Psych Stats

Psychological Statistics 2020
Introduction and Basic Concepts

Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
1. Identify the significant people that contributed in the development of psychological
statistics.
2. Discuss the events that lead to the development and propagation of psychological
statistics.
3. Describe the goal of psychology.
4. Discuss the importance of statistics in psychology.
5. Identify the categories of statistics.
6. Discuss the different categories of statistics.
7. Compare and contrast the different categories of statistics.
8. Apply the concepts in the activities provided.
Historical Roots of Psychological Statistics

Psychology is science that deals with the study of human behavior and cognition or mental
process. This definition is the product of the rigid activities resulted from natural observation and
scientific exposure and interactions of the early philosophers and psychologist who untiringly
look for explanations, reasons, causes and effects on what, why and how nature and nurture
affect individuals.
Socrates Plato Aristotle
People in the early period believed that thoughts came from the gods in the heaven. Such
belief led them to think that humans have little control over their emotions and actions. The
Great Greek triumvirates Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle believed otherwise. The influence of
Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.) in psychology is his belief that thoughts and knowledge come from
within us and the understanding of self allows one to live a virtuous life. Plato (427-347B.C.E.)
introduced to us that human is a rational being, that we are born with the ability to understand
the relationship of the events around us. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) stressed on the importance
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of experience rather than reasons, that man’s reasoning is a form of making generalizations
from experiences and observations made. Today they are considered the predecessors of a
much modern perspective in psychology.
Dr. Nevil Maskelyne Friedrich Bessel
The origin of experimental psychology can be traced back to 1796, when the then Reverend
Dr. Nevil Maskelyne (1732-1811C.E.) the fifth British Astronomer Royal of the Greenwich
Astronomical Observatory, dismissed his 24 year old assistant David Kinnebrook, on the ground
that Kinnerbrook differed from him by 800 milliseconds in judging stellar transits – that is, in
estimating the moment a given star passed the meridian wire in the Greenwich telescope.
Kinnerbrooks mistake was proven serious statistically.
Upon reading the incident report in 1816, Friedrich Bessel (1784-1846 C.E.), an
astronomer from Königsberg, prompted to conduct a study in 1820. He wanted to know the
differences between himself and other well-practiced observers in their observations and
recording. He introduced the concept of “personal equation’ an attempt to correct for the
constant errors of particular observers, and his measurement led to the general realization that
perceptual and cognitive processes took a quantifiable time.
In 1830, through the writings of Gustav Theodor Fechner

(1801-1887C.E.) there were claims that he was the one who
started the formal beginning of experimental psychology. Fechner
was born in Gross-Sächen, Prussia. Fechner's psychological
interests began toward the end of the 1830s in papers on the
perception of complementary and subjective colors. Between 1851
and 1860, Fechner worked out the rationale for measuring
sensation indirectly in terms of the unit of just noticeable difference
between two sensations, developed his three basic
psychophysical methods (just noticeable differences, right and
wrong cases, and average error) and carried out the classical
experiments on tactual and visual distance, visual brightness, and
Gustav Theodor Fechner lifted weights that formed a large part of the first of the two
volumes of his work the “Elemente der Psychophysik”. Fechner's
aim in the Elemente was to establish an exact science of the functional relationship between
physical and mental phenomena. Distinguishing between inner (the relation between sensation
and nerve excitation) and outer (the relation between sensation and physical stimulation)
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psychophysics, Fechner formulated his famous principle that the intensity of a sensation
increases as the log of the stimulus (S = k log R) to characterize outer psychophysical relations.
In doing so, he believed that he had arrived at a way of demonstrating a fundamental
philosophical truth: mind and matter are simply different ways of conceiving of one and the
same reality. His reputation as a well-trained, systematic experimentalist and a competent
mathematician made a great impact to other scientists who further pursue the scientific manner
of studying human behavior.
In 1855, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Helmholtz also known

as Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894C.E.) born in Potsdam,
Kingdom of Prussia, Germany and educated at the Potsdam
Gymnasium and at the Friedrich Wilhelm Medical Institute in Berlin,
moved to Bonn and from Bonn, in 1858, to Heidelberg to serve as
Director of the Institute of Physiology. It was during the Bonn and
Heidelberg periods that Helmholtz made his most fundamental
contributions to the newly emerging experimental psychology. In his
work the Optik, Helmholtz extended Müller's doctrine of the specific
energies of nerves to offer a comprehensive theory of color vision
and a famous unconscious inference theory of perception. In the
theory of color vision, Helmholtz reasoned that just as the
differences between sensations of sound and light reflect the
specific qualities of auditory and visual nerves, sensations of color Hermann von Helmholtz
may depend on different kinds of nerves within the visual system.
Since the laws of color mixture suggest that virtually all hues can be obtained by various
combinations of three primary colors, it seemed to Helmholtz that the perceived hue, brightness,
and saturation of color must be derived from varying activity in three primary kinds of nerve
fibers in the eye.
In 1859 the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

established the continuity between animal and human, it made
comparative psychology important. Following Darwin’s principle, some
psychologist believed that consciousness, emotions, and other
psychological processes would be understood if the relation between
these processes and how they serve the adjustment of people to their
environment become known.
Between 1865 and 1868, another great

physiologist, Franciscus Cornelis Donders (1818-
1889C.E.) born in the town of Tilburg, in the
Charles Darwin Netherlands, and entered the University of
Utrecht as a medical student, assimilated the
reaction-time procedure to psychology, employing it to study the time taken
up by mental operations. Donders separately assessed the time taken to
respond to a stimulus under conditions of choice and simple non-choice.
Subtracting simple from choice reaction-time, Donders computed the
interval taken by the decision process. In 1868, in a classic paper
appearing in German, "Die schnelligkeit psychischer Processe", Donders
provided the definitive report of the results of this work and its extension to Franciscus Cornelis Donders
discrimination times. Although the specifics of Donder's findings are of little
interest today, his use of the reaction technique to measure the time taken by mental processes
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exerted a major impact on his contemporaries and reaction-time was installed, along with
psychophysics, as a method of choice in the early experimental laboratory.
As Donders investigated reaction-time, Wundt, still at

Heidelberg, began to work toward the conception of physiological
psychology that was to serve as the basis for his systematic approach
to experimentation. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920C.E.), was then the
assistant of Helmholtz in 1858, to direct the Physiological Institute.
Wundt was born at Neckarau, in the vicinity of Mannheim and received
his early education at the hands of a private tutor and at the Bruchsal
Gymnasium. Wundt seems to have availed himself but little of his
contact with Helmholtz. Carrying out much of his experimental work in
Wilhelm Wundt his own home and on his own time, Wundt began the study of sense
perception that led to a series of publications collected, in 1862. His
work, Beiträge zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung consisted of six previously published
articles on sense perception preceded by a methodological introduction. In these articles, Wundt
provided the basics of a psychological theory of the perception of space (including some
discussion of the need for unconscious inference, apparently arrived at in independence of
Helmholtz), reviewed the history of theories of vision, analyzed the psychological function of
sensations arising from visual accommodation and eye movement, presented the results of
experiments on binocular contrast effects and stereoscopic fusion, and argued, contra Herbart,
that the content of consciousness at a given instant always consists of a single, unconsciously
integrated, percept. As the young Wundt was engaged in thinking through the prerequisites of
an experimental psychology, Helmholtz, his immediate superior, the Director of his Institute, was
in many ways already engaged in carrying out such a program.
In 1874 Wundt accepted a call to the University of Zurich,

where he remained only a year, moving in 1875 to Leipzig to
assume the chair in philosophy. From 1875 to 1879, Wundt
devoted himself largely to the duties entailed in his new teaching
position. Wundt seems as in the early as the Winter of 1879/1880
to have nonetheless allowed two students, G. Stanley Hall and
Max Friedrich, "to occupy themselves with research
investigations". This research took place in a small classroom in
the Konvict Building that had earlier been assigned to Wundt for
use as a storage area. Humble though it may have been, this
small space constituted the first psychology laboratory in the world
devoted to original psychological research. Experimental
psychology, born with Fechner, nurtured by Helmholtz and
Granville Stanley Hall Donders, was to be raised by Wundt. Over the years until his
retirement in 1917, Wundt served as the de facto parent of the
"new" psychology.
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William James James McKeen Cattell Edward Bradford Titchener

Students from all over the world, especially from the United States, journeyed to
Leipzig to learn experimental technique and to return to their home institutions imbued
with the spirit of scientific psychology. Four known psychologists among this batch were
William James (1842-1910 C.E.) formed a psychology laboratory at Harvard University;
his lab was used for teaching demonstrations rather than experimentation and original
research. He was considered to be the “Dean of American Psychologist”, Granville
Stanley Hall (1846–1924 C.E.). Hall was the first president of the American Psychological
Association and the first president of Clark University. In 1883, he created the first
experimental psychology lab in the United States at John Hopkins University. James
McKeen Cattell (1860-1944 C.E.), the first professor of psychology in the United States
at the University of Pennsylvania, Edward Bradford Titchener (1866-1927 C.E.). He
published the “Experimental Psychology: A Manual of Laboratory Practice”.
Francis Galton
Hermann Ebbinghaus
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In 1884, Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911C.E.) established his anthropometric

laboratory in London. Galton confirmed and extended the findings of Bessel. The
beginning of the psychological testing movement around the turn of the century gave
great impetus to the study of individual differences. Gaston invented the statistical
technique of correlation and develop the index, to be named the coefficient of
correlation.
In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909 C.E.) reported his studies in learning

and memory, which were directly inspired by Fechner’s measurement of sensation.
Many experiments were conducted and performed using different methods, conditions,
and principles. As a result, different viewpoints were promoted and presented as
schools of thought.
Another body of influence on psychology came from medicine and psychiatry,

especially from the treatment of the mentally ill. It started with the work of Frenchmen
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734 -1815 C.E.) was a German physician with an interest in
astronomy, who theorized that there was a natural energetic transference that occurred
between all animated and inanimate objects, he called it animal magnetism, sometimes
later referred to as mesmerism. The theory attracted a wide following between about
1780 and 1850.
Franz Anton Mesmer James Braid Sigmund Freud
In 1843 the Scottish physician James Braid proposed the term hypnosis for a technique
derived from animal magnetism; today this is the usual meaning of mesmerism. Later, with the
work of an Austrian physician Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a new branch of medical psychology
was born.
Between 1910 and 1550, a number of psychological schools or systems of theories were
developed, and opposing viewpoints on the nature and functions of psychology continued to
arise among the group psychologist and researchers
Importance of Statistics in Psychology
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Psychology like other scientific field has general goals that guide its investigation about
human nature. These main goals of psychology are the following.
1. To describe the different ways of how people behave. It is the accurate and detailed
record of behavioral observations.
2. To explain the various causes of why certain processes and behavior occurs.
3. To predict and determine how the organism will behave in a certain situation.
4. To control or change an organism’s behavior and mental processes by learning how to
modify or alter undesirable behavior.
There are many important factors worth mentioning referring to the relevance of
statistics in the field of psychology. To mention a few, the following are considered important for
the purpose of this book.
1. To scientifically accomplish the goal of psychology, there is a strong need to undergo,

explore and adopt the common practices of scientist in coming up conclusion based
from empirical studies and researches. Statistics is the acceptable instrument the binds
all the scientific study into a universally valid, reliable and accepted new discovered
knowledge.
2. Psychological research is the cornerstone of the field, an experimental research is very
important to provide better strategy of treatment and better methods. Statistics are
essential for determining if the certain treatments or methods are effective or not.
3. Psychologist needs to keep up with the fast phasing and ever-changing lifestyle,
literature, entertainments, and environmental development. Statistics provides methods
and procedure that will aid psychologist and researchers how and what are the important
factors to gather in order to cope with the above mentioned reality.
4. For college students who are, in their everyday existence has to decide, organized,
prioritized, budget, and more often than not wasted times in a less productive but
expensive way of recreational activities in a computer shops up to some point even
missing there classes. By understanding statistics, they can organize their time and
interpret the situation and information in a meaningful way.
5. Statistics enables the researcher to draw general conclusions: the process of extracting
conclusions is carried out according to accepted rules. In explaining various causes of
why certain processes and behavior occurs. With the used of statistics the researcher
are forced to use precise procedures and methods in the conduct of research to have a
result that can supply valid and reliable conclusions, hence, it will clarify and determine
the cause and effect on the occurrence of behavior.
6. Statistics enables the researcher to predict “how much” of a thing will happen under
conditions he knows and has measured.
7. Statistics is everywhere. If you are planning to pursue graduate studies, higher or
sophisticated statistical tools will be introduced to fit with the demands of the degree you
are pursuing. If you are planning to be a professional, then, you have to take the board
exam. A component of the board exam will inquire your knowledge about statistics. If you
are practicing your profession in the field or in the academe you need to conduct
research. So no reasons for us to dislike statistics, but to put our hearts into it, and
everything will be in place.
What is Statistics?
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The word statistics often awaken the awareness of the images of numbers assembled
upon numbers in a vast table. In common understanding the word statistics is synonymous with
the word data.
Statistics is defined as a branch of mathematics which deals with the collection,

organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data for the purpose of
assisting in making a more effective decision.
Collection of data refers to the process of gathering numerical information. Methods of

gathering pertinent information include interview, questionnaire, experiments, observation, and
documentary analysis.
Presentation of data refers to the exposition and arrangement of data in an appropriate

tables and graphs. Graphical presentation includes bar graphs, frequency polygon, pie-graphs
and many others.
Analysis of data refers to the activity of describing the properties, characteristics or

behavior of the data or the possible correlation of different quantities or variables of the data
gathered.
Interpretation of data refers to the activities that involve explanation of the meaning of
the statistical finding for the formation of valid conclusions and inferences. Such methods
involve testing the significance of the results. Correct interpretation of results will lead to a valid
conclusion of the study and hence can aid in taking correct decisions.
Categories of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics refers to the field of statistics that includes the methods of collecting,
classifying, graphing, and averaging the data. The objective is simply describing and
summarizing the important features, properties or characteristics of the data on hand without
attempting to give inference. For example, getting the census of the IQ level of the
psychology student in a university is or of little value if it is just a mass of numerical data. It
can be meaningful if it can be organized into sort of table called frequency distribution or of
some kind of bar or pie graph that will give the IQ level and description when grouped
according to year level and gender. The following are example of descriptive statistics.
a. All participants, 100% reported an experience to at least one traumatic event that can be
considered as equivalent to the objective components of the stress or criterion A of DSM
IV-TR Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
b. The internal consistency of the Perceived Academic Control of the students utilizing the
Academic Control Scale (ACS) was assessed using the Cronbach’s Alpha and the result
showed that the ACS has adequate reliability. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
results for one-factor structure of ACS yield a good fit.
2. Inferential Statistics demands a higher order of critical judgment and mathematical

methods. Its main concern is to analyze the organized data leading to prediction of
inferences. Such methods are required in, some manner, to estimate the average score of a
set of scores; to compare the effectiveness between two interventions or methods of
psychotherapy; to predict academic performance, or to estimate the “true” average score of
a population on the basis of data gathered from the sample. It implies that before carrying
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out an inference, the researcher is equipped to employ appropriate and correct descriptive
measures to bring out valid and reliable result. The area of inferential statistics called
hypothesis testing is a decision-making process for evaluating the statements about a
population, based on the information gathered from the samples. The following are
examples of inferential Statistics.
a. The rate of clinically significant Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) scores of the
respondents did not significantly differ in the three regions (Luzon, Visayas and
Mindanao), x2 (2, N=1794) =2.048, p>.05. Therefore the null hypothesis is accepted.
b. The finding indicates there is a significant difference on the moral judgment of the
respondents according to sex group. The means of the female and male respondents
were 1.23 and 1.13 respectively, with a mean difference of .10. The mean difference is
considered significant at .10 confidence level in favor of the respondents coming from
the female group.
Exercises
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A. Select the best answer. Write the letters on the space provided for before the number.
_______ 1. The early men who are considered wise and rational gain their knowledge through what
manner?
a) natural observation c) experimentation
b) laboratory study d) divine revelation
_______ 2. The origin of the pure scientific endeavor of psychology was motivated by the event that
happened and effort done by what field of science?
a) Medicine c) Astronomy
b) Anthropology d) Physiology
_______ 3. Statistics demands activities that will supplement the rigid requirement of the field. What
statistical activity which refers to the manner of describing the properties, characteristics or
behavior of the data?
a) Data collection c) Data presentation
b) Data analysis d) Data testing
_______ 4. Statistics involved awareness of numbers assembled and arranged to project a
comprehensible
and reader friendly presentation. What statistical activity refers to the exposition and
arrangement of data in an appropriate manner?
a) Data presentation c) Data collection
b) Data analysis d) Data survey
_______ 5. Which among the statement is true in an inferential statistics?
a) It has a raw material which the statistician can work on.
b) The variables are classified according to numerical value.
c) It demands a higher order of critical judgment.
d) It can assume values at specific point in a scale.
_______ 6. It can be found through survey, experiment, archival records and other modes of data
gathering.
It is very important for the researcher in order to come up with a productive study.
a) Statistics c) Hypothesis
b) Data d) Conclusion
_______ 7. The manner of identifying what the characteristics of descriptive statistics is.
a) By looking at the objective which is simply describing and summarizing the important
values.
b) By looking at the predictive inferential manner.
c) By finding if it answers the hypothesis.
d) If it employs appropriate and correct methods and procedures.
_______ 8. All scientist needs a laboratory to work on his research or experiment, who is the first
scientist
that converted a room into experimental laboratory and where was the place?
a) Fechner – Leipzeg c) Freud – Autria
b) Wilhelm Wundt – Leipzeg d) Helmholts - Germany
_______ 9. Committing an errors is not a good issue to start with, however, the error that was
committed
by this person is the geneses of experimental psychology. Who is this person?
a) Maskelyne c) Lindeneau
b) Bessel d) Kinnebrook
______10. After Leipzig experimental laboratory serves it purpose to the students and to the world.
Who is
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the first American Psychologist who put up his experiential laboratory for real research
purpose
and not only for academic demonstration and at what university did he ?
a) William James – Harvard University c) Stanley Hall – John Hopkins
University
b) James Cattell – University of Pennsylvania d) Edward Titchener - Cornell University
B. Classify whether the situation belongs to the area of descriptive statistics (DS) or inferential statistics
(IS). Indicate your answer on the space provided before the number.
_____ 1. The IQ profile of the first year psychology students is average.

_____ 2. The survey result claimed that lack of sleep slow down the cognitive processes.
_____ 3. Progeria is cause by a chromosomal dysfunction.
_____ 4. Dark colored skin is a dominant characteristic base on the principle of heredity.
_____ 5. A study was conducted to measure the emotional quotient of the military personnel
coming from the war in Lebanon.
_____ 6. About 45% of the applicants manifested high, 30% moderate and 25% low level in
neuroticism factor.
_____ 7. An underdeveloped Broca’s area causes speech problem of a person.
_____ 8. The experiment was made to test the relationship of the IQ and Self-efficacy.
_____ 9. A treatment was applied to the variable to test its effect on the memory system.
_____10. Only 42% of the graduates who took the psychometrician board exam passed.
_____11. Parenting is a contributory factor to have good academic performance.
_____12. Reinforcement is a concept develop by BF Skinner.
_____ 13. A professor wanted to know how his 30 students compare with the national norms
of the CHED.
_____14. A researcher is interested in the issue of motivation among men and women
working in a call center.
_____15. A clinical psychologist analyzes the dreams of his client who experience physical
abuse to see whether or not the images of abuse appear in the dreams.
_____16. The guidance counselor attempted to reconcile the students who are fighting.
_____17. The mean scores of the midterm exam of 2nd year psychology student is 85.
_____18. Carrot juice may strengthen the lungs.
_____19. Wearing seat belts increases the chance of survival in car accidents.
_____20. The Psychological Association of Philippine is holding a psychological research
symposium.
C. Complete the puzzle by answering the following cue question.
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5 6
1 c e
e
4 9
p
2 8
A i
o 10 c e
e
3
c s o
1. Statistics provides methods and _________ that will aid the psychologist and researchers
on how and what are the important factors to gather in conducting psychological research.
2. It is a branch of mathematics which deals with the collection, organization, presentation,

analysis and interpretation of numerical data for the purpose of assisting in making a more
effective decision.
3. Psychological research is the __________ of discovering new ideas, updated therapeutic

technique, and new findings by using the prescribed statistical methodology.
4. It is one of the goals of psychology which help clarifies the various causes of behavior.
5. Statistics enables the researcher to draw general conclusions: the process of extracting
_____________ is carried out according to accepted rules.
6. It refers to the category of statistics that includes the methods of collecting, classifying,
graphing, and averaging the data.
7. The systematic inquiry and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and
come up with new conclusions. It is also an academic requirement for the acquisition of a
degree.
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8. The goal of psychology that aims to minimized the negative effect on organism’s behavior
and mental processes by learning how to modify or alter undesirable behavior.
9. The goal of psychology which refers to have a forecast on how the organism will behave in a
certain situation.
10. The result can supply valid and reliable conclusions that will clarify and determine the cause
and effect on the _____________ of behavior.
Chapter 2
Basic SPSS and Excel Operations

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1. Be familiar with the basic SPSS and Excel Operations
2. Be able to apply the operations and use them appropriately
3. Explore application of SPSS and Excel in Statistical Operations
4. Identify symbols used in statistics and apply them
In this portion, this will give us information of the basic functions and uses of SPSS. At the end
of the chapter you are expected be able to perform basic SPSS functions like entering variables,
entering data, generating table of statistics and be able to save your file.
To enter data, follow the steps below:

1. Start SPSS and a widow will open and ask you what would you like to do.
Type in
Data
Click OK
2. Click “Type in data” and click OK.

3. You will see a data screen and at the bottom you will see “Variable View” click it.
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Type in ID beside number 1

Set decimal to “0” and set
Nominal to measure
Variable Type in Score in number 2

View Set decimal to “0” and set Scale
to measure
4. Go to data view and enter the values
Enter the data

on ID and Score
column
In this data you have 12 students represented by ID, the scores are 34, 30, 36, 35, 34, 36, 34,
35, 31, 27, 29 and 34
5. We can now analyze the encoded data.

6. Click Analyze, then slide to descriptive Statistics, then Frequency.
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Analyze Descriptive
Statistics
then
Frequencies
7. In the frequency you will see the encoded information on the left box, transfer the data to
be analyzed at the right box. In this case the Scores.
Click on Test
Scores
8. Transfer the Tests scores by highlighting in and clicking the arrow pointing to the right
box. Then Click Statistics
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Click on
Statistics
9. Click in the Central Tendency and dispersion, then click continue..
Click on Mean,
Median, Mode
Click on
Standard
Deviation and
Variance
Click Continue
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10. Click Continue and the Result will emerge
Statistics
The result of the
Test Score analysis showing
the central
Valid 12 tendency and
N variation
Missing 0
Mean 32.92
Median 34.00
Mode 34
Std. Deviation 2.937
Variance 8.629
11. Save your file by clicking the save icon and type in desire file name.
Frequency Distribution and Graphs
1. To create a graph base on frequency distribution, enter all the scores in one column
2. Click Data analysis, click frequencies, then frequencies. Move the scores from left to
right table then click charts.
Click Charts
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Click bar chart and output will show as frequency distribution
Test Score
Frequen Perce Valid Cumulativ

cy nt Perce e Percent
nt
27 1 8.3 8.3 8.3
29 1 8.3 8.3 16.7
30 1 8.3 8.3 25.0
31 1 8.3 8.3 33.3

Vali
d 34 4 33.3 33.3 66.7
35 2 16.7 16.7 83.3
36 2 16.7 16.7 100.0
Tota
12 100.0 100.0
l
3. A bar graph will be shown below the frequency distribution
4. Then there is your graph.
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Statistical Notations
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Basic Excel Operations
1. Encode Data, the click the fx or function bar, look for average, the click go. This will
appear, then highlight the data to get the mean from. Then Press OK.
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Function bar
Highlight data for

mean
2. Compute for the median, click fx or function bar, then go to median, highlight the data to
get the median from, the click ok.
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3. For the mode, click fx or function bar, then go to mode, highlight the data to get the
mode from, then click ok.
Click fx o
function Click fx o
bar function
bar
Go
Go
Ok
Ok
Type median Type mode

then click Go then click Go
Exercise 3.1
1. With the following data 9 7 8 6 4 9 7 3
2. compute the following:
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a. ∑x b. ∑x² c. ∑x + 5 d. ∑(x-2)
Solution:
x x² X-2
a. To solve this, just add up all
9 81 7 the scores (x)
7 49 5 b. In solving this, square all the
scores, then add them up.
8 64 6 c. To compute for this, just add
5 to the sum of all scores.
6 36 4 d. To solve for this, subtract 2
from all the scores then add
4 16 2 them up.
9 81 7
7 49 5
3 9 1
∑x = 53 ∑x² = 385 ∑(x-2) = 37
a. For the following scores, find the value of each expression.
1. X 7 4 6 5 3
a. ∑x b. ∑x² c. ∑ (x-1) d. ∑x+3 e. (∑x)²
2. X 2 3 2 4 3 4 5
a. ∑x b. ∑x² c. ∑ x-2 d. ∑(x+4)² e. (∑x)²
3. X 6 5 7 6 7 8 5
Y 3 6 5 2 1 5 3
a. ∑x b. ∑y² c. ∑ xy d. ∑(xy)² e. ∑xy²
b. Solve the above using excel.
Chapter 3
Descriptive Statistics
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1. Differentiate inferential and descriptive statistics
2. Explore descriptive statistics
3. Classify distribution shape
4. Create frequency distribution
5. Compute central tendencies
6. Apply SPSS and Excel for descriptive statistics
Frequency Distributions
A Frequency distribution is an organized tabulation of the number of individuals located

in different categories in different levels of measurements. This is used to group sores together
in order which would allow the researcher in a glance the set of scores. This could be presented
in either a table or a graph with records of frequency or number of individuals in different
categories.
The simplest frequency distribution table presents the measurement scale by listing
each measurement categories in a column (usually indicated by X) from highest to lowest value.
Then frequencies besides each category are then placed usually indicated by f.
Example:
The following are set of scores (N = 30) which was obtained from a 10 points Psych
Statistics test. We will organize these scores by constructing a frequency distribution table.
Scores: 9 8 9 8 6 8 4 9 5 10
7 9 6 5 4 7 5 6 7 8
3 9 7 5 6 7 6 4 7 4
1. The highest score is X = 10 and the lowest score is X = 3. The first column of the table lists
the categories or scores that make up the scale of measurement (X values) from 10 to 3.
X f 2. Notice that all of the possible scores are listed in the table, and the
10 1 frequency associated with each scores is recorded in the second
9 5 column.
8 4 3. As you can observe, there is only one student who got a perfect
7 6
score and most of the scores are 7 with 6 as its frequency,
6 5
5 4 followed by 9 and 6 with both 5 as frequency.
4 4 4. The frequency can also be used to find the total number of scores.
3 1 N = ∑f
∑f 30
Using SPSS:
1. Encode the scores in the first column or the first var and label it as Scores.
29 | P a g e
2. Click analyse go to descriptive statistics then click frequencies.

3. Highlight the scores then click the arrow going to the right
Highlight the scores Then click the arrow to the right, Then Click OK
Scores Obtained
The output of the SPSS will look like
Scores Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
this, similar to our data done
Percent Percent
manually.
3 1 3.3 3.3 3.3
You can even make a graph by
4 4 13.3 13.3 16.7
clicking the charts and choose a
5 4 13.3 13.3 30.0 specific chart type then click OK
6 5 16.7 16.7 46.7
Valid 7 6 20.0 20.0 66.7
8 4 13.3 13.3 80.0
9 5 16.7 16.7 96.7
10 1 3.3 3.3 100.0
Total 30 100.0 100.0
Shape of the Distribution
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In the proceeding chapters we will be introduced to central tendencies and variability.

Before we discuss them let us take a look on the shape of distribution. In part the relationships
among mean, median and mode are determined by the shape of the distribution. We will be
discussing two general types of distribution.
Symmetrical Distribution
If the right hand side of the graph is a mirror image of the left hand side then it is said to
be symmetrically distributed. A distribution that is perfectly symmetrical has a median that is
exactly at the center of the distribution, thus a perfectly symmetrical distribution has the same
mean, median and mode.
In skewed distribution, there is a tendency that the mean, median and mode are located
in different positions.
As in graph above, a positively skewed distribution has a peak or highest score or
frequency at the left side. This is the position of the mode in which its vertical line does not
divide the distributions in two equal parts; the median is at the right side of the mode and the
mean at the right side of the median. Thus, a positively skewed distribution has from smallest to
large value (left to right) is the mode, median and the mean.
A negatively skewed distribution is disproportionate in the opposite direction, with the
scores piling up to the right side. The smallest to highest value in the negatively skewed
distribution is mean, median and mode.
A positive or negative value of skewness is described as not normal distribution.
Nonparametric test are used when distribution are not normal, that can be utilized in both
nominal and ordinal data
Where:
Sk = Skewness = mean
3 = Constant Md = Median
SD = Standard Deviation
Kurtosis
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Some symmetrical curves may look just like normal bell shape curve, but some are
either excessively steep or flat compared to a normal bell curve. Kurtosis is the term to describe
the shallowness or steepness of a distribution. A steep kurtosis is called leptokurtic, a normal
curve is called mesokurtic and a flat curve is called platykurtic. A positive value of kurtosis
means that the curve is steep. A zero value of kurtosis means that the curve is middling and a
negative value of kurtosis is a flat curve.
We use parametric test when the distribution is normal. To determine this we compute
for the skewness and kurtosis. A normal distribution has a skewness equal to zero and the
kurtosis is 0.265. When the distribution is not normal then use nonparametric test with ratio and
interval data.
where
Central Tendency
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Supposed you had your quizzes and you scored 8/10 in one of them. Would you be
happy for your score? At its face value you had a very decent score and you would consider
yourself you have done a great job. But looking at your classmates’ scores you see that most of
them scored 9/10 and 10/10. Would you still be happy? Sometimes our performance in any quiz
is not just dependent on how we did, but we also consider how others did in the same test. In
the Math quiz your percentage is 80, while your classmates are between 90-100 percent. Would
you be happy with your score given the scenario? So how do you decide then? What additional
information would you like?
If you are like most students, you will immediately ask your classmates of their scores. To
compare your scores to a distribution of scores is fundamental to statistics. So let's explore it
further, using the same example (the quizzes you took with your classmates).
The following are the outcomes:

Students Math 10/10 Science 15/15 English 20/20 Filipino 30/30
1. You 8 7 15 20
2. Joseph 9 5 18 18
3. Ryan 10 4 10 24
4. Anna 9 6 8 29
5. Kiko 8 4 11 11
6. Thelma 9 4 9 13
7. Melai 10 5 14 16
8. Joanne 9 6 7 21
Total Score 72 41 92 152
Mean 9.00 5.13 11.50 19.00
Median 9.00 5.00 10.50 19.00
Mode 9.00 4.00 none none
Sample test scores obtain.
Based on the table shown to which subject did you do better than the others, and which
subject did you perform below them? The table shows that you did well in Science, English and
Filipino since you scored above the mean or average and median, while you did poorly in Math
because you fell below the mean and median.
A statistical measure that determines a single score that defines its center of the distribution is
the central tendency. This aims to determine the most typical or usual score in a distribution.
The Mean
The mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It is simply the sum of the scores
divided by the number of scores. The symbol “μ” is used for the mean of a population. The
symbol “M” is used for the mean of a sample.
The formula for mean is shown below:

Population Mean Sample Mean
33 | P a g e
∑X
N
Add all the scores in a selection and then divide it by the number of population.
Students Math 10/10

1. You 8
2. Joseph 9
3. Ryan 10
4. Anna 9
5. Kiko 8 72
6. Thelma 9 Mean =
7. Melai 10 8
8. Joanne 9
Total Score 72 Mean = 9
Mean 9.00
Median 9.00
Mode 9.00
Median
The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint
of a distribution: the same number of scores is above the median as below it. Simply it is the
middle score. When is median a valuable alternative to the mean? We use median if the
resulting mean is produces a value that is not representative of the distribution. This means that
one or more values are extreme that can influence the mean or displace it. We also use median
for ordinal data.
Students English 20/20 Arranged in

order
1. You 15 7
2. Joseph 18 8
3. Ryan 10 9 10 + 11
4. Anna 8 10 median =
5. Kiko 11 11 2
6. Thelma 9 14
7. Melai 14 15
8. Joanne 7 18 Median = 10.5
Total Score 92
Mean 11.50
Median 10.50
Mode None
Computation of the Median
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When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle number.
When there is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers.
For example, the median of 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, and 18 is 10.5.
Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value. Count the number of times each scores
occurs and pick the score with most occurrences. When we use nominal scales and discrete
variables it is better to use the mode.
Students Math 10/10 Science 15/15 English 20/20 Filipino 30/30

1. You 8 7 15 20
2. Joseph 9 5 18 18
3. Ryan 10 4 10 24
4. Anna 9 6 8 29
5. Kiko 8 4 11 11
6. Thelma 9 4 9 13
7. Melai 10 5 14 16
8. Joanne 9 6 7 21
Total Score 72 41 92 152
Mean 9.00 5.13 11.50 19.00
Median 9.00 5.00 10.50 19.00
Mode 9.00 4.00 none none
In the table above the mode for Math is 9 since it occurs 4 times or most frequently from
among the math scores. The subject science has number 4 as its mode since it occurred 3
times or most frequently from among the scores. The subjects Filipino and English have no
mode since none of the scores were repeated.
Variability
This concept is essential in statistics; it is a non-technical and related to statistical variance.

Variability provides a quantitative measure of the degree or spread of scores or distance.
Supposed you have 12 members in your group what would be the range of their score
considering the following value.
Scores: 9 8 9 8 6 8 4 9 5 10
7 9 6 5 4 7 5 6 7 8
3 9 7 5 6 7 6 4 7 4
The range is the distance between the highest score and the lowest score.
Range = largest value – smallest value
In our example, the largest score is 10 and the smallest is 3.
35 | P a g e
The Range is 10 – 3 = 7
Standard deviation is the most important measure of variability. It is also the most commonly
used. The standard deviation is the distance of the scores from the mean.
Deviation is the distance from the mean. As in 10 – 6.6 = 3.4, the result is the distance of score
from the mean.
For Example:
9 8 7 5 1
In this 5 scores, determine the standard deviation
The Variance=SD
2
squared
value of the
standard
deviation is
the
variance
X
∑ (40)
9
8
X-
9–6=3
(X -
9
)²
SD=
√ 5−1
8–6=2 4 SD=√ 10
7
7–6=1 1
5
5 – 6 = -1 1
1
1 – 6 = -5 25
∑ = 30
∑ (X - )²=40
SD=3.16
=6
STANDARD SCORES
Standard scores are universally understood units in testing that allow test users to evaluate
a person’s performance in reference to other persons who took the same or similar test.
Transformed Scores
Are most often used with standardized test of aptitude, achievement, and personality and
are designed to help us compare individual scores with group norms. They also help us
compare one individual’s score on one test with the same individual’s score on another test.
Two types of transformations:
36 | P a g e
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION- change the unit of measurement but do not change the
characteristics of the raw data in any way.
 Percentages
- To calculate a percentage, you divide a raw score by the total possible score.
 Standard deviation units
- Refer to how many standard deviations an individual score falls away from the mean.
 Z scores
- Are very similar to standard deviation units except that they can be represented in whole
numbers and decimal points.
x−x́ ( x− x́ )2
z=
sd sd =
√ n−1
Suppose we have the following scores, determine the z-score
Student Score x−x́ ( x−x́ )2

A 14 – 15 -1 1
B 15 – 15 0 0
C 11 – 15 -4 16
D 17 – 15 2 4
E 14 – 15 -1 1
F 16 – 15 1 1
G 17 – 15 2 4
H 12 – 15 -3 9
I 12 – 15 -3 9
J 17 – 15 2 4
K 20 – 15 5 25
∑x 165 74
74
mean 15
sd =
10√
sd 2.72
Steps in computing for the z-scores
1. Compute for the summation of the scores

2. Get the mean, by dividing the total scores to the number of observation
3. Subtract each scores to the mean
4. Square each difference of the score and mean
5. Get the total and divide it with n-1 to get the standard deviation
6. To get the z-scores, divide the difference of the score minus mean to the standard
deviation.
Student Score x−x́ z - scores
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A 14 -1 -0.37
B 15 0 0.00
C 11 -4 -1.47
D 17 2 0.74
E 14 -1 -0.37
F 16 1 0.37
G 17 2 0.74
H 12 -3 -1.10
I 12 -3 -1.10
J 17 2 0.74
K 20 5 1.84
∑x 165
mean 15
sd 2.72
T scores
T score is a transformed score that always have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation
of 10.This is computed by multiplying the z-scores by 10 and then adding 50.
T =( z x 10 ) +50
Student Score x−x́ z - scores T - Score

A 14 -1 -0.37 46.32
B 15 0 0.00 50.00
C 11 -4 -1.47 35.29
D 17 2 0.74 57.35
E 14 -1 -0.37 46.32
F 16 1 0.37 53.67
G 17 2 0.74 57.35
H 12 -3 -1.10 38.97
I 12 -3 -1.10 38.97
J 17 2 0.74 57.35
K 20 5 1.84 68.38
∑x 165
mean 15
sd 2.72
Percentiles
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To calculate an individual’s percentile rank, you must first find the number of individuals
who scored below the individual’s score and the number of individuals who scored exactly the
same score. You then take the number of individuals who scored below a specific raw score,
add half (.5) of those who scored exactly the same raw score, and divide it by the total number
of people who took the test. You then multiply this number by 100 to make the decimal a whole
number.
Rank−0.05
PR= x 100
number of cases
Temporary
Rank Score True Rank Percentile
1 11 1 4.55
2 12 2.5 18.18
3 12 2.5 18.18
4 14 4.5 36.36
5 14 4.5 36.36
6 15 6 50.00
7 16 7 59.09
8 17 9 77.27
9 17 9 77.27
10 17 9 77.27
11 20 11 95.45
- Are expressed in whole numbers from 1 to 9.
STANINES AND THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
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 The role of norms

Norms – are the average scores of some identified group of individuals. These norms provide
us with a standard against which we can compare individual test scores.
Norm-based interpretations – the process of comparing an individual’s test score to a norm
group.
Types of Social Norms:
Percentile ranks – is very common type of norm ; it provides us with a way to rank individuals
on a scale from 1% to 100% , making it relatively easy to interpret. With percentile rank norms,
scores can range from the 1st percentile to the 99th percentile, with the average individual’s
score set at the 50th percentile.
 SAMPLE NORMS TABLE TECHNICIAN’S APTITUDE AND PROFICIENCY TEST

Raw Score Percentile
11 98
10 96
9 85
8 75
7 62
6 48
5 34
4 23
3 18
2 10
1 4
0 1
 Age norms and Grade norms – are also common types of norms, they allow us to
determine at what age level or grade level an individual is performing. They allow us to
determine whether an individual’s test score is similar to, below, or above the scores of
others at the same age or grade level.
Example: 10-year-olds or fourth graders as well as to test takers with ages and grades
immediately below and immediately above the targeted age or grade.
SUMMARY OF Role of Norms
Percentile rank – tell us the percentage of the norm group that scored less than or equal to an
individual.
Age and Grade norms – tell us whether individuals scored below, similar to or above their age
and grade levels.
*Tests users should be careful to select the appropriate norm group, ensure that the norms they
use to date, and to ensure that the size of the norm group is large enough to be represented of
the target population.
Exercises 4.1
A. Compute the following:
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1. For the following data compute for the variance and the standard deviation.
12 17 15 10 11 19
2. For the following scores find the mean, median and range
80 87 80 90 85 84
3. For the following data
7 0 1 3 6
a. find the mean and standard deviation
b. now change the score x=7 to 17, find the new mean and standard deviation
c. describe how the an extreme score affects the mean and the standard
deviation
4. Organize the following scores by constructing a frequency distribution.
8 9 7 6 5 7 9 6 8 6
6 9 7 8 5 6 8 7 9 4
Compute for the mean, median, mode, variance, standard deviation and range.
Exercises 4.2
Express the Mean, Standard Deviation, Z-scores and T-Scores of the following Scores:
Temporary True
Rank
Score x−x́ ( x−x́ )2 Rank
z - scores T - Score Percentile
1 3
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 5
6 6
7 6
8 6
9 6
10 6
11 7
12 7
13 8
14 8
15 9
Chapter 4
41 | P a g e
Testing Hypothesis
1. Formulate a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis.
2. State the procedure for hypothesis testing.
3. Differentiate between one-tailed and two-tailed tests.
4. Distinguish between Type I and Type II errors.
5. Explain the meaning of effect size.
6. Compute z-test and use SPSS and Excel
A generally considered most important instrument in research is the Hypothesis. Its main
function is to suggest new functions and ideas. Various authors define hypothesis as follows:
“A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables”.
(Kerlinger, 1956)
“Hypotheses are tentative guesses, good hunches – assumed for use in devising theory or
planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible”. (Eric
Rogers, 1966)
“Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an
independent and dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994)
A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture. It provides a
tentative explanation for a phenomenon under investigation." (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001).
Generally hypothesis is considered as an assumption or a supposition which has to be proved

or disproved. For a researcher hypothesis is a formal question that he has to resolve.
A hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an

explanation for the occurrence of some specific group of phenomena. A research hypothesis is
a predictive statement capable of being tested by scientific methods that relate an independent
variable to some dependent variable.
Characteristics of a hypothesis
• Hypothesis should be clear and precise
• Hypothesis should be capable of being tested
• Hypothesis should be able to relate to a variable.
• Hypothesis must be limited in scope and must be specific
• Hypothesis must be stated in very simple terms.
• Hypothesis must be consistent with most known facts
• Hypothesis must be testable within a reasonable time
• Hypothesis must explain the facts which most need explaining
Categorizing Hypotheses
42 | P a g e
 It is a statement about the potential relationship between two or more variables.

 It is a suggested answer to a problem, an educated guess about the population based
on a study of a sample of the population
 Hypothesis testing deals with the procedure for testing the validity of inferences
regarding population parameters based on a study of the sample.
Can be categorized in different ways

1. Based on their formulation
Null Hypotheses and Alternate Hypotheses
2. Based on direction
Directional and Non-directional Hypothesis
3. Based on their derivation
Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses
The Null Hypothesis, H0 states the claim or assertion to be tested; it is always about a
population parameter, not about a sample statistic. Begin with the assumption that the null
hypothesis is true. This is similar to the notion of innocent until proven guilty. Refers to the status
quo and always contains “=” , “≤” or “” sign which may or may not be rejected. It states that
independent variable has no effect and there will be no difference between the two groups.
The Alternative Hypothesis, H1 is the opposite of the null hypothesis that challenges the
status quo. It never contains the “=” , “≤” or “” sign which may or may not be proven. It is
generally the hypothesis that the researcher is trying to prove and states that independent
variable has an effect and there will be a difference b/w the two groups.
Directional Hypothesis and Non-directional Hypothesis
This is simply based on the wording of the hypothesis that we can tell the difference
between directional and non-directional. If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a
difference between the two groups, then it is a non-directional hypothesis. It is non-directional
because it predicts that there will be a difference but does not specify how the groups will differ.
If, however, the hypothesis uses so-called comparison terms, such as “greater”, “less”,
“better”, or “worse” then it is a directional hypothesis. It is directional because it predicts that
there will be a difference between the two groups and it specifies how the two groups will differ
One-tailed or directional test is done when the null hypothesis states that one mean is
greater or lesser than the other mean; the direction is specified: Example: Science majors differ
from mass communication majors in terms of mean scores on sociability.
Two-tailed or non-directional test is done when the null hypothesis states that the two
means are equal or there is no difference between the two means. Example: Boys and girls do
not differ in mathematics ability.
Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses
43 | P a g e
This is theory building and theory testing classified in terms of how they were derived:
Inductive hypothesis results from a generalization based on observation
Null Hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
In statistical analysis if we want to compare method A with method B and if we proceed

with the assumption that both methods are equally good then this assumption is termed as null
hypothesis.
 Two kinds of hypotheses

1. Null hypothesis (Ho) – is a statement of equality or no difference between the groups
under study, or, hypothesis of no effect.
Example: Giving feedback does not improve learning.
The two groups do not differ in their response to the method of
teaching.
2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha) – is a statement of the relationship between the variables
that the researcher seeks to prove.
Example: Giving feedback improves learning.
Experiential methods are more effective than lectures.
Following considerations are kept in view
The alternative hypothesis is one which one wants to prove. The consideration is given
to the null hypothesis. This is due to the fact that the null hypothesis relates to the statement
being tested, whereas the alternative hypothesis relates to the statement to be accepted if /
when the null is rejected.
The final conclusion once the test has been carried out is always given in terms of the
null hypothesis. We either 'reject H0 in favour of Ha' or 'do not reject H0'; we never conclude
'reject Ha', or even 'accept Ha'. If we conclude 'do not reject H0', this does not necessarily mean
that the null hypothesis is true, it only suggests that there is not sufficient evidence against H0 in
favour of Ha; rejecting the null hypothesis then, suggests that the alternative hypothesis may be
true.
ERRORS IN DECISION MAKING
Type I Error – occurs when we reject the null hypothesis when it is true, designated by alpha
(α).
Type II Error – occurs when we accept the null hypothesis when it is false, designated by (β).
Decision
44 | P a g e
Results of the Accept Ho Reject Ho

study
Ho is true Correct decision Type I Error

α
Ho is false Type II Error Correct decision

β
Type I Error α error
• In a hypothesis test, a type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is
in fact true; that is, H0 is wrongly rejected.
• A type I error is often considered to be more serious, and therefore more important to
avoid, than a type II error. The hypothesis test procedure is therefore adjusted so that
there is a guaranteed 'low' probability of rejecting the null hypothesis wrongly; this
probability is never 0. This probability of a type I error can be precisely computed as,
p(type I error) = significance level = The exact probability of a type II error is generally
unknown.
• If we do not reject the null hypothesis, it may still be false (a type II error) as the sample
may not be big enough to identify the falseness of the null hypothesis (especially if the
truth is very close to hypothesis).
• For any given set of data, type I and type II errors are inversely related; the smaller the
risk of one, the higher the risk of the other.
• A type I error can also be referred to as an error of the first kind
Type II Error β error
• In a hypothesis test, a type II error occurs when the null hypothesis H0, is not rejected
when it is in fact false.
• A type II error would occur if it was concluded that the two drugs produced the same
effect, that is, there is no difference between the two drugs on average, when in fact they
produced different ones.
45 | P a g e
• A type II error is frequently due to sample sizes being too small. The probability of a type
II error is symbolised by and written: p(type II error) = (but is generally unknown).
• A type II error can also be referred to as an error of the second kind
LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
Alpha (α) – is set at the beginning of the research and is the level to which the
researcher wishes to limit the probability of making a Type I error. It is also the area of
the rejection region. Typical values of α are .05, .01 or .001.
• The significance level of a statistical hypothesis test is a fixed probability of wrongly

rejecting the null hypothesis H0, if it is in fact true.
• It is the probability of a type I error and is set by the investigator in relation to the
consequences of such an error. That is, we want to make the significance level as small
as possible in order to protect the null hypothesis and to prevent, as far as possible, the
investigator from inadvertently making false claims.
• The significance level is usually denoted by Significance Level = p(type I error) =

Usually, the significance level is chosen to be = 0.05 = 5%.
One-sided Test
• A one-sided test is a statistical hypothesis test in which the values for which we can
reject the null hypothesis, H0 are located entirely in one tail of the probability distribution.
In other words, the critical region for a one-sided test is the set of values less than the
critical value of the test, or the set of values greater than the critical value of the test.
• A one-sided test is also referred to as a one-tailed test of significance. The choice

between a one-sided and a two-sided test is determined by the purpose of the
investigation or prior reasons for using a one-sided test
• Either of these two alternative hypotheses would lead to a one-sided test. Presumably,
we would want to test the null hypothesis against the first alternative hypothesis since it
would be useful to know if there is likely to be less than 50 matches, on average, in a
box (no one would complain if they get the correct number of matches in a box or more).
Yet another alternative hypothesis could be tested against the same null, leading this time to a
two-sided test:
Two-Sided Test
• A two-sided test is a statistical hypothesis test in which the values for which we can
reject the null hypothesis, H0 are located in both tails of the probability distribution.
46 | P a g e
• In other words, the critical region for a two-sided test is the set of values less than a first
critical value of the test and the set of values greater than a second critical value of the
test
• A two-sided test is also referred to as a two-tailed test of significance.
• The choice between a one-sided test and a two-sided test is determined by the purpose
of the investigation or prior reasons for using a one-sided test.
EFFECT SIZE- refers to the measure of the size of the treatment effect in terms of the standard
deviation. There are different effect sizes depending on the different hypothesis test. The most
common and simple measure of effect size is Cohen’s d, which is the mean difference divided
by the standard deviation.
6 Steps in Hypothesis Testing
1. State the null hypothesis, H0 and the alternative hypothesis, H1

2. Choose the level of significance, , and the sample size, n
3. Determine the appropriate test statistic (two-tail, one-tail, and Z or t distribution) and
sampling distribution
4. Determine the critical values(mainly three criteria, (i) significance level,(ii) degree of
freedom,(iii) One or two tailed test, that divide the rejection and non rejection regions
5. Collect data and compute the value of the test statistic
6. If the computed value is greater than the tabular value the null hypothesis is rejected,
otherwise it is accepted.
Z-Test
Z-Test is a parametric test that is used when normal distribution is observed. It uses two
population parameters, the mu ( μ) and sigma (σ ) . This is used to compare the two
means – the sample mean and the perceived population mean. It is also used in comparing two
sample means taken from the same population.
Z-Test is also used when the samples are equal or greater than 30. This can be applied
in one-sample mean test and two sample mean test.
Z-Test One Sample Mean

This is used when the sample is being compared to the perceived population mean, if
the population standard deviation is NOT known the sample standard deviation can be used as
a substitute.
The Z-Test one sample group is used to compare perceived population mean ( μ)
against the sample mean ( x́ ¿ or simply to test their significant difference.
47 | P a g e
In an instance a certain car company asserts that the lifespan of their breakpads will last
43,000 kilometers. To check the claim sample breakpads were tested by getting their sample
mean.
To solve this we use the Z-Test for one sample mean using the formula below:
( x́−μ ) √n Where: x́ = sample mean

z= μ = hypothesized value of the population
σ
mean
σ = population standard deviation
n = sample size
Example:
The BRKPD company asserts that the average lifespan of their breakpads is at least
43,000 km. To acertain the accuracy of this assertion, a jeepney operator puts these breakpads
to their 50 jeepneys which got the average lifespan of breakpads at 41,800 km. With the
standard deviation of 2, 580 km. Use the Z-Test at 0.05 level of signiifcance to determine if the
claim is true.
Steps in Solving Z-Test for one sample mean.
1. Detrmine the mean of the sample and the standard deviation if the population is not
known.
2. Get the difference the sample mean and the population mean and multiply it by the
square root of sample mean (n).
3. Determine the quotient of the step by the population standard deviation if it is known.
4. Compare the result to the table or the tabular value using the set level of significance.
Level of Significance
Test 0.01 0.05
One-tailed ± 2.33 ± 1. 645
Two-tailed ± 2.575 ± 1.96
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is the assertion true that the average lifespan of the breakpad is at least
43,000 km.
Hypotheses: Ho : The average lifespan of the breakpad is 43,000 km.
Ha : The average lifespan of the breakpad is NOT 43,000 km.
Level of ∝ = 0.05
Significance ztv = 1.645 ztv = z-test tabular value
Statistics Z-Test for one tailed test
Solution:
( x́−μ ) √ n Where: x́ = 41,800

z= μ = 43,000
σ
σ = 2,580
n = 50
48 | P a g e
( 41,800−43,000 ) √ 50
z=
2,580
(−1,200 ) 7.07
z=
2,580
−8484
z=
2,580
Zcv = - 3.29
Decision If the Zcv (Z computed value) is greater than the ztv (tabular value) reject the
Rule null hypothesis. ( ± Zcv > ± ztv ∴ Ho ); otherwise accept the null
hypothesis.
Conclusion Since the z computed value (Zcv -3.29) is greater than the tabular value of (ztv
± 1.645) at 0.05 level of significance the null hypothesis is rejected, which
means that the average lifespan of the breakpad is NOT 43,000 km
Z-Test for Two Sample Mean
This is used to compare the means of two independent groups of samples drawn from a
normal population. This is used if there are more than 30 samples for every group.
Formula in Computing the Test Statistic Using Z Test (Two Sample Mean Test)
when the given means are sample means.
x´₁− x´ ₂ Where:
z= x́ 1 = the mean of 2
n1 = size sample 1
s ₁² s ₂² s1 = the variance of
√ +
n ₁ n₂
sample 1
x́ 2 = the mean of
sample 2
sample 1
2
s2 = the variance of
n2 = size sample 2
sample 2
Example:
A Guidance and Testing Department administered to incoming freshmen in the College

of Arts and Sicences entrances examination. The Psychom,etrician randomly selected 120
students of CAS from BS Psychology and AB Broadcasting. The mean scores of the given
sample were x́ 1 = 85 and x́ 2 = 80 and the variances were 35 and 30 respectively. Is there
a significant difference between the two groups? Use 0.05 level of significance.
49 | P a g e
Steps in Solving for the Z-Test for two sample means
1. Compute for the sample mean of group 1 and group 2.

2. Get the standerad deviation of group 1 and 2.
3. Square the deviation of both groups.
4. Determine the number of observation or participants.
5. Compare the z computed value to z tabular value.
Level of Significance
Test 0.01 0.05
One-tailed ± 2.33 ± 1. 645
Two-tailed ± 2.575 ± 1.96
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is there a significanct difference between the means of the two groups.
Hypotheses: Ho : There is no significant difference between the means of the two groups
Ha : There is a significant difference between the means of the two groups
Level of ∝ = 0.05
Statistics Z-Test for two sample means
z= x́ n1 = 100
s ₁² s ₂² 1 = 85 s 21 = 35
√ +
n ₁ n₂
x́ 2 = 80
s2
2
= 30
n2 = 100
85−80
z=
35 30
√ +
100 100
5
z=
√ 0.35+ 0.30
5
z=
0.806
Zcv = 6.20
Decision If the Zcv (Z computed value) is greater than the ztv (tabular value) reject the
50 | P a g e
Rule null hypothesis. ( ± Zcv > ± ztv ∴ Ho ); otherwise accept the null
hypothesis.
Conclusion Since the z computed value (Zcv 6.20) is greater than the tabular value of (ztv
1.96) at 0.05 level of significance the null hypothesis is rejected, which means
that there is a significant difference between the sample means
To compute using Excel follow the steps below:
1. Enter the data (in this case 1-100 – note that the rest of the data were just hidden), then
click Data and data analysis and choose z-test two sample mean the click OK
2. Enter the range for two variables, then encode the variances, then click ok
3. Include the label in the range and be sure that the label box is checked.
z-Test: Two Sample for Means
Psychology Broadcasting
Mean 85 80
Known Variance 35 30
Observations 100 100
z 6.20 z- test computed
value
P(Z<=z) one-tail 0.00
z Critical one-tail 1.64
P(Z<=z) two-tail 0.00
z- tabular
z Critical two-tail 1.96 value
51 | P a g e
Exercise 5.1
1. A psychometrician review center claims that the reading comprehension test of their
reviewee has an average of 87.6 with a standard deviation of 8.9. If 40 randomly
selected reviewees have an average of 85.8 use the Z-Test to test the null hypothesis.
( x́−μ ) √n Where: x́ = 85.8

z= μ = 87.6
σ
σ = 8.9
n = 40
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses:
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
52 | P a g e
2. A researcher is interested in the person’s profile pictures views. The distribution of

individual personal profile views with a mean of 130 views per day. The researcher
creates 35 fictitious profiles that contain roughly the same information but the profile
picture is a smiling face. The results showed that of the 35 profiles the average number
of views was 150 with a standard deviation of 45. Does having an animated smile as
profile picture elicit a different number of profile views than average?
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses:
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
53 | P a g e
3. Antonio works as a janitor supervisor for a psychiatric clinic that has 70 guest (patient).
Every day he goes to work he feels like the janitors he supervises is cleaning a great
deal of human waste and he wants to know if the amount of waste that he disposes of
on average is different than the normal amount dispose of. On any given day 150 kilos of
waste, with a standard deviation of 50 kilos, are removed from these types of facilities
across the country; however janitors in John’s facilities shovel 170 pounds of waste a
day. Is John’s facility shoveling significantly more human waste than the average facility?
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses:
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
54 | P a g e
4. CARLA is a “hair removal technician” at MIDAS Touch beauty salon. She began taking
an intro stat course and it led her to notice that for women who regularly come in for any
kind of Bikini wax (e.g. regular, Brazilian, Playboy, Lex Luther) their distribution is normal
with an average of 10 waxes a year with a standard deviation of 3. A new Hormone
Therapy clinic opened up next door and she wonders if the women receiving treatment
there will need more waxing than the typical clientele. She randomly selects 9 of them
and on average they come in 14 times over the next year. Do these women receiving
hormone therapy need significantly more waxing?
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses:
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
55 | P a g e
5. The mean number of close friends for the population of people living in the Philippines is
6.7. An investigator predicts that the mean number of close friends for introverts will be
significantly less than the mean of the population. The mean number of close friends for
a sample of 26 introverts is 5.5. The standard deviation of scores in this sample is 1.1.
Do these data support the investigator's prediction? Use an alpha level of .05.
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses:
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
56 | P a g e
Exercise 5.2
1. Working students from a State University works 20 hours per week for pay on the
average, with a standard deviation of 15.5. At private universities, the average for
freshman is 15 hours, with a standard deviation of 10.5 hours. The sample size for each
is 1,000. Is the difference between the averages real or is it just chance variation.
Perform a level 0.05 independent two-sample test to find out.
Hypothesis Testing
Level of ∝ = 0.05
z= x́ 2 n1 = ____
s ₁² s ₂² 1 = ____ s1 = ___
√ +
n ₁ n₂
x́ 2 = ____ 2
s2 = ___
n2 = ____
Decision
Rule
57 | P a g e
Conclusion
2. A researcher wants to determine whether or not a given drug has any effect on the
scores of human subjects performing a task of ESP sensitivity. He randomly assigns his
subjects to one of two groups. Nine hundred subjects in group 1 (the experimental
group) receive an oral administration of the drug prior to testing. In contrast, 1000
subjects in group 2 (control group) receive a placebo.
For the drug group, the mean score on the ESP test was
9.78, S.D. = 4.05, n = 900
For the no-drug group, the mean = 15.10, S.D. = 4.28, n= 1000
Hypothesis Testing
Level of ∝ = 0.05
z= x́ 2
n1 = ____
s ₁² s ₂² 1 = ____ s1 = ___
√ +
n ₁ n₂
x́ 2 = ____ 2
s2 = ___
n2 = ____
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
58 | P a g e
3. Is there a significant difference in the average IQ level of male children born in different
cities in NCR. Random sampling yields the following results: Use 0.05 level of
significance
x́ 1 = 105 2
s1 = 3.46 n1 = 220
x́ = 90 2 n2 = 200
2
s2 = 3.59
Hypothesis Testing
Level of ∝ = 0.05
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
59 | P a g e
4. A forensic psycholgist wants to know if the location of jail post significant difference on
the average stay of convicted illegal drug users. Is there a significant difference number
of months of stay of convicts in different cities in NCR. Random sampling yields the
following results: Use 0.05 level of significance
x́ 1 = 15.5 s1
2
= 2.63 n1 = 130
x́ = 8.5 n2 = 180
2
s 22 = 2.19
Hypothesis Testing
Level of ∝ = 0.05
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
60 | P a g e
Chapter 6
TESTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS
1. Give meaning of hypothesis
2. Apply t-test in appropriate problems
3. Perform t-test using SPSS and Excel
The t tests are used to determine the significance of the difference between two means. It is
useful when samples are less than 30 and the standard deviation is unknown. The following
assumptions have to be met: Data are normally distributed and the level of measurement are
expressed in interval and ratio scales.
1. The t test for independent samples is used when the samples are drawn from
different populations.
2. The t test for correlated samples is used when the samples come from the same
population or the same set of samples is subjected to two different experimental
conditions.
The t test for independent samples

❑1−❑2
t=
SS1 + SS2
√( n1+ n2−2 )( 1 1
+
n1 n2 )
Where:
t = the t test
1 = the mean of group 1
2 = the mean of group 2

SS1 = the sum of squares of group 1
SS2 = the sum of squares of group 2
n1 = the number of observation in group 1
n2 = the number of observation in group 2
61 | P a g e
Steps in solving for t:

1. State the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.
2. Select the appropriate test statistic and its distribution under Ho.
3. Choose a level of significance (α) and determine the critical or rejection region of the
test.
4. Formulate the decision rule for rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis.
5. Compute the value of the t test.
6. State the conclusion based on the decision made.
Example: To find out which method of teaching is more effective in improving performance, two
groups of trainees were randomly chosen for the study. The following scores reflect their
performance after the training.
Ho: The two methods of teaching do not significantly differ in improving performance.
Ha: The two methods of teaching significantly differ in improving performance.
Test scores of the two groups are shown below.
Experiential Lecture
X1 X12 X2 X22
8 64 5 25
10 100 6 36
12 144 3 9
6 36 4 16
6 36 7 49
7 49 8 64
9 81 6 36
8 64 5 25
7 49 4 16
11 121 8 64
ƩX1 = 84 ƩX12= 744 ƩX2 = 56 ƩX22 = 340
n1=10 n2=10
X1 =8.4 X2 = 5.6
2
2 (∑ x1 )
SS 1=∑ x − 1
n1
62 | P a g e
( 84 )2
SS 1=744−
10
2
2 (∑ x2 )
SS 2=∑ x − 2
n2
( 56 )2
SS 2=340−
10
❑1−❑2
t=
SS1 + SS2
√( n1+ n2−2 )( 1 1
+
n1 n2 )
8.4−5.6
t=
(√ 38.6+ 26.5 1 1
10+10−2 )( 10 10 )
+
2.8
t=
√( 3.6 )( 0.2 )
2.8
t=
0.85
t = 3.30, α = .05, df = N-2 = 20 -2 = 18
t.05,18 = 2.01
Conclusion
The methods of teaching differ significantly in improving performance. Experiential

learning, with a mean of 8.4 significantly improves performance when compared to the
lecture method which showed a mean of 5.6.
63 | P a g e
Using Microsoft Office Excel Program to determine t test result.
1. Enter the data for the two groups in column A (for experiential method) and column B
( for lecture method). Start at row 2.
2. Label the 2 columns, using row 1 for the labels – X1 for experiential method and X2
for lecture method.
3. Click tools on the menu bar and select data analysis.
Data
Analysis
t-test two
samples
assuming equal
variances
4. Select t test, two samples assuming equal variances, click ok.

5. Enter the values for variable range 1 (experiential scores) and variable range 2
(scores on lecture method).
6. Enter 0.05 for alpha, check label.
64 | P a g e
t-Test: Two-
Enter Range Sample
Variable Variable
here
1 2
Mean 8.40 5.60
Variance 4.27 2.93
Observations 10 10
Pooled
Variance 3.6
Alpha level
df 18
at 0.05
t Stat 3.30
P(T<=t) one-
tail 0.00
t Critical
one-tail 1.73
P(T<=t) two-
tail 0.00
t Critical
two-tail 2.10
7. To display results, click anywhere in the blank worksheet and click OK.
The t test for correlated groups
Ď
t=
2
√ 2 (∑ D )
∑D − n
n ( n−1 )
Where:
∑D2 = the sum of the squares of the difference between pre-test and post test
∑D = the summation of the difference between the pre-test and the post test
Ď = the mean difference between the pre-test and the post test
n = sample size
65 | P a g e
Example: The researcher tested the hypothesis that the amount of rest during practice has no
effect on performance.
With Rest No Rest D D2

10 6 4 16
18 8 10 100
16 11 5 25
22 14 8 64
14 10 4 16
25 20 5 25
17 10 7 49
22 18 4 16
12 14 -2 4
21 13 8 64
∑D = 53 ∑D2 = 379
53/10
Ď = 5.3
5.3
t=
2
( 53 )
√ 379−
10
10 ( 10−1 )
5.3
t=
379−280.9
√ 90
5.3
t=
1.04
t=5.08
t computed = 5.08, df = 10-1=9 t table =2.262
66 | P a g e
Since the computed t (5.08) is greater than the t in the table (2.262), the null
hypothesis if rejected. The amount of rest given during practice has a beneficial effect
on performance.
Using Microsoft Office Excel Program for obtaining t for Correlated groups
Enter the data, then click DATA and Data Analysis and Click t-test Paired Sample for
means
67 | P a g e
Enter the Range, Click label, then click OK
Using SPSS for obtaining t –Test Paired Sample Means
Enter Data, Click Analyze, go to compare means then click paired sample t-test
68 | P a g e
Move the data from left table to right table using the arrow, then click OK
Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences t d Sig. (2-
Mean Std. Std. 95% Confidence f tailed)
Deviatio Error Interval of the
n Mean Difference
Lower Upper
With Rest 5.30
Pair 1 3.302 1.044 2.938 7.662 5.076 9 .001
- No Rest 0
69 | P a g e
Exercise 6.1
1. Two manufacturing companies of soap each claim that their product is superior in
whitening one’s complexion. A researcher did an experiment by randomly choosing two
groups and assigning each group to use the product for one month. Results are shown
below where the higher the number, the more effective the product in skin whitening.
At .05 level, is there a significant difference between the two products’ effectiveness in
skin whitening?
Product (Soap A or B)
A 10 12 13 13 15 15 15 17 18 22 24 25 25 25 27 28 30 30
B 8 9 11 15 16 16 16 19 20 21 25 25 26 28 29 30 30 32 33 33
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is there a significanct difference
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics T-Test Independent
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
70 | P a g e
2. Are girls more emotional than boys? An experimenter decided to run a study on groups
of boys and girls. Tests, observations and interviews were conducted and the scores on
all the three instruments were combined. The higher scores would reflect a more
emotional disposition. Alpha is set at 0.05.
Girls 2 3 5 7 7 8 8 8
Boys 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
Hypothesis Testing
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics T-Test Independent
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
71 | P a g e
1. Two matched groups were formed to determine how music affects one’s ability to solve
algebra problems. The experimental (E) group listened to music while solving algebra
problems. The control group (C) had no music to listen to. At alpha = 0.05, determine
whether music had an effect on the number of problems solved.
With music 8 6 5 2 2
No music 10 9 6 6 5
Hypothesis Testing
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics T-Test Dependent
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Chapter 7
72 | P a g e
Correlation
1. Test significant correlations
2. Perform relationship determination
3. Interpret r or relationship
4. Use SPSS and Excel to present relationship
5. Apply appropriate correlation measure on difference
Relationships between Data
To measure and describe a relationship between two variables we usually use

correlation statistical techniques. In this technique there is no intention of manipulating or
controlling the variables since they exist naturally in environment. Using correlation we may look
into the relationship of subject grade to economic status or distance of the student from the
teacher and their subject grade. In this sample there is no manipulation of variables, instead this
looks simply in the observation of occurrence. There are also only two variables that are
observed, normally represented by X and Y variable, the value of which can be represented in a
scatter plot. This would allow us to see the pattern or trend of the relation between the x
variables (horizontal axis) and y variable (vertical axis).
A variety of Correlation Coefficient has been developed over the years for
different combinations of types of scales. These are the following.
Type of Correlation Coefficients

Correlation Coefficient Types of Scales
Pearson Product Moment Both scales interval (or ratio)
Spearman Rank-Order Both scales ordinal
Phi Both scales are naturally dichotomous
Point Biserial One scale dichotomous one scale interval or ratio
The Characteristics of a Relationship
A correlation describes and measures the characteristics of two variables. There are
some characteristics of the relationship.
1. The direction of the relationship. The sign of the correlation that is either positive or
negative would describe the relationship direction.
73 | P a g e
a. Positive Relationship. This results when one value increases the other value also
increases – meaning that the two variables are moving in the same direction.
This is the direct correlation or the positive correlation
Daily 120
Student Allowance GPA
A 50 65 100
B 70 70
C 100 80 80
D 120 82
E 150 85 60
F 175 87
G 200 90 40
H 250 92
I 300 95 20
J 400 97
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Pearson’s r 0.90
Strong Positive Correlation
In this example, as the daily allowance of the students increases and so is their Grade
Point Average. This shows a positive relationship between the daily allowance and grade point
average.
b. A negative correlation tends to go in the opposite direction. As the x variable

increase the y variable decreases. This is the inverse relationship or the negative
relationship.
Studen Daily
t Allowance GPA
6.00
A 50 5.00
B 70 4.50 5.00
C 100 3.00
D 120 2.75 4.00

E 150 2.50
F 175 2.25 3.00

G 200 2.00
H 250 1.75 2.00

I 300 1.50
J 400 1.25 1.00
Pearson’s r -0.9 0.00

Strong Negative Correlation
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
74 | P a g e
In this example, as the daily allowance of the student increases, their Grade Point
Average decrease. This shows a negative relationship or inverse relationship between the daily
allowance and grade point average.
In statistics, the correlation coefficient r measures the strength and direction of a

linear relationship between two variables on a scatterplot. The value of r is always
between +1 and –1. To interpret its value, see which of the following values your
correlation r is closest to:
Exactly 1 A perfect downhill (negative) linear relationship

-0.70 to -0.99 A strong downhill (negative) linear relationship
-0.50 to -0.69 A moderate downhill (negative) relationship
-0.30 to -0.49 A weak downhill (negative) linear relationship
0 No linear relationship
+0.30 to +0.45 A weak uphill (positive) linear relationship
+0.50 to +0.29 A moderate uphill (positive) relationship
+0.70 to +0.49 A strong uphill (positive) linear relationship
Exactly +1 A perfect uphill (positive) linear relationship
Pearson Product Moment of Coefficient of Correlation r
The Pearson Product Moment of Coefficient of Correlation r is an index of relationships

between two variables. The value of the Pearson could range from +1 to -1, which is a perfect
correlation. If the value is zero (0) then there is no correlation but if the value you got is more
than 1.0 then there must be something wrong with your computation.
The formula for the Pearson r is

Where:
r = Pearson Correlation
n = sample size
∑xy = the sum of the product of x and y
∑x∑y = the product of the sum of ∑x and sum of ∑y
∑x² = sum of squares of x
∑y² = sum of squares of y
75 | P a g e
Steps in computing for the value of Pearson r

1. Count the number of observation or the n
2. Compute the sum of x that is ∑x
3. Square the value x (x²) and get the sum of x² (∑x²)
Daily Allowance GPA

Student (x) (y) x²
A 50 65 2500
B 70 70 4900
C 100 80 10000
D 120 82 14400
E 150 85 22500
F 175 87 30625
G 200 90 40000
H 250 92 62500
I 300 95 90000
J 400 97 160000
Total ∑x = 1815 ∑y = 843 ∑x² = 2500
4. Compute the sum of x that is ∑y

5. Square the value y (y²) and get the sum of y² (∑y²)
Daily Allowance GPA

Student (x) (y) x² y²
A 50 65 2500 4225
B 70 70 4900 4900
C 100 80 10000 6400
D 120 82 14400 6724
E 150 85 22500 7225
F 175 87 30625 7569
G 200 90 40000 8100
H 250 92 62500 8464
I 300 95 90000 9025
J 400 97 160000 9409
Total ∑x = 1815 ∑y = 843 ∑x² = 437425 ∑y² =72041
6. Get the product of the x and y and the sum of xy (∑xy)
76 | P a g e
Daily Allowance GPA

Student (x) (y) x² y² xy
A 50 65 2500 4225 3250
B 70 70 4900 4900 4900
C 100 80 10000 6400 8000
D 120 82 14400 6724 9840
E 150 85 22500 7225 12750
F 175 87 30625 7569 15225
G 200 90 40000 8100 18000
H 250 92 62500 8464 23000
I 300 95 90000 9025 28500
J 400 97 160000 9409 38800
Total ∑x = 1815 ∑y = 843 ∑x² = 437425 ∑y² =72041 ∑xy =162265
7. Apply the given formula.
10 ( 162265 )− (1815 ) (843)

r=
√ [ 10 ( 437425 )−(1815)² ][ 10 ( 72041 )−(843) ² ]
1622650−1530045
r=
√ [ 4374250−3294225 ][ 720410−710649 ]
92605
r=
√ [ 1080025 ][ 9761 ]
92605
r=
√ 10542124025
92605
r=
102674.85
r=0.90
Strong Positive Correlation
Steps in Computing Pearson’s r Using Excel
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1. Type in Data 2. Click fx or function key and then type

Pearson
Click fx or
function key
Type in
Pearson
Be sure you
place your
cursor to a
blank cell
before
clicking in fx
key
3. Highlight the x column to array 1 and 4. Click OK

y column to array 2
Highlight x Highlight y
column column
Array 1 is for x
column
Click OK The computed

Array 2 is for y Pearson’s r
column
Steps in Computing Pearson’s r using SPSS
78 | P a g e
1. Type in data 2. Click Analyse and then correlation

bivariate
3. Highlight the variables then move to the 4. The Result is similar to manual
right box and click Pearson the click OK and excel computation
Correlations
Daily Grade
Allowance Point
Average
Pearson
1 .902**
Daily Correlation
Allowance Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 10 10
Pearson
Grade .902** 1
Correlation
Point
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Average
N 10 10
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Spearman Rank Order of Coefficient Correlation rs
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The Spearman Rho is a non-parametric test of correlation for it does not require
normality in distribution. It is used to look into the significant relationship of two variables when
ranking is used.
The formula for Spearman Rho is:
Where:
r = is the relationship
∑D² = sum of squares of the difference
between the ranks of x and y
n = number of observation or
respondents
6 = constant
1 = constant
Steps in Computing Spearman Rho
1. Rank the data in x from highest to lowest
Student Exam How to Rank

s Cups of Coffee Grade Rx Temporary Rank Scores True Rank
A 1 80 14.5 1 5 2
B 5 90 2 2 5 2
C 4 83 5.5 3 5 2
D 3 86 9.5 4 4 5.5
E 5 79 2 5 4 5.5
F 4 87 5.5 6 4 5.5
G 2 85 12.5 7 4 5.5
H 3 89 9.5 8 3 9.5
I 1 75 14.5 9 3 9.5
J 2 80 12.5 10 3 9.5
K 3 88 9.5 11 3 9.5
L 4 75 5.5 12 2 12.5
M 3 90 9.5 13 2 12.5
N 4 92 5.5 14 1 14.5
O 5 86 2 15 1 14.5
Create a temporary rank column and arrange the score from highest to lowest. The highest
score gets the rank 1. In case of similar scores, add the RANKS (not the scores) and divide it by
the number of similar scores. The temporary ranks will guide you as to what rank is next.
80 | P a g e
2. Rank the data in y from highest to lowest
Exam
Students Cups of Coffee Grade Rx Ry 1 92 1
A 1 80 14.5 11.5 2 90 2.5
B 5 90 2 2.5 3 90 2.5
C 4 83 5.5 10 4 89 4
D 3 86 9.5 7.5 5 88 5
E 5 79 2 13 6 87 6
F 4 87 5.5 6 7 86 7.5
G 2 85 12.5 9 8 86 7.5
H 3 89 9.5 4 9 85 9
I 1 75 14.5 14.5 10 83 10
J 2 80 12.5 11.4 11 80 11.5
K 3 88 9.5 5 12 80 11.5
L 4 75 5.5 14.5 13 79 13
M 3 90 9.5 2.5 14 75 14.5
N 4 92 5.5 1 15 75 14.5
O 5 86 2 7.5
3. Compute the Difference between the Rank of x and y
Student Exam
s Cups of Coffee Grade Rx Ry D
A 1 80 14.5 11.5 3
B 5 90 2 2.5 -0.5
C 4 83 5.5 10 -4.5
D 3 86 9.5 7.5 2
E 5 79 2 13 -11
F 4 87 5.5 6 -0.5
G 2 85 12.5 9 3.5
H 3 89 9.5 4 5.5
I 1 75 14.5 14.5 0
J 2 80 12.5 11.4 1.1
K 3 88 9.5 5 4.5
L 4 75 5.5 14.5 -9
M 3 90 9.5 2.5 7
N 4 92 5.5 1 4.5
O 5 86 2 7.5 -5.5
4. Square the difference of the ranks

5. Find the summation of the squared difference
Student Cups of Coffee Exam Rx Ry D D²
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s Grade
A 1 80 14.5 11.5 3.00 9.00
B 5 90 2 2.5 -0.50 0.25
C 4 83 5.5 10 -4.50 20.25
D 3 86 9.5 7.5 2.00 4.00
E 5 79 2 13 -11.00 121.00
F 4 87 5.5 6 -0.50 0.25
G 2 85 12.5 9 3.50 12.25
H 3 89 9.5 4 5.50 30.25
I 1 75 14.5 14.5 0.00 0.00
J 2 80 12.5 11.4 1.10 1.21
K 3 88 9.5 5 4.50 20.25
L 4 75 5.5 14.5 -9.00 81.00
M 3 90 9.5 2.5 7.00 49.00
N 4 92 5.5 1 4.50 20.25
O 5 86 2 7.5 -5.50 30.25
∑D² = 399.21
6. Determine the n
7. Use the formula given
6(399.21)
r s =1−
15(152−1)
2395.26
r s =1−
15(225−1)
2395.26
r s =1−
3374
r s =1−0.71
r s =1−0.71
r s =0.29
The point biserial correlation coefficient (r pbi) is a statistics used to estimate the
degree of relationship between a dichotomous and an interval or ratio scale. If a
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researcher want to find out the degree of relationships between gender (male and
female) and IQ score (scale) the point biserial correlation coefficient is appropriate. The
interpretation of which is similar to Pearson r – that can range -1 to +1.
To find the point biserial correlation, the dichotomous or binomial variable is
converted to numerical values. We can assign a value of zero (0) to one category and a
value of one (1) to the other category. Then use the regular Pearson Correlation formula
to convert the data. It is customary to use zero (0) and one (1) but using other two
different numbers would work equally well and would not affect the value of the
correlation.
Example: A researcher wants to determine if gender is related to IQ. Since IQ is continuous data
and gender is dichotomous, the point biserial correlation coefficient is appropriate.
Participant IQ Gender
s (x) (y) x² y² xy
A 86 1 7396 1 86
B 87 1 7569 1 87
C 91 1 8281 1 91 12 ( 558 )− (1064 ) (6)
r=
D 97 1 9409 1 97 √ [ 12 ( 94836 )−(1064) ² ] [12 ( 6 )−(6) ² ]
E 98 1 9604 1 98
F 99 1 9801 1 99 6696−6384
r=
G 85 0 7225 0 0 √ [ 1138032−1132096 ][ 72−36 ]
H 79 0 6241 0 0
312
I 83 0 6889 0 0 r=
J 86 0 7396 0 0 √ [ 5936 ][ 36 ]
K 81 0 6561 0 0
312
L 92 0 8464 0 0 r=
106 9483 462.27
4 6 6 6 558
r=0.67
Since the computed value is 0.67, it shows that IQ and Gender has strong relationship
Computing Point Biserial Correlation Using Excel
Enter the data, click the function (fx) cell then select pearson
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Enter range of
x and y data
Result
Select the X data for array 1 and Y data for array 2, then click OK.
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Using SPSS
Enter in data, then click analyze, select correlate and bivariate
Move the data from left box to the right, then click OK
Correlations
IQ Gender
Pearson Correlation 1 .675*
IQ Sig. (2-tailed) .016
N 12 12
*
Pearson Correlation .675 1
Gender Sig. (2-tailed) .016
N 12 12
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
You can also use this web site to compute

http://vassarstats.net/pbcorr.html
Phi-Coefficient
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This statistics is used for variables that are both nominal and dichotomous. In this
statistics, contingency table is used to present the data. It is a two dimensional table containing
frequencies by categories. It is more appropriate for two by two since each variable only take
two values.
As an example, let us consider this data that is organized by gender and position.
Position\Gender Female (0) Male (1) Total
Staff (1) 20 12 22
Faculty (0) 13 18 31
Total 33 30 55
Contingency tables are often coded as below to simplify calculation of the Phi coefficient.
Y\X 0 1 Totals
1 A B A+B=E
0 C D C+D=F
Totals: A + C = G B+D=H N
( 20 18 )−( 12 13 )
∅=
√ ( 22|31 ) ( 33|30 )
360−156
∅=
√ 675180
360−156
∅=
√ 675180
204
∅=
821.69
∅=0.25 little or weak correlation

Interpretation of the Phi coefficient.
-1.0 to -0.7 strong negative association.
-0.7 to -0.3 weak negative association.
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-0.3 to +0.3 little or no association.

+0.3 to +0.7 weak positive association.
+0.7 to +1.0 strong positive association.
Simple Linear Regression analysis
The simple linear regression analysis is used when there is a relationship between x and
y variables. This is used to predict the value of y given the value of x. We use linear regression
analysis for forecasting and prediction.
The formula is:
y=a+bx where: y = the dependent variable

x = the independent variable
a = the y intercept
b = the slope line
To solve for the b use the formula below
n ∑ xy −∑ x ∑ y
b= 2
n ∑ x 2− ( ∑ x )
To solve for a use the formula below:
a= ý−b x́
To solve here are the steps:
1. Use the data as computed using the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation
r or Pearson’s r.
2. Compute for b, by computing the following first: ∑xy, ∑x, ∑y, ∑x²
3. Then solve the b using the formula for b.
4. Compute for a by finding the mean of y, ý and then mean of x, x́ .
Example: A research looks into the relationship of the number of hours that the students
reviewed (x) and the grades (y) the got in their Statistics Exam. Find if there is a significant
relationship between the number of hours reviewed and their grades.
Hours Reviewed Grade in Statistics

Student (x) (y) x y xy
A 2 78 4 6084 156
B 5 85 25 7225 425
C 3 76 9 5776 228
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D 4 80 16 6400 320
E 6 85 36 7225 510
F 1 86 1 7396 86
G 3 81 9 6561 243
H 4 79 16 6241 316
I 6 90 36 8100 540
J 7 87 49 7569 609
K 4 79 16 6241 316
L 3 83 9 6889 249
M 5 87 25 7569 435
N 4 90 16 8100 360
O 7 96 49 9216 672
∑y²=10659
∑x = 64 ∑y = 1262 ∑x² = 316 2 ∑xy = 5465
n = 15 n = 15
x́ = 4.27 ý = 84.13
1. Use the data as computed using the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation
r or Pearson’s r.
15 ( 5465 )− (64 ) (1262)

r=
√ [ 15 ( 316 )−(64)² ] [ 15 (106592 ) −(1262)² ]
81975−80768
r=
√ [ 4740−4096 ][ 1598880−1592644 ]
81975−80768
r=
√ [ 4740−4096 ][ 1598880−1592644 ]
1207
r=
2003.99
r=0.60
2. Compute for b, by computing the following first: ∑xy, ∑x, ∑y, ∑x²
∑y²=10659
∑x = 64 ∑y = 1262 ∑x² = 316 2 ∑xy = 5465
n = 15 n = 15
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3. Then solve the b using the formula for b.
n ∑ xy −∑ x ∑ y
b= 2
n ∑ x 2− ( ∑ x )
15 ( 5465 )− ( 64 ) ( 1262 )
b=
(15 )( 316 )−64 2
81975−80768
b=
4740−4090
1207
b=
650
b=¿ 1.86
4. Compute for a by finding the mean of y, ý and then mean of x, x́ .
x́ = 4.27 ý = 84.13
Supposed we want to predict the grade (y) of a student who reviewed for 6 hours (y), get the
value of y by computing the simple linear regression. Solve for the a then the y.
a is :
a= ý−b x́
a=84.13− (1.86 ) 4.27
a=84.13−8.9199
a=75.21
y is :
y=a+bx
y=75.21+1.86 ( 6 )
y=75.21+1.86 ( 6 )
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y=86.37 this is the predicted grade if a student reviews for 6 hours
Exercise 7.1
1. Rosalie is studying for a test, and she wonders if her friend, Laney, is also studying for
the test. She calls Lanie and asks her how long she has been studying. Lanie has been
studying for her test all week, approximately 8 hours total. Roslaie has only been
studying for her test for a couple of hours. The next week, Olivia and Laney get their test
scores back. Lanie got an A on her test, and Rosalie got a C. Olivia wonders if there is a
correlation between the number of hours spent studying and the grade a student earns.
Take a look at the data Rosalie collected from her classmates, and see if you can find a
correlation.
X 7 6 4 9 2
Y 78 83 90 74 85
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Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
2. Carla is talking to a friend about a new television show. She notices that some of her
classmates aren't familiar with the show, but they are carrying around a lot of library books.
She wonders if the more library books a student owns, the less television they watch. She
collects data from her friends about how many library books they own and how much
television they watch. Can you use her data to find a correlation?
X 1 4 3 5 2
Y 8 3 9 4 5
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
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Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Exercise 7.2
1. An investigator wants to arrange the 15 items on her scale of language impairment on
the basis of the order in which language skills appear in development. Not being entirely
confident that she has selected the correct ordering of skills, she asks another
professional to rank the items from 1 to 15 in terms of the order in which he thinks they
should appear.
The data are given below: Investigator:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Y 1 3 2 4 7 5 6 8 10 9 11 12 15 13 14
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Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
2. In a study of diagnostic processes, entering clinical graduate students are shown a 20-
minute videotape of children’s behavior and asked to rank-order 10 behavioral events on
the tape in the order of the importance each has for a behavioral assessment. (1 = most
important.) The data are then averaged to produce an average rank ordering for the
entire class. The same thing was then done using experienced clinicians.
The data follow:

Experienced Clinicians:
1 3 2 7 5 4 8 6 9 10
New Students
2 4 1 6 5 3 10 8 7 9
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Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Exercise 7.3
1. A researcher wants to determine if housing condition is related to Statistics Grades. Use

point biserial correlation coefficient to answer this. The following data are:
X 85 78 89 86 87 86 81 80 93 82 79
75
Y 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
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Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
2. A researcher wishes to determine if a significant relationship exists between the gender

of the worker and if they experience pain while performing an mechanical assembly task.
One question asks “Do you experience pain while performing the assembly task? Yes No”
The second question asks “What is your gender? ___ Male ___ Female”
The data reveal
Male Female
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Yes 15 45
No 35 10
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho : There is no relationship between the gender of the worker and if they feel
pain while performing the task.
Ha : There is a relationship between the gender of the worker and if they feel
pain while performing the task.
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Exercise 7.4
1. A student sells hotdog in the school. For the past few weeks from 12nn – 5pm. Each day
he has a tracking of the time and the number of hotdog sales for each hour.
X 12 1 2 3 4 5
Y 25 13 10 14 28 17
With this data, predict his sale for 2pm the next day. That is x = 2
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Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
2. A pharmaceutical company is investigating the relationship between advertising

expenditures and the sales of some over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. The following data
represents a sample of 10 common OTC drugs. Determine the sale if the AD is at 40.
X 22 25 29 35 38 42 46 52 65 88
Y 64 74 82 90 100 120 142 180 230
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
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Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Chapter 8
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
1. Explain when ANOVA is used
2. Read and interpret SPSS and Excel ANOVA print out result
3. Perform ANOVA using SPSS and Excel
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One hypothesis testing procedures that is used to evaluate mean differences between
two or more treatments (or population) is analysis of variance commonly known as ANOVA. This
is an inferential procedure that uses sample data as the basis for drawing general conclusions
about population.
This seems similar to t-test, but t-test is limited to situations in which there are only two
treatments to compare. ANOVA has a tremendous advantage over t-test, that it can be used to
compare two or more treatments. It provides researchers with much greater flexibility in
designing experiments and interpreting results.
The goal of ANOVA is to determine whether the mean differences observed among the
samples provide enough evidence to conclude that there are differences in the mean among the
three populations. In analysis of variance the variable (independent) that designates the groups
being compared or factors. The individual conditions or values that make up a factor called
levels of factors.
The one-way ANOVA or single factor ANOVA is used when the researcher seeks to
make comparisons among three, four, five or more groups. The F test or ANOVA is a parametric
test used to compare more than two independent samples.
ANOVA
Sources of F - Value
df SS MS
Variation Computed Tabular
Between BSS MSB
K–1 BSS See table
Groups df MSW
WSS
Within Groups (N-1) - (K-1) WSS
df
Total N-1 TSS
Steps in Computing ANOVA: The following formulas are used.

1. Compute the Correction Factor (CF)
2
CF= ¿
( )
N
2
(∑ x1 + ∑ x 2 + ∑ x 3 +∑ x 4 )
CF=
n1 +n 2+ n3+ n4
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2. Get the Total Sum of Squares (TSS)

2
TSS=∑ x −CF
X 23 +¿ ∑ X 24
X 22 +¿ ∑ ¿
X 21 +¿ ∑ ¿ ) – CF
∑¿
TSS=¿
3. Determine the Between Sum of Squares (BSS)

2 2 2 2
( ∑ X 1 ) ( ∑ X 2) ( ∑ X 3 ) ( ∑ X 4 )
BSS= + + + −CF
n1 n2 n3 n4
4. Compute the Sum of Squares Within (WSS)
WSS=TSS−BSS
Example: A professor wanted to find out if color affects amount of learning. 20 students were
randomly selected and placed in 4 groups of 5 students per group. Each group was placed in a
room with a particular color (blue, green, yellow and pink). They studied a material for two
hours. Rest of 15 minutes was given and then a test was administered. Test the hypothesis that
color has no effect on the amount learned.
Blue Yellow Pink Green
50 75 65 80
55 60 55 65
65 55 60 80
75 60 50 60
45 70 40 75
Solution
Blue Yellow Pink Green

2 2 2 2
x1 x1 x2 x2 x3 x3 x4 x4
50 2500 75 5625 65 4225 80 6400
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55 3025 60 3600 55 3025 65 4225

65 4225 55 3025 60 3600 80 6400
75 5625 60 3600 50 2500 60 3600
45 2025 70 4900 40 1600 75 5625
2 2 2
29 ∑x 1
1 32 ∑x 22 27 ∑x 31 36 ∑ x 24 2
∑ 01
x 7400 ∑ 02
x 0750 ∑ 03
x 4950 ∑ 04
x 6250
n1 5 n2 5 n3 5 n4 5
x́ 1 58 x́ 2 64 x́ 3 54 x´4 72
1. Compute the Correction Factor (CF)
2
(∑ x1 +∑ x 2 +∑ x 3 +∑ x 4 )
CF=
n1 +n 2+ n3+ n4
( 290+320+ 270+ 360 )2

CF=
5+5+5+5
12402
CF=
20
1537600
CF=
20
CF=76880
2. Get the Total Sum of Squares (TSS)
X 23 +¿ ∑ X 24
X 22 +¿ ∑ ¿
X 21 +¿ ∑ ¿ ) – CF
∑¿
TSS=¿
17400+20750+14950+26250
) – 76880
TSS=¿
TSS=79350 – 76880
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TSS=¿ 2470
3. Determine the Between Sum of Squares (BSS)
2 2 2 2
( ∑ X 1 ) ( ∑ X 2) ( ∑ X 3 ) ( ∑ X 4 )
BSS= + + + −CF
n1 n2 n3 n4
( 290 )2 ( 320 )2 ( 270 )2 ( 360 )2

BSS= + + + −76880
5 5 5 5
( 290 )2 ( 320 )2 ( 270 )2 ( 360 )2

BSS= + + + −76880
5 5 5 5
84100 102400 72900 129600
BSS= + + + −76880
5 5 5 5
BSS=16820+20480+14580+25920−76880
BSS=77800−76880
BSS=920
4. Compute the Sum of Squares Within (WSS)
WSS=TSS−BSS
ANOVA TABLE
Sources of F - Value
df SS MS
Variation Computed Tabular
Between
3 920 306.7 3.16 See table
Groups
Within
16 1550 96.88
Groups
Total 19 2470
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To solve the same problem Using Excel

1. Encode the data, click data, then click data analysis and select ANOVA:Single
Factor
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2. Select the Range of data from the column label, check label in first row, then place
alpha at 0.05, then click OK.
Anova: Single Factor

SUMMARY
Coun Su Averag Varianc
Groups t m e e
Blue 5 290 58 145
Yellow 5 320 64 67.5
Pink 5 270 54 92.5
Green 5 360 72 82.5
ANOVA TABLE
F
Source of P- critica
Variation SS df MS F value l
Between Groups 920 3 306.667 3.166 0.053 3.239
Within Groups 1550 16 96.875
Total 2470 19
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Exercises 8.1
1. Three groups of patients with a particular disorder are treated differently. Is there a
difference in the effectiveness of the three treatment programs? (α=0.01)
Treatment
A 90 74 90 86 75
B 81 90 90 90 85
C 14 20 33 5 12
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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2. To test the hypothesis that type of residence affects happiness, a study was done on
three groups of students. A psychological test on personal happiness was given. The
lower the score on the test, the more unhappy the student. (α = 0.05)
Type of Residence
Dorms 8 9 7 8
Apartments 2 1 3 3
At Home 5 4 3 4
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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3. The following are the data that represents the time spent by students computing
statistics exam using different version of excel. Is there a significant difference in the
time spent by students using different versions of excel using 0.05 level of significance.
1998 3.4 5.1 6.2 8.1 7.2 4.9

2000 4.3 3.2 5.4 2.1
2008 1.8 2.3 3.1 2.8 2.3
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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4. The data from an experimental study evaluating the effects of different types of
distraction on the performance of a visual detection task.
Participants No Distraction Visual Distraction Auditory

Distraction
A 35 27 43
B 38 21 47
C 26 25 51
D 31 31 39
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
F-Test Two-Way ANOVA
This type of analysis of variance is used to find out if there is an interaction effect
between two variables. This involves, two variables, the column and the row variables.
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Example:
There are 45 Korean students who were randomly assigned to three different methods
of teaching. Achievement exam was given and the results were recorded at the end of the
lecture series. Using two-way ANOVA, test if there are interaction effects among the three
methods.
Teacher A Teacher B Teacher C

35 48 50
40 42 46
Visual
28 38 19
37 45 24
Total
28 41 46
25 38 32
Auditory
32 35 36
30 45 41
Total
46 48 43
45 49 38
Combination
35 45 41
38 41 46
Total
Grand Total
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: 1. Is there a significant difference in the performance of students under
the three different teachers?
2. Is there a significant difference in the performance of students under
the three different methods of teaching.
3. Is there an interaction effect between teacher and method of teaching
factors?
Hypotheses: 1. Ho : There is no significant difference in the performance of students
under the three different teachers
Ha : There is a significant difference in the performance of students
under the three different teachers
2. Ho : There is no significant difference in the performance of students
under the three different methods of teaching.
Ha : There is a significant difference in the performance of students
under the three different methods of teaching.
3. Ho : Thereis no interaction effect between teacher and method of
teaching factors
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Ha : There is an interaction effect between teacher and method of

teaching factors
Level of ∝=0.05
Significance
df total = N–1
df within = k (n-1)
df column = c – 1
df row = r–1
df c * r = (c-1) (r-1)
Statistics Two – Way ANOVA
A B C
Visual 35 48 50
40 42 46
28 38 19
37 45 24
Total 140 173 139 452
Auditory 28 41 46
25 38 32
32 35 36
30 45 41
Total 115 159 155 429
Combination 46 48 43
45 49 38
35 45 41
38 41 46
Total 164 183 168 515
304 356 307 1396
2
( 1396 )2 1948816
CF= ¿
( )
CF= CF=
N 36 36
CF=54133.78
SS T =( 35 )2 + ( 40 )2 … ( 41 )2 + ( 46 )2−CF
SS T =56204−54133.78
SS T =2070.22
( 140 )2 ( 173 )2 (183 )2 ( 168 )2

SS w =56204− + + …+ +
4 4 4 4
SS w =56204−54997.5
SS w =1206.5
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( 304 )2 + ( 356 )2 + ( 307 )2

SS c = −54133.78
12
( 304 )2 + ( 356 )2 + ( 307 )2

SS c = −54133.78
12
SS c =26116.75−54133.78
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Chapter 9
Using Non Parametric Statistics
1. Know when to use non parametric test
2. Compute non parametric test using SPSS and Excel
3. Present data using non parametric test
The nonparametric tests are used when there is an abnormal distribution of scores, and
when the level of measurement is expressed in either ordinal or nominal data. Nonparametric
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tests are used because conditions are not stringent or controlled; and typically a smaller sample
size.
Chi-square test of homogeneity

This test is concerned with two or more samples, with only one criterion variable. It is
used to determine if two or more populations are homogenous. The chi-square test of
homogeneity is used when we compare significant difference between two or more groups.
Formula:
2 N (ad−bc )2
X =
klmn
Where:
2
X = Chi-square test
N = grand total
Klmn = the product of the rows and columns
If you are interested in comparing the counts of categorical responses between two
independent groups, you can develop a two-way contingency table as shown in table 1 which
has two rows and two columns also known as 2x2 contingency table. The cells in the table
indicate the frequency for each row and column combination.
Example:
Situation: The researcher wishes to find out whether there is a difference between the views of
males and females toward same-sex marriage. With 80 participants in this study, the researcher
would like to test his null hypothesis, stated as:
Null Hypothesis:
H 0 = There is no significant difference between the views of males and females on the issue
of same sex marriage.
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Table 1: Views of the participants on same-sex marriage
Favorable Unfavorable Total

Males 15 25 40
(a) (b) (k)
Females 20 20 40
(c) (d) (l)
Total 35 45 80
(m) (n) (N)
Level of Significance:
α = .05
df = (c-1)(r-1)
= (2-1)(2-1)
= (1)(1)
=1
2 2
x .05 = 3.841(See the appendix for the critical value of x )
Testing the Null Hypothesis:

2
N (ad−bc )
X2 =
klmn
80[ ( 15 )( 20 )−( 25 ) (20)]2

=
(40)( 40)(35)(45)
80[300−500]2
=
2520000
80(−200)2
=
( 2520000)
2
x = 1.270
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Decision Rule: If the chi-square computed value is greater than the chi-square tabular value,
reject the null hypothesis.
Results: Since the X 2 computed value is 1.270 is lesser than the critical value of 3.841 the
null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the views of
males and females on the issue of same-sex marriage.
Exercises 9.1
Chi-Square Test of Homogeneity
Case 1: The professor would like to find out if there is a difference among his junior and senior
students on their satisfaction on the use of facebook. The data are shown in table 1. Compute
the score and interpret the results.
Table: Satisfaction frequencies of students on Facebook
Satisfied Not Satisfied

Junior 25 25
Senior 15 35
Case 2: The researcher would like to determine if there is a difference in the views of parents in
using democratic approach to discipline their children.
Table: Views of Parents on Democratic Discipline
Favorable Not Favorable

Fathers 200 50
Mothers 100 150
Chi-square test of goodness-of-fit

This is a test of difference between the observed frequencies and the expected
frequencies. The test of goodness-of-fit is used when ratio is employed.
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Use this formula:

O−E
¿
X
2
= ∑ ¿2
¿
¿
¿
Where:
2
X = the Chi-Square test
O = observed square
E = the expected frequencies
Situation:
Problem: Is there a significant difference between the observed (actual experiment) and the
expected (theory) frequencies?
H 0 = There is no significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
Level of Significance:
α = .05
df = h-1
= 4-1
=3
X 2.05 = 7.815 tabular value

Computation: Add the ratio 5:2:3:1 = 11
Attributes Ratio (Actual Result) (Theory)

Observed Expected
Eldest 5 200 231.8
Middle child 2 120 92.72
Youngest 3 115 139.08
Only child 1 75 46.36
Total 11 510 509.96
Then divide 560 by 16 = 46.36

For expected frequencies multiply
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46.36 X 5 = 231.8
46.36 X 2 = 92.72
46.36 X 3 = 139.08
46.36 X 1 = 46.36
O−E
¿
X2 =∑ ¿ 2
¿
¿
¿
2 2 2 2
(200−231.8) (120−92.72) (115−139.08) (75−46.36)
= + + +
231.8 92.72 139.08 46.36
= 4.363 + 8.026 + 4.169 + 17.693
2
X = 34.251
Decision Rule: if the chi-square computed value is greater than the chi-square reject the null
hypothesis.
The chi-square computed value of 34.251 is greater than then the chi-square tabular
value of 7.815 at .05 level of significance with 3 degrees of freedom, so the null hypothesis is
rejected. This means that there is a significant difference between the observed and the
expected frequencies. In other words, the theory is not true because the result accepted the null
hypothesis.
Exercise 9.2
Chi-square test of Goodness-of-Fit
Situation 1:
Attributes Ratio (Actual Result)

Observed
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Depression 10 50
Anxiety 7 79
Phobia 5 26
Substance Abuse 5 30
Situation 2:
Attributes Ratio (Actual Result)

Observed
Very aggressive Males 7 40
Aggressive Males 7 40
Very aggressive Females 5 35
Aggressive Females 2 35
Chi-square test of Independence (one sample, two criterion variables)

The test of independence is different from the test of homogeneity. The sample used in
this test consists of members randomly drawn from the same population. The chi-square test of
independence is used when we try to find out if there is a significant relationship between two
variables.
The essential characteristic of chi-square is that both variables are represented as
categories. An example might be to observe whether participants are more likely to be able to
solve a problem if they are given a hint. The measure is how many people can solve the
problem with and without a hint.
Situation: Five hundred students comprised of biology and psychology majors were asked about
their learning styles. However, only 330 students have completed the questionnaires. The
results are shown in table.
Ho : There is no significant difference in the learning styles of junior and senior students.
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Table: students and their level of stress
Levels of Stress Totals of

Year levels High Moderate Low students
Junior students (Cell 1) (Cell 2) (Cell 3)
80 70 50 200
Senior students (Cell 4) (Cell 5) (Cell 6)
60 30 40 130
Total for scores Total number of
participants (n)
140 100 90 330
Steps for calculating the value of x2

1. Calculate the expected frequencies (E) for each cell by multiplying the total score for
every column against the total score for each row and dividing by the total number of
participants.
Formula for expected frequencies:
Column x Row
E=
N
140 x 200
Cell 1: E = = 84.85
330
100 x 200
Cell 2: E = = 60.61
330
90 x 200
Cell 3: E = = 54.55
330
140 x 130
Cell 4: E = = 55.15
330
100 x 130
Cell 5: E = = 39.39
330
90 x 130
Cell 6: E = = 35.45
330
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2. Calculate the value of x 2 using the formula
E
O−¿
2
= ¿
x
¿2
¿
∑¿
84.85 60.61 54.55 55.15 39.39 35.45

80−¿ 70−¿ 50−¿ 60−¿ 30−¿ 40−¿
x2 = ¿ + ¿ + ¿ + ¿ + ¿ + ¿
¿2 ¿2 ¿2 ¿2 ¿2 ¿2
¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
2
x = 0.28+ 1.45+ 0.38 + 0.42 + 2.24 + 0.58
2
x = 5.35
3. Calculate the degrees of freedom

c = number of columns
r = number of rows
df = (c-1) (r-1)
df = (3-1) (2-1) = 2
The critical value for p < 0.05 is 5.99. Since the computed value is lesser than the
critical value of 5.99, therefore the null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant
relationship between year levels and their levels of stress.
Remember:
Chi-square is based on predicted relationships between two variables represented as
categories.
Categories are identified for each variable.
The measured data are nominal, which involves counting the number of participants in each of
the categories.
To calculate chi-square observed frequencies are compared with expected frequencies.
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Exercise 9.3
Chi-square test of independence
Case 1
Aggression Level
Participants High Moderate Low
Children exposed to
video games 80 70 50
Children not exposed

to video games 60 30 40
Case 2
Levels of Motivation
Tenure Very Low Low Moderate High Very High
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Regular 10 15 20 20 15
Probationary 20 15 10 15 10
Contractual 10 17 14 12 12
Chi-square test using SPSS

Step 1: Click “Analyze,” then click “Descriptive Statistics,” then click “Crosstabs.”
Note: Chi square in SPSS is found in the Crosstabs command.
Step 2: Click the “Statistics” button. The statistics button is to the right of the Crosstabs window.
A new pop up window will appear.
Step 3: Click “Chi Square” to place a check in the box and then click “Continue” to run to the
Crosstabs window.
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Step 4: Select the variables you want to run (in other words, choose two variables that you want
to compare using the chi square test). Click one variable in the left window and then click the
arrow at the top to move the variable into “Row(s)”. Repeat to add a second variable to the
“Column(s)” window.
Step 5. Click “cells” and then check “Rows” and “Columns”. Click “Continue.”
Step 6. Click “OK” to run the Chi Square Test. The Chi Square tests will be returned at the
bottom of the output sheet in the “Chi Square Tests” box.
Step 7: Compare the p-value returned in the Chi-square area.
Kruskal-Wallis test (Unrelated)
The Kruskal-Wallis H test (sometimes also called the “one-way ANOVA on ranks”) is a
rank-based nonparametric test that can be used to determine if there are statistically significant
differences between two or more groups of an independent variable on a continuous or ordinal
dependent variable. It is considered the nonparametric alternative to the one-way ANOVA and
an extension of the Mann-Whitney U test to allow the comparison of more than two independent
groups.
An example is given in table 1 below. For an experiment in working memory, different

groups of participants are presented with one each of three conditions. These conditions are:
letters for group 1, numbers for group 2, and alphanumeric for group 3.
Table 1: Scores on Recall for different types of word lists
Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3

(use of letters) (use of numbers) (use of alphanumeric)
Scores Ranks Scores Ranks Scores Ranks
25 14 16 2.5 16 2.5
21 8.5 18 5 24 12.5
15 1 21 8.5 19 6
17 4 22 10 20 7
24 12.5 23 11
Rank Totals
Means 27.5 38.5 39
19.5 20.2 20.4
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The Kruskal-Wallis test (unrelated) should be used for an unrelated design when
different participants are doing three (or more) conditions and the data are ordinal.
Research Hypothesis:
The prediction was that the number of illustrations in a text would affect participants’ recalls of
ideas from the text.
Step-by-step instructions for performing the Kruskal-Wallis test (unrelated)

1. Rank all the scores across conditions as an overall set of ranks, giving 1 to the smallest
score and so on.
2. Calculate rank totals for each condition.
3. Note the following symbols:
N = total number of participants
n = number of participants in each group
2
T = squares of the rank totals for each condition
∑T2
= sum of the squared rank totals for each condition divided by the number of
n
subjects in that condition.
Calculate the value of H using the formula:
12 T2
H=
[ ∑
N ( N +1) n ] – 3 (N+1)
2 2 2
H=
[ 12
(27.5 38.5 39
14 (15) 4
+
5
+
5 )] – 3 x 15
12 756.25 1482.25 1521

H=
[ ( 210 4
+
5
+
5 )] – 45
H = 0.057(189.06 + 296.45 + 304.2) – 45
H = 45.01 – 45
H = 0.013
4. Calculate the degrees of freedom: The number of conditions (C) minus one.
df = C -1
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= 3-1
=2
The calculated H of 0.013 is lesser than the value of 5.99. The null hypothesis is accepted. This
means that there is no significant difference in the three conditions.
The Kruskal-Wallis test (unrelated) can only test whether there are overall differences between
conditions.
In unrelated designs the scores in all three conditions are produced by different participants.
Individual scores are assigned overall ranks across all conditions.
The totals of ranks are added separately for each condition.
The appropriate non-parametric statistical test for analyzing unrelated ordinal data for three
conditions is the Kruskal-Wallis test (unrelated)
Related tests have just one name: Wilcoxon (related) for two conditions; Friedman (related) for
three conditions.
Exercise 9.4
KRUSKAL-WALLIS
CASE 1: An experiment on attention span under three different room temperatures. The results
are indicated in the table below.
Table: Attention span on various room temperatures
Scores (Normal Scores (Warm Scores (Cool Temperature)

Temperature) Temperature)
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10 4 5
9 4 6
9 7 3
5 7
3 8
CASE 2: A student was interested in comparing the effects of four kinds of reinforcement on
children’s performance on a test of reading comprehension. The four reinforcements used were:
(a) praise for correct responses; (b) a jelly bean for each correct response; (c) reproof for
incorrect responses; and (d) silence. Four independent groups of children were tested, and
each group received only one kind of reinforcement. The measure of performance given below
is the number of errors made during the course of testing
a b c d
30 22 29 12
26 25 28 10
25 24 26 20
20 21 25 30
27 25 32
28
30
Friedman test (related)

The Friedman test is for related designs in which the same participants do all the
experimental conditions. The Friedman tests (related) is used when the same participants do all
the three conditions. The scores in the conditions are related. But, because there are three
conditions it is not possible to calculate the differences between the two conditions, as we did
for the two conditions in the Wilcoxon test (related) and the t test (related). A different ranking
has been carried out for three conditions.
Example:
A businessman producing children toys wants to choose from three types of materials is most
appealing to children.
Ten students were asked to rate all three materials on a five-point scale. The rating scores for
the three illustrations are shown in table.
Research hypothesis:
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The research predicted that children would rate some materials as being more appealing than
others as shown in table 1 below.
Table 1. Rating scores for three toy materials.
Material 1: Material 2: Material 3:

Participants Plastic Wooden Paper
Rating Ranks Rating Ranks Rating Ranks
scores scores scores
1 2 1 5 3 4 2
2 1 1 5 3 3 2
3 3 1 5 2.5 5 2.5
4 3 2 5 3 2 1
5 2 1 3 2 5 3
6 1 1 4 2.5 4 2.5
7 5 3 3 2 2 1
8 1 1 4 3 3 2
Rank totals 11 21 16
Means 2.25 4.25 3.50
You will notice that some of the ranked score are the same and are assigned the
average of the tied ranks they would have been entitled to.
The rank totals for each condition are added to produce rank totals for each of the three
conditions.
Step-by-step instructions for calculating the value of X 2r

1. Rank the scores for each separate participant horizontally across each row, giving 1 to
the smallest score, 2 to the next score and 3 to the highest score.
2. Calculate the rank totals for each condition.
3. Note the following symbols:
Number of condition (C)
Number of participants (N)
2
T = squares of rank totals.
2
4. Calculate the value of Xr using the formula:
12
2
Xr = [ NC (C +1)
∑T 2
] - 3 N (C+1)
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12
X 2r = [ ( 8 x 3 ) (3+1)
(11 2+212 +16 2)
] – 3 x 8 (3+1)
12
2
Xr = [ 24 x 4
(121+ 441+ 256)
] – (24 x 4)
12
2
Xr = [ 96
x 818 ] – 96
2
X r = 6.25
5. Calculate the degrees of freedom: the number of conditions minus one:

df = C -1
= 3-1
=2
The calculated 6.25 is greater than the value of 5.99 for p < 0.05. The null hypothesis
can be rejected. It is essential to look at the means in table to check which of the materials was
preferred by the children.
It appears from the means in table above that the children preferred wooden material,
since this received the highest ratings, with paper next and plastic last. The Friedman test
(related) can only test whether there are overall differences between conditions.
Exercise 9.5
Friedman Test
Case1
Table 1. Rating scores for three presentations.
Participants Rating scores Rating scores Rating scores
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1 2 5 4
2 1 5 3
3 3 5 5
4 3 5 2
5 2 3 5
6 1 4 4
7 5 3 2
8 1 4 3
Case 2
Table: Rating scores for four books.
Participants Rating scores Rating scores Rating scores Rating scores
1 2 5 4 5
2 1 5 3 4
3 3 5 5 5
4 3 5 2 3
5 2 3 5 3
6 1 4 4 5
7 5 3 2 1
8 1 4 3 1
Wilcoxon test (related)

In related designs the same participants do both conditions. Each participant produces a
pair of scores, one score for each condition. This makes it possible to make a direct comparison
between each participant’s scores in the two conditions. Because each participant has a pair of
related scores in both conditions, the differences between the pairs of scores can be calculated
for each participant.
Wicoxon signed-rank test can be used as an alternative to the paired-samples t-test when the
population cannot be assumed to be normally distributed
Table:
Recall the letters with music and without music.
Participants Condition Condition 2 d Ranks of d Signed Signed

1 (with ranks ranks
(Without music) (plus) (minus)
music)
1 3 5 -2 5 (-)5
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2 4 5 -1 2 (-)2
3 3 2 +1 2 (+)2
4 1 5 -4 8.5 (-)8.5
5 5 4 +1 2 (+)2
6 2 5 -3 7 (-)7
7 3 5 -2 5 (-)5
8 4 4 0 (tie)
9 1 5 -4 8.5 (-)8.5
10 3 5 -2 5 (-)5
Means 2.9 4.5 (+)4 (-)41
The smaller rank total of (+)4 represents the value of W.

Step-by-step instructions for calculating the value of W
1. Calculate the difference (d) between each pair of scores, assigning plus or minus signs.
2. Rank the differences (d) from the smallest (rank 1) to the largest. When ranking omit tied
scores and ignore the plus and minus signs.
3. Assign the ranks of d to the ‘Signed ranks’ columns based on the ranks in the d column.
4. Add the rank totals for signed ranks (plus) and signed ranks (minus) separately.
5. Take the smaller rank total as W. In this case, W = 4
6. Note the number of participants N (not counting ties). N = 10-1 (tie) = 9
The calculate W of 4 is smaller than the value of 6 in the second column. If you look at the top of
the table the level of significance for a one-tailed test is p<0.025. Since this is lower probability
than the acceptable p<0.05 the null hypothesis can be rejected. It is essential to look back to the
means to check whether the difference is in the direction predicted by the one-tailed hypothesis.
The means show that participants recall more words when music is playing in condition 2 than
without music in Condition 1 (p<0.025)
Exercise 9.6
Table: Attention span with light and with heavy colors.
Participants Condition 1 Condition 2

(light colors) (heavy colors)
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1 3 5
2 4 5
3 3 2
4 1 5
5 5 4
6 2 5
7 3 5
8 4 4
9 1 5
10 3 5
Exercise 9.7
Table: Anxiety level under the following conditions: Single task, Dual tasks, Multitasks.
Participants Single task Dual tasks Multitasks

1 3 5 5
2 4 5 3
3 3 2 3
4 1 5 5
5 5 4 4
6 2 5 3
7 3 5 5
8 4 4 5
9 1 5 2
10 3 5 3
Wilcoxon’s Matched Pairs Signed-Ranks Test
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Select Analyze/Nonparametric Tests/2 Related Samples.
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Select variable 1 and variable 2 for the Test Pairs List. Select Wilcoxon for Test Type. Then,
click Ok. The output follows.
Mann-Whitney test (unrelated)

The Mann-Whitney U test is used to compare differences between two independent
groups when the dependent variable is either ordinal or continuous, but not normally distributed.
Research hypothesis:
The prediction was that a group of participants who were oriented about the social
experiment would score higher on the conformity level than those who were not.
Table: conformity level with and without orientation
Condition 1 Overall ranks Condition 2 (with Overall ranks

(no orientation) (ranks 1) orientation) (ranks 2)
3 3 9 13
4 4 7 10.5
2 1.5 5 6
6 8.5 10 14
2 1.5 6 8.5
5 6 8 12
5 6
7 10.5
Rank Totals T 1 = 24.5 T 2 = 80.5

Means 3.67 7.13
Step-by-step instructions for calculating the value of U

1. Rank all the scores (taking both groups together as an overall set of ranks), giving rank 1
to the lowest score in the usual way.
2. After ranking all the sores, add the rank totals for each condition.
3. Calculate U using the formula:
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n1 ( n 1+1 )
U= n1 n2 + - T1
2
6 ( 6+1 )
U= 6+8 + – 24.5
2
42
U = 48 + – 24.5
2
U = 48 + 21 – 24.5
U = 44.5
n1 = number of participants in Condition 1, in this case 6
n2 = number of participants in Condition 2, in this case 8
4. Next substitute the values of U, n1 and n2 in the following formula and calculate U’
U’ = n1 n2 – U
U’ =6 x 8 – 44.5
U’ = 3.5
5. Take the smaller value of U or U’ as U

U = 3.5
Locate 6 along the top and 8 down the column. Where these two meet the value of U is
10. Our calculated U is 3.5 is smaller than this so the null hypothesis can be rejected. It
can be concluded that participants will recall more of a text when given an appropriate
title was supported (p<0.01).
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Exercise 9.8
Table: Recall scores for numbers with and without colors
Condition 1 Condition 2 (with colors)

(no color)
5 9
4 7
2 5
6 10
7 6
5 7
2
7
Exercise 9.9
Table: Score for verbal and non-verbal responses
Condition 1 Condition 2 (Non-verbal response)

(Verbal response)
1 8.5
7 7
1.5 5.5
6 10.5
3 10.5
5.5 8
3 5
8
Mann Whitney U test using SPSS

1. Select analyze/nonparametric tests/2 independent samples:
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The two-independent-samples tests dialog box appears:
Select the dependent variable of interest from the list at the left by clicking on it, and then move
it to the Test Variable List by clicking on the upper arrow button.
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Select the independent variable of interest from the list at the left by clicking on it, and then
move it into the grouping variable box by clicking on the lower arrow button.
Next, we must define the groups of the independent variable. Click on the Define Groups button
that is just below the Grouping Variable box. The Two Independent Samples: Define Groups
Dialog box appears:
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Enter the value that corresponds to one level of the independent variable in the Group 1 box
and the value that corresponds to the other level of the independent variable in the Group 2 box.
Click on the Continue button in the two independent samples: Define groups dialog box. The
two independent samples test dialog box should be on top now. Make sure that the Mann-
Whitney U option is selected in the Test Type Frame. That is, there should be a check mark next
in the box to the left of Mann-Whitney U:
Click on the options button. The two-independent-samples: Options dialog box appears:
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Select the Descriptive statistics option by clicking in the box to the left of Descriptives if it does
not already have a check mark in it:
Click on the continue button in the two-independent-samples: Options dialog box. Click on OK in
the two-independent-samples tests box to perform the Mann-Whitney U test. The SPSS output
viewer will appear. It should contain three setions:
The first section gives the descriptive statistics for dependent variable and (less usefully) for the
independent variable.
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The second section of the output shows the number of people in each condition
McNemar’s Test for Correlated Proportions

This test, belonging to nonparametric statistics is a chi-square test for situations when
samples are matched, that is, they are not independent. This is a before-and after-design which
is tested to find out whether there is a significant change between the before and after
situations.
The formula is
2 (b−c)2
x =
b+c
x 2 = chi-square test
b = is the first cell of the 2nd column in a 2x2 table
c = is the first cell in the 2nd row in a 2x2 table
Example:
Consider the data below on their response before and after the intervention program for a
sample of 100 trauma victims.
Response Response after the intervention program Total

before the favorable unfavorable
intervention favorable a = 60 b=6 66
program unfavorable c = 19 d = 15 34
Total 79 21 100
Problem: Is there a significant difference in the response of the trauma victims before and after
the intervention program?
Hypotheses:
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H 0 : There is no significant difference in the response of the trauma victims before and after
the intervention program.
H 1 = There is a significant difference in the response of the trauma victims before and after
the intervention program.
Level of significance:
α= .05
df = (c-1)(r-1)
= (2-1)(2-1)
=1
x 2.05 = 3.841
Computation:
2 (b−c)2
x =
b+c
2
2 (6−19)
x =
6+19
2
2 (−13)
x =
25
2 169
x =
25
2
x = 6.76
2 2
Decision Rule: If the x computed value is greater than the x tabular value, reject the
null hypothesis.
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Conclusion:
Since the computed x 2 is 6.76 larger than the tabular value of 3.841 at .05 level of
significance with 1 degree of freedom, the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the research
hypothesis that there is a significant difference in the response of the trauma victim before and
after the intervention program. It implies that there is increase in seat belt use after involvement
in automobile accident.
Exercise 9.10
Example:
A market researcher wanted to determine whether the proportion of wine drinkers who preferred
Brand A increased as the result of an advertising campaign. A random sample of 200 wine
drinkers was selected. The results indicating preference for Brand A or Brand B prior to the
beginning of the advertising campaign and after its completion are shown in the following table:
Preference after completion of advertising campaign
Preference prior to Brand A Brand B Total

advertising
campaign
Brand A 101 9 110
Brand B 22 68 90
Total 123 77 200
a. At the 0.05 level of significance, is there evidence that the proportion of coffee drinkers
who prefer Brand A is lower at the beginning of the advertising campaign than at the end
of the advertising campaign?
b. Compute the p-value in (a) and interpret its meaning.
Exercise 9.11
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Two senior psychology students participated in a school research presentations. There were
500 students who voted for their preferred presenter before and after the actual delivery of their
researches:
Preference after the presentation
Preference prior to Candidate A Candidate B Total

presentation
Candidate A 269 21 290
Candidate B 36 174 210
Total 305 195 500
a. At the 0.01 level of significance, is there evidence of a difference in the proportion of

voters who favor Candidate A prior to and after the debate?
b. Compute the p-value in (a) and interpret its meaning.
Sign Test for two independent samples (Median test two-sample case)
This test is known as the median test, another test under nonparametric statistics. It is
used to compare the median of two independent samples.
This is the counterpart of the t-test under parametric test.
The data consist of two independent samples of n1 and n2 observations. The

medians of the two samples are taken jointly. In each sample observation above, the values
above the medians are assigned the plus (+) sign and those at or below the negative (-) sign.
Then the number of + and – signs for each sample is obtained. A x 2 test is used to determine
whether the observed frequencies of + and – signs differ significantly.
Apply the formula:
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2
2 N (ad−bc )
x =
klmn
2
x = Chi-square test
a∧c = observed (+) frequencies
b∧d = observed (-) frequencies
K∧1 = the row total

m∧n = the column total
N = the grand total
Example:
Consider the test scores of 12 female and 9 male students in a spelling test.
Female: 12 26 25 10 10 10 22 20 19 17 17 15
Male: 6 22 19 7 8 12 16 8 19
Problem: is there a significant difference in the performance of the two groups?

Hypotheses:
H 0 : There is no significant difference in the performance of the two groups.
H 1 = There is a significant difference in the performance of the two groups.

α= .05
df = (c-1)(v-1)
x 2.05 = 3.841
Computation:
The median of the female and male observations is 16. Assigning a + to values above
the median and a – to values at or below it, we have the following result.
Female: - + + - - - + + + + + -
Male: -++-----+
These data may be tabulated in the form of a 2’2 table as follows:
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+ - Total
Female a 7 b 5 k 12
Male c 3 d 6 l 9
Total m 10 n 11 N 21
2
N (ad−bc )
x2 =
klmn
2 21(42−15)2
x =
(12 ) ( 9 ) ( 10 ) (11)
2 21(27)2
x =
11880
2 21(729)
x =
11880
2 15309
x =
11880
2
x = 1.288
2 2
Decision Rule: If the x computed value is greater than the x tabular value, reject the
Ho
Conclusion: Since the x 2 computed value of 1.2888 is lesser than the x 2 tabular value of
3.841 at .05 level of significant with 1 degree of freedom, the null hypothesis of no significant
difference in the performance of the two groups is confirmed.
Activity 1
Example:
Consider the test scores of 10 female and 8 male students in abstract reasoning.
Female: 15 20 25 10 10 10 22 20 19 17
Male: 6 20 19 17 18 12 16 8
Exercise 9.12
144 | P a g e
Example:
Consider the test scores of 13 female and 10 male students in a spelling test.
Female: 10 20 25 9 10 9 22 20 19 17 17 15 20
Male: 6 22 19 17 18 12 16 8 19 20
Sign test for two repeated/correlated samples (Fisher Sign Test)
This test is under nonparametric statistics. It is the counterpart of the t-test for correlated
sample under the parametric test. The sign test is one of the simplest nonparametric tests. It is
for use with 2 repeated (or correlated) measures, and measurement is assumed to be at least
ordinal.
The Fisher Sign Test compares two correlated samples and is applicable to data
composed of N paired observations.
The difference between each pair of observations is obtained. This test is based on the
idea that half the difference between the paired observations will be positive and the other half
will be negative.
The formula is:
|D|−1
Z=
√N
Z = the Fisher Sign Test

D = the difference between the number of + and – signs
Example:
145 | P a g e
Consider the pretest and the posttest results before and after the implementation of the
program.
Pretest Posttest
x y
15 19
19 30
31 26
36 8
10 10
11 6
19 17
15 13
10 22
16 8
Problem: Is there a significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 10
students?
Hypotheses:
H 0 : There is no significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 10
students.
H 1 = There is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 10
students.
146 | P a g e
α= .05
z .05 = ± 1.96
Pretest Posttest Sign of x--y

x y D
15 19 -
19 30 -
31 26 +
36 8 +
10 10 0
11 6 +
19 17 +
15 13 +
10 22 -
16 8 +
In this example, there are all 6 + signs, 3 – signs, and 1 zero. Zero is disregarded. It may be
shown that –
|D|−1
Z=
√N
|6 3|−1
Z=
√9
2
Z=
3
Z = .67
Decision: if the Z computed value is greater than the Z tabular value, reject the Ho .
Conclusion:
Since the Z computed value of .67 is less than the Z tabular value of 1.96 at .05 level of
significance, the null hypothesis is confirmed which means that there is no significant difference
between the pretest and the posttest results of the ten students.
Exercise 9.13
students?
Hypotheses:
147 | P a g e
students.
students.
α= .05
z .05 = ± 1.96
x y D
15 19 -
19 30 -
31 26 +
36 8 +
10 10 0
11 6 +
19 17 +
15 13 +
10 22 -
16 8 +
Exercise 9.14
participants?
Hypotheses:
participants.
participants.
α= .05
z .05 = ± 1.96
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x y D
15 19 -
19 30 -
31 26 +
36 8 +
10 10 0
11 6 +
19 17 +
15 13 +
10 22 -
16 8 +
Scheffe’s Test
To find out where the differences lies, another test must be used. Let us assume that these are
the data derived from ANOVA-One way:
CASES
A B C D
7 9 2 4
3 8 3 5
5 8 4 7
6 7 5 8
9 6 6 3
4 9 4 4
3 10 2 5
x́ = 5.28 x́ = 8.14 x́ = 3.71 x́ =5.14
Given: SW 2 = 3.02
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The F test tell us that there is a significant difference in the average sales of the 4 brands of
shampoo but as to where the difference lies, it has to be tested further by another test, the
Scheffe’s test formula:
X́ 1− X́ 2 ¿ 2
F’ = ¿
¿
¿
Where:
F’ = Scheffe’s test
X́ = mean of group 1
X́ 2 = mean of group 2
n1 = number of samples in group 1
n2 = number of samples in group 1
S w 2 = within mean squares
A vs. B A vs. C
2 2
5.28−8.14 ¿ 5.28−3.71 ¿
F’ = ¿ F’ = ¿
¿ ¿
¿ ¿
8.1796 2.4649
=
= 42.28 .86
49 F’ = 2.87
8.1796
=
.86
F’ = 9.51
A vs. D B vs. C
2
5.28−5.14 ¿ 8.14−3.71 ¿2
F’ = ¿ F’ = ¿
¿ ¿
¿ ¿
.0196 19.6249
= =
.86 .86
F’ = .02 F’ = 22.82
B vs. D C vs. D
8.14−5.14 ¿2 3.71−5.14 ¿ 2
F’ = ¿ F’ = ¿
¿ ¿
¿ ¿
150 | P a g e
9 2.0449
= =
.86 .86
F’ = 10.46 F’ = 2.38
Comparison of the average sales of the four cases
Between Cases F’ (F .05) Interpretation

(K-1)
(3.01) (3)
A vs. B 9.51 9.03 Significant
A vs. C 2.87 9.03 Not significant
A vs. D .02 9.03 Not significant
B vs. C 22.82 9.03 Significant
B vs. D 10.46 9.03 Significant
C vs. D 2.38 9.03 Not significant
The above tale shows that there is a significant difference in the sales between brands A and
brand B, brand B and brand C and also brand B and brand D. however, brands A and C, A and
D and C and D do not significantly differ in their average sales.
This implies that brand B is more saleable than brands A, C and D.
151 | P a g e
Exercise 9.15
Theories
A B C D
9 9 2 5
3 8 5 5
9 5 4 7
6 7 5 8
9 6 6 3
4 9 4 4
3 10 2 5
2
Given: SW = 3.02
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Exercise 9.16
Models
A B C D
5 5 2 4
3 8 3 5
5 5 5 7
6 7 5 8
9 6 6 3
4 9 4 4
3 10 2 5
Given: SW 2 = 3.02
Chapter 10
153 | P a g e
Choosing Appropriate Statistics in Research

1. Know how to use appropriate statistics in researches
2. Determine statistics based on available data
3. Present data properly
There are various types of statistical analysis. Choosing the correct analytical approach for your
situation can be a daunting process. In this section you’ll get an overview of the statistical
procedures that are potentially available and under what circumstances they are used.
You should plan your statistical approach at the start of your project, before you collect any
data. Different statistical tests have different requirements and planning in advance has various
benefits:
1. Knowing the statistical approach will allow you to plan the way you collect your data.
2. You will save time because you’ll only collect relevant data.
3. You will save effort.
Knowing what type of project you have and what sort of data you will collect can be useful in
determining the best analytical approach.
Types of project
Knowing what kind of project you are undertaking can be a big help in working your way
towards the most appropriate statistical approach. The following list covers a range of
possibilities:
1. In terms of differences – you split your data into groups.
154 | P a g e
Independent Related Association/correlatio

Same participants in n
each condition
Nominal Chi-squared Binomial Sign n/a
Values assigned a
code in the form of a
number where the
numbers are simply
labels. You can count
but not order or
measure nominal
data
Ordinal Mann Whitney U Wilcoxon Spearman’s rank
Values can be
ranked
Interval Unrelated t Test Related t test Pearsons product
moment
1. Are we testing for a difference or a correlation?

2. At what level of measurement are the relevant data?
3. If testing for a difference, was the design related or unrelated?
Application of Statistics to Research
Statistics serves as a means for communicating the results of the study. It is important
therefore to study statistics for the purpose of arriving at a reliable and valid results. The
following are some of the applications of statistics to research:
1. Descriptive Research like survey, most likely the researcher would need to describe his
data using the mean, standard deviation, percentage or percentile. It is also necessary
the researcher should determine the sample size that he would be needing in his study,
the margin of error and even the sampling error. In terms of correlation, the researcher
should determine the strength and direction of the relationship between variables using
statistical tests like Pearson r (Parametric test) or Spearman (Nonparametric). In the
case of comparative study, the researcher may utilize t-test of independence
(Parametric) or chi-square (nonparametric)
2. Experimental Research may involve the use of independent and dependent variables. In
this case, the researcher can manipulate the IV and measure the DV, and could make
use of control and experimental groups. In such condition, the experimenter may use t-
test of homogeneity to determine if an intervention for example may have an impact on
the dependent variable. However, in dealing with multiple variables, there are statistical
155 | P a g e
tools like ANOVA, MANOVA, or ANCOVA that may be used to analyze the relationships
or differences between or within groups of data.
3. In Test Construction, the test developer may consider various tests to determine the
reliability and validity of an instrument. For example, in terms of reliability the researcher
may utilize test of correlation to determine if there is consistency in the results of data
which may signify the level of reliability, in the same way that the research may correlate
the new test to other existing tests to determine the validity of the instrument.
4. Small n studies, there are some studies that may require a small number of participants,
in this case, nonparametric tests are ideal as long as it meets the major requirement
such as the type of data (ordinal or nominal), assuming that the scores are not normally
distributed. Statics that may be used are Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney, etc.
5. Predicting behaviors thru analysis of data, example could be simple and multiple
regression analysis.
Decision Tree
Difference Correlation
nominal ordinal interval

Ordinal Interval
Unrelated Related Unrelated

Related Unrelated Related Ordinal Interval
Chi-square Mann- t test for
Binomial Wilcoxon’s
Whitney U t test independent Spearman’s Pearson’s r
Sign Test T (matched
samples rho
pairs for
signed
ranks)
related
pairs
156 | P a g e
157 | P a g e
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Chapter 11
Statistics in Test Construction and Development
1. Identify different measures of reliability and validity

2. Differentiate reliability and validity
3. Compute reliability and validity
4. Perform item analysis
5. Use SPSS and Excel in reliability testing
Reliability and Validity
One of the challenges faced by Psychology Students is establishing the reliability and validity of
a scale – whether it is an instrument for research or test developed by the student. We will be
introduced on the basic statistics that you will encounter in test construction and development in
this chapter.
Reliability = Consistency / Reliability = Accuracy
Reliability is simply the ability of the instrument to yield similar results as it is administered in
different instances. It is the consistency of the result of the test as taken by respondents.
Supposed you have taken a test in your class and got a score of 72 or 27, what would this mean
to you? The scores on a test have several elements – observed and true scores. What you
actually got in you test is your observed score. What you really know is your true score;
unfortunately it cannot be measured directly since it is a theoretical reflection of the actual
amount you possessed. The observed and true scores are different because we cannot create a
perfect test or measure and even set conditions where and when test are to be administered.
Observe Score = True Score + Error Score
The formula above illustrates that the observe score is the combination of your true score and
the error score. Let us say that you got 72 on a test, but your true score (this cannot be
determined but we can theorize it) is 65. This means that there is a 7 point difference between
the observed and the true scores, which difference is what we referred to as the error score.
This error is due to many factors like, room temperature while taking the test, the time the test is
administered, personal factors like fatigue, anxiety and other emotions and other conditions
rather than the traits or qualities you intend to measure. These would certainly have an impact
on the performance of the respondents or test taker’s score.
One of the roles of statistics in test development is to reduce errors by increasing the reliability
to match the observed and the true score. It is as simple as saying that “It is more reliable if
there is less error”.
159 | P a g e
Different Types of Reliability
Type of reliability Uses Statistics Example

Test – Retest This is used to know Correlation You have given the
Reliability if you want to know test to a group and
whether a test is Pearson then given it to the
reliable over time Spearman same group and after
3 weeks
A single test is given
twice to the same One test
group after interval. One group
Two occasions
Parallel Forms This is used to know Correlation You have given two
Reliability if several form of sets of test with
different test are Pearson similar coverage and
equivalent Spearman difficulty level to two
groups.
Two sets of test

Two groups
One occasion
Internal Consistency This is used to know Cronbach Alpha You have a test and
Reliability if the items on a test determines whether it
assess one and only assesses the same
one dimension construct
Interrater Reliability This is used when Interrater reliability You have a test and
you want to know coefficient ask experts to assess
whether there is the test
constancy in rating of
some outcome
160 | P a g e
Test – Retest Reliability is used when you want to examine the test reliability over time.
Respondents Score for 1st time Score for 2nd Time

1. You 24 36
2. Joseph 37 37
3. Ryan 37 47
4. Anna 43 49
5. Kiko 47 49
6. Thelma 59 60
7. Melai 54 47
8. Joanne 30 36
Compute the reliability using the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation.

The result of the above is
rtime1  time2 = 0.87 very strong relationship
Excel Computation
SPSS Computation
This means that the test taken by the above respondents has very high test – retest reliability
Parallel Forms Reliability is used when you want to examine the equivalence or similarity
between two different forms of test at the same occasion.
Respondents Form A Form B

1. You 4 6
2. Joseph 3 7
3. Ryan 4 7
4. Anna 6 9
5. Kiko 8 9
6. Thelma 5 5
7. Melai 4 7
8. Joanne 8 6
Compute the reliability using the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation.

The result of the above is
rformA  formB = 0.32 weak relationship
Excel Computation
SPSS Computation
This means that the test taken by the above respondents has weak parallel form reliability
Internal Consistency Reliability is used when you want to know whether the items on a test are
consistent with one another in that they represent one and only one dimension, construct or
area of interest. Cronbach alpha is used in this type of measure. This is a special type of
161 | P a g e
measure where the more consistently individual item scores vary with the total score on the test,
the higher the value. The higher the value the more confidence you have that this is a test that
is internally consistent. That it measures one thing and that one thing is the sum of each items
evaluates.
Consider this 5 item test:
5. 3 + 5 = ?
6. Who is the shortest in the three little pigs?
7. 7 – 1 = ?
8. What is the color of the brick house?
9. 6 + 2 = ?
This test is obviously measuring different dimension or area of interest, thus is internally
inconsistent.
Now, consider this 5 item test:
1. 4+8= ?
2. 3+2= ?
3. 9–3= ?
4. 1+5= ?
5. 6+2= ?
All the items seem to be measuring the same area of interest and scores of the respondents in
this test would seem to have internal consistency.
where:
k = the number of items

s2 2y
s 2y sy
= the variance associated with observed score
2 = the sum of all the variances for each item

∑ si
162 | P a g e
ID Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Total Score

1. You 4 3 4 3 4 18
2. Joseph 5 2 5 4 4 20
3. Ryan 3 3 4 2 2 14
4. Anna 2 4 3 3 3 15
5. Kiko 3 3 4 4 4 18
6. Thelma 4 2 3 5 3 17
7. Melai 3 4 5 3 4 19
8. Joanne 4 3 5 4 3 19
2
sy =
=
4.29
Item Variance 0.86 0.57 0.70 0.86 0.55 2
∑ si =
3.54
0.219
This means that the test taken by the above respondents is not reliable.
Cronbach's alpha Internal consistency

α ≥ 0.9 Excellent (High-Stakes testing)
0.7 ≤ α < 0.9 Good (Low-Stakes testing)
0.6 ≤ α < 0.7 Acceptable
0.5 ≤ α < 0.6 Poor
α < 0.5 Unacceptable
Excel Computation
163 | P a g e
SPSS Computation
164 | P a g e
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's N of Items
Alpha
.219 5
165 | P a g e
VALIDITY
Validity is the property of a tool that indicates that the tool measure what intends to measure. A
valid test is a measure of the accuracy of the test
Different types of Validity
Type of Validity Uses Procedure Example

Content Validity This is used when Ask an expert in the Your test assesses
you want to know field if the items the chapter you have
whether a sample of reflect the universe of discussed fairly well.
items reflects an items in the topic
entire universe of being measured.
items in a specific
topic
Criterion Validity This is used when Correlate the scores The admission test
you want to know if from the test with has been correlated
the test scores are some other with being an honor
systematically related measures that is student.
to criteria that already valid and
indicated; that the assesses the same
test taker is construct.
competent in a
certain area.
Construct Validity This is used when Correlate the set of The TEST(osterone)
you want to know if a test scores with test of aggression is
test measures a some theorized correlated contact
phenomenon or outcome that reflects and physically
psychological the construct for dangerous sports
construct which the test is
designed
Testing the Items
The developer of the tests items go through Item Analysis. It is a general term which refers to
all techniques used to assess the quality and the characteristics of test items. It involves the
difficulty of the items, the discriminating power, and the distractors used.
To do the item analysis, the following steps are followed:
4. Check the test papers and arranged the scores from highest to lowest.
5. Determine the upper and lower group by multiplying the total number of test takers to 27
percent. Supposed that the test takers are 120. The 27% of 120 is 34. Therefore the top 34
students would be placed in the upper group, and the bottom 34 would be the lower group.
166 | P a g e
6. Get both the frequencies of the correct responses of the participants.

7. Determine the difficulty and discrimination levels
N upper +¿ N lower
N
f =¿ ¿
D¿
N upper = Upper group who answered correctly
N lower = Lower group who answered correctly

N = Total number of respondents (upper+lower)
Difficulty Level Descriptive Level Recommendation
0.91- Above Very Easy Unacceptable

0.76 - 0.90 Easy Acceptable
0.26 – 0.75 Moderately Difficult Highly Acceptable
0.11 – 0.25 Difficult Acceptable
Below – 0.10 Very Difficult Unacceptable
N upper −¿ N lower
1
N
2
s=¿ ¿
D¿
N upper = Upper group who answered correctly

N lower = Lower group who answered correctly
½ N = Half the number of respondents
Discrimination Level Descriptive Level Recommendation
0.4- Above Very Good Item Highly Acceptable

0.30 - 0.39 Good Item Acceptable
0.20 – 0.29 Reasonably Good Item Acceptable
0.10 – 0.19 Discriminating Acceptable
Below – 0.10 Very bad item Unacceptable
Difficulty Level Discriminating Power Evaluation/

Recommendation
Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Very good item
167 | P a g e
Highly/ Acceptable Acceptable Good Item
Highly/ Acceptable Unacceptable Questionable Item, Improve

or revise item
Questionable item, improve

Unacceptable Acceptable or discard item
Unacceptable Unacceptable Poor item, discard or reject

the item
References
168 | P a g e
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Balayan,Roel, et al (2000). Biostatistics: A foundation to the Medical & Health Sciences. Rev.
Ed. Manila: Sta. Monica Printing Corp.
Bolaños, Alex B. (1997). Probability and Statistical Concepts: An Introduction. Quezon City: Rex
Book Store, Inc
Broto, A (2008). Parametric Statistics (with computer aided solutions) National Bookstore
Del Rosario, Maria Theresa O, Gregorio, Anna Marie B., & Matammu, Lulette U. (2014).
General Psychology. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
Gravetter, F. and Walnau. (2012) Statistics for Behavioral Science, Cengage Learning Asia Pte,
Ltd. Philippines
Lambojon, Francisco M. Jr. (2012). Self–Efficacy and Moral Judgment of the Third Year
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Moderno, Imelu G. (2012) An Examination of PSTD Factor Structure in Filipino Trauma
Survivors: A comparison of Ten Models Acroos Three Regional Groups. Philippine
Journal of Psychology vol. 45. Issue No.2.
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Electronic Data
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Psychological Statistics 2020

Introduction and Basic Concepts

Historical Roots of Psychological Statistics

Socrates Plato Aristotle

Dr. Nevil Maskelyne Friedrich Bessel

In 1830, through the writings of Gustav Theodor Fechner

In 1855, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Helmholtz also known

In 1859 the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Between 1865 and 1868, another great

As Donders investigated reaction-time, Wundt, still at

In 1874 Wundt accepted a call to the University of Zurich,

William James James McKeen Cattell Edward Bradford Titchener

In 1884, Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911C.E.) established his anthropometric

In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909 C.E.) reported his studies in learning

Another body of influence on psychology came from medicine and psychiatry,

Franz Anton Mesmer James Braid Sigmund Freud

Importance of Statistics in Psychology

1. To scientifically accomplish the goal of psychology, there is a strong need to undergo,

Statistics is defined as a branch of mathematics which deals with the collection,

Collection of data refers to the process of gathering numerical information. Methods of

Presentation of data refers to the exposition and arrangement of data in an appropriate

Analysis of data refers to the activity of describing the properties, characteristics or

2. Inferential Statistics demands a higher order of critical judgment and mathematical

_____ 1. The IQ profile of the first year psychology students is average.

C. Complete the puzzle by answering the following cue question.

2. It is a branch of mathematics which deals with the collection, organization, presentation,

3. Psychological research is the __________ of discovering new ideas, updated therapeutic

Basic SPSS and Excel Operations

To enter data, follow the steps below:

2. Click “Type in data” and click OK.

Type in ID beside number 1

Variable Type in Score in number 2

4. Go to data view and enter the values

Enter the data

5. We can now analyze the encoded data.

9. Click in the Central Tendency and dispersion, then click continue..

10. Click Continue and the Result will emerge

Std. Deviation 2.937

Frequency Distribution and Graphs

Click bar chart and output will show as frequency distribution

Frequen Perce Valid Cumulativ

27 1 8.3 8.3 8.3

29 1 8.3 8.3 16.7

30 1 8.3 8.3 25.0

31 1 8.3 8.3 33.3

35 2 16.7 16.7 83.3

36 2 16.7 16.7 100.0

3. A bar graph will be shown below the frequency distribution

4. Then there is your graph.

Basic Excel Operations

Highlight data for

Type median Type mode

1. With the following data 9 7 8 6 4 9 7 3

2. compute the following:

a. For the following scores, find the value of each expression.

b. Solve the above using excel.

A Frequency distribution is an organized tabulation of the number of individuals located

2. Click analyse go to descriptive statistics then click frequencies.

Valid 7 6 20.0 20.0 66.7

8 4 13.3 13.3 80.0

9 5 16.7 16.7 96.7

10 1 3.3 3.3 100.0

Total 30 100.0 100.0

Shape of the Distribution