are based in Japan, the UK, Germany, France and the USA.
Various manufacturers of 3D body scanning are listed in
Table 3.
3.3.3. Parameters to be considered
While procuring 3D body scanners, the companies should
focus on the points discussed in the following:
• COST AND INSTALLATION PERIOD – As the
technology is maturing, the cost of these systems
has gone down rapidly and they are becoming more
affordable. Current scanners differ in price range
from US $40,000 to 410,000. The quoted price, how-
ever, may vary according to whether it includes the
computer interface, data storage devices, technical
support and maintenance or data extraction software.
Installation time is not a big issue as the manufactur-
ers provide all the facilities in an integrated manner.
It took Lands’ End a year to get its custom program
up and running, while J.C. Penney did it in only
about three months.
• SPEED AND CYCLE TIME – The total cycle time
for a TC2 Image Twin scan is about 53 seconds. This
includes 8 seconds of scan time, 18 seconds to cre-
ate the 3D point cloud (visualisation on the screen)
and 25 seconds to reduce the data and detect key
body landmarks. Measurement extraction requires
only 2 seconds (or more, depending upon the number
of measurements desired) to complete. These data,
Software Website
Cyscan, Cydir WB www.cyberware.com
BL Manager (Visual Basic/C++) www.hpk.co.jp
VOXELAN(MS-DOS) www.voxelan.co.jp
www.inspeck.com
Visual Basic/C++/ Open GL www.tc2.com
Graphics
www.symcad.com
Vitronic C++ www.vitus.de
www.wwl.co.uk
RAMSIS www.human-solutions.com
Real Time Shadow scanning www.lboro.ac.uk
however, vary a little from manufacturer to manu-
facturer. The traditional tape measure method takes
about 25 minutes; however, with the use of a body
scanner, about 30–50 people can be measured per
hour.
• ACCURACY – The body scanning system is accu-
rate enough to get an eighth of an inch of perfec-
tion. The resolution, or accuracy, of the data ranges
between 1 and 8 mm.
• OPTICS – Most of the current scanners on the
market use laser stripe projection, while others use
projection of patterned light. Whatever the source
may be, it should be eye-safe and not pose a health
risk. The speed of the movement of the lasers as well
as the number of cameras determines the number of
points captured and quality of the scanned image.
Higher speed of scanning is useful in reducing
human body movement artefacts. Scanners utilise
anywhere from 2 to 16 cameras. Most body scanners
require a dark environment, which makes quite a few
customers uncomfortable. Also, it makes the system
unsuitable for measuring children. Some companies
are trying to address this issue by using flash light to
light up the measuring booth.
• SIZE OF THE SCANNER – The size of the scanner
is also important. All manufacturers try to reduce the
scanner dimensions and the booth size as space is at
a premium in the retail structure.
• SOFTWARE USED – The quality of the scanned
image is also affected by the sophistication of the
software that aligns the different camera views. Soft-
ware can be used to remove redundant points where
different camera views overlap and to ‘patch’ areas
where the camera has missed data points, all lead-
ing to a more complete smoothed visualisation of the
scanned body.
• SIZE OF DATA – Another issue to be considered
while evaluating a system relates to the size of
data generated per scan. Data management, storage,
usage and transmission are important while choosing
the appropriate scanner.
 International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education
3.3.4. Applications of 3D body scanning
During the 1960s, research began on technology that would
revolutionise the study of human measurement. It did not
gain impetus until early 1990s and after that the real work
began. Today, faster and more ubiquitous Internet tech-
nology has made it easier and more flexible just-in-time
manufacturing methods, coupled with the rapid prolifer-
ation of digital technology, have enabled companies to fill
individual orders much more quickly than in the past. Body
scanning technology has the potential to impact applicants
from apparel to health care. Body scan data can be used to
study a variety of activities, including ergonomics, video
animation, health, leisure, fitness, athletic performance,
physical therapy, engineering and automotive design. The
apparel industry is perhaps the most advanced user of this
technology, currently. Some of the unlimited uses of the
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3D Body scanning are discussed in the following.
3.3.4.1. Mass customisation or custom-fitting apparel
The wider application of the 3D Body scanning system is
in mass customisation to produce custom-fitting apparels.
Levi Strauss was the first company to offer mass customi-
sation with its Personal Pair jeans in 1995. In 1998, the
programme was expanded and it offered a broader range
of styles, colours and fabrics, including twills. Now the
company manufactures the jeans and ships them to the
customer’s home. Athletic clothing giant Nike’s five-year-
old programme, Nike ID, allows you to design your own
pair of running shoes online, choosing among thousands
of colour combinations and adding your own embroidered
words. Body scanning also has applications in the military,
which was one of the first industries to realise the potential
of the technology (Nayak et al., 2015). It is crucial that up-
to-date and accurate body measurements are available for
designing aircraft cockpits, pilot helmets, oxygen masks,
tank interiors and uniform design.
3.3.4.2. Virtual try-on Another commercial application
of 3D body scan data is virtual try-on. In this technique
the consumer is provided with a computer-generated visual
display of how a garment will look on his or her body. So it
helps to test the appearance of the garment before investing
the money in purchasing it.
3.3.4.3. Apparel sizing standards development By
doing statistical research over a large number of people, we
can help the apparel industry in defining a sizing schema,
better than the actual S, M, L and XL. Proportional grade
rules do not address the differences in the basic shapes and
body proportions of the population, such as small or large
waist, short or long torso or the differences across ages and
target markets. Providing good fit using a finite set of sizes
for an almost infinite range of body types is a challeng-
ing task. The new information available from the 3D body
167
scan research is helping us to meet this challenge. Com-
plete and quick measurement of a large number of people
without any physical contact has facilitated national size
surveys, which generated anthropometric data for research
and other purposes.
In 1998, the Civilian American and European Surface
Anthropometry Resource (CAESAR) programme at the
Wright–Patterson Air Force Base initiated the largest scale
anthropometric survey performed in over 30 years. It was
the first international survey of its kind to utilise body scan-
ning technology. The Cyberware WB4 whole body scanner
was used in this study. The collected data were used by
multiple industries, including the military, automotive and
apparel. The CAESAR project created 3D digital scans of
5000 people of all ages and shapes.
TC2 Image Twin scanner has been used for conducting
several national size surveys such as ‘ Size UK’ project in
2000, ‘Size USA’ in 2002 and ‘Size MX’ in Mexico and
‘Size Canada’ in 2004. The results of such surveys will
not only affect the retail market, where improved fit and
shape should reduce customer returns and increase produc-
tion efficiency, but will also assist the motor and travel
industries through better understanding of ergonomics.
Scientific studies will also benefit; using a national pro-
file of size, weight and shape, body mass index can be
calculated across a national platform, with special rele-
vance to current concerns about obesity. The combination
of these surveys provides significant opportunities for the
evaluation and development of sizing systems on a more
international basis.
3.3.4.4. Medical applications Health clubs and nutri-
tionists are using the body scans for keeping a record
of change in body dimensions before and after treat-
ments and for body shape analysis. PLASTIC SURGERY
(rhinoplasty), ORTHOPAEDIC RESEARCH (monitoring
of scoliosis) and PODIATRY (creating orthotics) are a few
medical applications to name.
3.3.4.5. Other miscellaneous applications Develop-
ment of a software design tool starting from body scan data
provides a 3D platform for fashion design using traditional
material, for direct manufacturing and rapid prototyping.
With the addition of a thermal camera, body scanning also
could be used to design functional apparel that acts as a
thermal buffer between the person and the environment.
The scanner can measure the dimensions of the body, as
well as the inside and outside of fabric layers, allowing an
unprecedented amount of information about the microcli-
mate between the textile and skin. Innovations in textiles
that use microchip technology, phase change chemicals
and bio-functional roles expand the possibilities for func-
tional apparel design solutions using 3D body scanning,
beyond the imagination. Body scan data can be used to tai-
lor garments for the elderly or people with special needs.
 168 R. Nayak et al.
Custom Foot Inc., Florence, Italy, produces customised
performance footwear using foot scanning technology. 3D
knitwear design and production of seamless knitwear, and
3D designing of sports equipment, intimate apparel and
automobiles are other few applications in this category.
Computer animations have been using scanned images
for animated movies such as Final Fantasy for computer-
generated special effects such as those in the Matrix, and
for generating digital images of personalities for use as
stars in computer games.
A noteworthy mention here may be made about the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA’s)
S3 Project (The Somatic Sciences Simulation Project) on
spacesuit designing. NASA has body scanned all astro-
nauts and astronaut candidates. This information is a part
of what is known as the CAESAR Database. An existing
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spacesuit, or a prototype (test model), is scanned to see how
the astronaut will fit in that suit, including the astronaut’s
range of motion. The special software would show where
the suit is too tight or too loose, or when an astronaut will
feel muscle fatigue after so many movements or repetitive
movements. This allows virtual and rapid prototyping in
3D in an interactive manner and can simulate all types of
gravity – 1/3g, 1/6g, 0g and 1g.
3.3.4.6. Advantages of 3D body scanning technology
Some of the advantages that 3D body scanning is claimed
to have over manual measuring method include the
following:
• An unlimited number of linear and non-linear mea-
surements of human bodies can be obtained in sec-
onds. The measurements can be altered as needed in
mere seconds, as well.
• Measurements obtained using this technology have
the potential of being more precise and reproducible.
• With the availability of an infinite number of lin-
ear and non-linear measurements, virtual try-on is
possible.
• The 3D scanning system reduces the cycle time and
is very accurate.
• The information can also be encrypted into the mag-
netic strip of a smart card, which can be used by the
customer to carry his body measurement to various
vendors.
• It reduces the high rate of return of poorly fitting
garments and reduces the frequency of unnecessary
alterations.
• It creates and updates a database of both body
dimensions and garment size requirements.
• Information on customer preferences becomes verti-
cally available in the entire textile chain.
• It optimises inventory management and logistics:
inventory is acquired based on the needs of the
actual personnel on hand, inventory levels can be
minimised and costly last-minute acquisitions can be
avoided.
• It provides accurate data for the construction of
custom garments and personal equipment.
• Apparel retailers minimise their costs because
the pre-order risk and inventory costs are elimi-
nated, while increasing their customers’ satisfaction
through personalised and/or tailor-made garments,
and establishing a close relationship with them.
• Manufacturers are no more limited by the difficul-
ties to appoint skilled people to take consistent body
measurements.
3.3.5. Challenges of 3D body scanning
Although the technology holds immense potential as a
value-addition tool, several technical and application prob-
lems still exist in the way in which information is extracted
and manipulated from 3D body scans. Some of the prob-
lems are listed as follows:
MISSING AREAS–Most body scanners have difficulty in
obtaining data from hidden areas of the body such as
armpits, crotch, soles and under the bust and chin. This
causes problems in size determination in these areas. A few
scanners use software (e.g. Polyworks from Innovmetric)
to patch the missing areas in the scan, but this requires
manual intervention and thus possibility of error may
rise.
BODY POSTURE AND MOVEMENT – Changes caused
in body dimensions during movement or breathing while
being scanned can also cause problems. Change in the
posture of the subject can also affect measurements in
some instruments. High scanning speed (i.e. less than 10
seconds) can reduce the problem.
SURFACE TEXTURE – Surface properties of skin can
greatly affect data quality. Hair and dark textured cloth-
ing also erode the quality of the scan by scattering light
and preventing the cameras from capturing a complete set
of data points. Capturing of hair and skin quality presents
additional complexity in measuring.
BODY LANDMARKS – Identifying body landmarks on
the point cloud is a difficult task. The various 3D scan-
ning systems differ in the landmarks they use and a con-
sensus needs to be developed to ensure consistency and
interchangeability between the various scanners.
3.4. Flexible manufacturing system
Unlike mass production, the number of pieces produced
in a mass customisation system is very less. For mass
customisation, a flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is
very essential for cost-effective production. In a FMS, the
change in work orders, production schedule and produc-
tion line can be changed easily to increase the efficiency.
 International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education
In mass customisation, the efficiency is increased by the
implementation of lean manufacturing, Kaizen and other
similar tools. However, the objective of mass customisa-
tion is to produce with the scale of economies achieved
by mass production by the use of automatic programmable
machines and advanced tools. Therefore, other additional
tools are not needed for a FMS to improve the efficiency.
The important issues in mass customisation are quick
response and cost effectiveness, which can be achieved
by the use of modular machines and open architecture
controllers. Efficiency can be improved by using a recon-
figurable machining system (RMS), which can be rapidly
changed for new production styles. In addition, the RMS
can be adjusted as per the capacity requirements as the
marker and product types grow. The keywords used in
the production systems of mass customisation involve
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customisation, integratability, convertibility and diagnos-
ability. The customers’ demands are responded to quickly
in mass customisation and quick response is needed for
eliminating the problem of collaboration between various
departments.
3.5. Data analysis system
In mass customisation, market research is always necessary
to forecast a customer’s demand. Models such as moving
average and exponential smoothening can be used for fore-
casting market demand (Dong, Jia, Li, & Dong, 2012). As
the consumers’ choice varies a lot, the predicted demand
is not stable, which indicates a huge risk to the manu-
facturer’s production. For simple market forecast, mass
customisation improves the method as the customers send
their direct demand to the manufacturers. Data analysis is
a complex process as many customers need to be dealt
simultaneously with a wide range of variability. Hence,
in addition to the use of computer and Internet, complex
analytical tools are necessary to manage a wide range of
data. The analytical tools should assist in regression analy-
sis, analysis of variance and analysis of linearity in supply
chain.
3.6. Inventory and distribution management systems
There should be a strong inventory management system
for smooth operation of mass customisation. Raw materials
and work-in-progress items are needed to support produc-
tion. Furthermore, an additional inventory is needed for
the maintenance, repair and operating of supplies. Hence,
effective management of inventory is a challenging task
faced by the managers as it involves both capital and stor-
age space. Generally, the concepts of cycle stock and safety
stock are used for inventory management in mass customi-
sation (Bozarth & Handfield, 2006). Cycle stock refers to
the components that are received in bulk by a downstream
supplier, which is gradually used up and then replenished
by an upstream partner. This stock is continuously used by
169
the companies and the suppliers complement it continu-
ously. Safety stock indicates the extra stock the companies
always keep to avoid any uncertainty in the supply chain.
A distribution management system involves the method
of delivering a product to a customer in mass customisa-
tion (Chopra & Meindl, 2007). The cost of this distribution
network should be controlled as the cost involved in meet-
ing the customised product is generally high. Hence, an
effective distribution management can reduce the overall
cost of the merchandise. The response time of the system
should be minimum, which can be controlled by increas-
ing the number of facilities. In several instances, there is
additional cost involved in inbound transport cost (to bring
back the items if the customer demands are not fulfilled).
3.7. Digital printing
The traditional printing process used for fabric printing is
a time-consuming process and they are printed in bulk.
About 20% of the total textiles used for apparels are printed
by traditional methods, which is the dominant production
method for several years. The current trend is shifting to
digital printing using inkjets (Dawson, 2000; Dehghani,
Jahanshah, Borman, Dennis, & Wang, 2004). Inkjet print-
ing is a non-contact technology and is less sensitive to
variations in the substrates. Individual drops of inks are
deposited in a precisely controlled manner onto a substrate
to create an image.
Digital printing is a versatile technique with the poten-
tial to produce customised designs at low cost and reduced
waste (Gupta, 2001). This printing technique now is
increasingly used due to its precision, speed and flexibility,
eliminating the additional expenses associated with other
printing methods such as screen printing. It is also an eco-
friendly method, due to the less consumption of materials
during the printing of visual effects such as tonal gradients
and infinite patterns that cannot be practically achieved
with screen printing (Malik, Kadian, & Kumar, 2005).
4. Challenges of mass customisation
The successful operation of mass customisation is highly
related to consumer behaviour (Anderson-Connell et al.,
2002) as there is a growing demand for customised appar-
els. Mass customisation will facilitate more shopping and
customising options for the consumers (Lee & Chen,
1999). One of the important factors affecting mass customi-
sation is the ‘customer customisation sensitivity’, which
is based on two determinants, namely the uniqueness of
customer needs and customer sacrifice gap (Hart, 1995).
The costumers will be more interested to customise a prod-
uct if the products are more unique. The customer sacrifice
gap refers to the gap between the desired and available
product offerings existing in the market. If the customer
sacrifice gap is larger, more customers would prefer mass
 170 R. Nayak et al.
customisation. On the other hand, if the mass customi-
sation programme is planned improperly, increasing the
product variety in mass customisation may create con-
fusion in consumers (Svensson & Jensen, 2003). With
a wider variety of products, consumers are easily over-
whelmed by the selection process and finally take wrong
decisions in product selection (Zipkin, 1997). A lack of
customer knowledge about the product, limited informa-
tion processing capacity of human beings and potential
ignorance of consumers about their real individual needs
are some of the factors that affect the success of the mass
customisation process (Blecker & Abdelkafi, 2006).
Mass customisation in the apparel industry needs the
assistance from CAD/CAM systems, 3D body scanning
facilities (Anderson-Connell et al., 2002) and a configura-
tion system (Piller & Müller, 2004). 3D body systems are
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the most essential part of mass customisation for creating
customised size and fit, which depend on the implemen-
tation of CAD and CAM systems. In addition, informa-
tion technology provides the ability to coordinate among
internal (e.g. between various departments) and external
partners (e.g. customers and suppliers) (Choi, Li, & Yan,
2006). The information is transferred from buyers to sellers
and manufacturers by the help of information technol-
ogy. Manufacturers can respond to customers in a short
period of time and at low cost with an efficient informa-
tion transfer system. Hence, the information technology
efficiently supports mass customisation by shortening the
virtual distance between the manufacturers and consumers.
Mass customisation is also benefitted by the increasing
popularity of e-commerce.
Mass customisation involves production in small
batches, even one item in several times. The manufac-
turing system for mass customisation should be flexible
enough to respond to dynamic requirements of consumers
(Koste & Malhotra, 1999). Generally, mass customisation
involves flexibility in labour, operation, expansion, quan-
tity and new products. Modularity can enhance the produc-
tion flexibility in mass customisation (Schilling, 2000) and
is considered an appropriate method (Duray, Ward, Mil-
ligan, & Berry, 2000). The people in supply chain and
manufacturing should have high levels of trust, integra-
tion and coordination to address the problems jointly and
in a mutually beneficial manner (Gunasekaran & Ngai,
2005; Sanzo, Santos, Álvarez, & Vázquez, 2007). Identi-
fication of potential and trustworthy suppliers is essential
as it affects the timely delivery, collaboration and network
capability (Blecker & Abdelkafi, 2006)
Mass customisation involves the coordination between
apparel retailers; brands which offer cutsomised garment
usually outsource the production and supply operations to
other trading agents or manufacturing companies (Tseng,
Lei, Su, & Merchant, 1997). There are risks involved
in the lack of proper coordination among them, which
means mass customisation cannot be performed effectively
(Dietrich, Kirn, & Timm, 2006). Hence, the retail brands
focus on their own core competencies and try to avoid the
occurrence of such problems.
5. Future directions of mass customisation
Body measurement technologies could reduce many hours
of frustrating shopping and significantly reduce the num-
ber of clothing returns. But while high-tech software tools
to automate the process of garment manufacture from con-
ception to production are quite feasible, such concepts of
designing apparel wear uniquely for each individual in the
mass are still at the initial stage. The measurements from
3D body scanning are very reliable, but protocols for locat-
ing body landmarks still need to be perfected. A human
tailor can recognise the similarities in dissimilar bodies
and make informed choices about how to make a body
measurement, while a computer must be programmed for
every eventuality. Fitting the complex shape of a human
body is a difficult task, even with body scanners and com-
puter technology. The interactions between body shapes,
pattern shapes and fabric properties can create an expo-
nential number of possible fitting issues to be resolved.
The development and testing of these processes are still
in infancy, yet it is already possible to create a system that
can provide well-designed custom-fitted garments.
6. Conclusion
Human beings have always been concerned about how
their clothes look and fit. Finding just the right outfit in
the style and colour that makes them look their best is one
thing, but finding the perfect fit can add hours to their shop-
ping experience. The retail industries are just beginning to
tap into the mass customisation process to reduce the shop-
ping time to find the right fit in addition to the customised
style. In this age of the Internet and high-speed computer
technology, new emerging 3D body measurement tech-
nologies will allow consumers the ability to store their
body measurements in the computer and to use designer
software to electronically tailor designer clothes at a rea-
sonable cost and in the convenience of their own home.
We can see the days passing by when we could say ‘One
size fits all’. Whatever we purchase, we must tailor it each
and every time, with the exclusive needs of the individual
buyer or user in mind. Needless to mention, the future of
customised clothing has begun.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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