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The effect of community policing on fear and

crime reduction, police legitimacy and job
satisfaction: an empirical review of the evidence

Justin N. Crowl

To cite this article: Justin N. Crowl (2017): The effect of community policing on fear and crime
reduction, police legitimacy and job satisfaction: an empirical review of the evidence, Police
Practice and Research, DOI: 10.1080/15614263.2017.1303771

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Police Practice and Research, 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2017.1303771

The effect of community policing on fear and crime reduction,

police legitimacy and job satisfaction: an empirical review of the
evidence
Justin N. Crowl
Criminal Justice Administration Department, Mansfield University of Pennsylvania, Mansfield, PA, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Since the 1970s, community policing strategies or the language thereof have Received 16 June 2015
been purportedly initiated by a number of police departments nationwide Accepted 28 February 2017
to address notable issues such as crime, neighborhood disorder, and fear
KEYWORDS
of crime. This policing philosophy has received considerable attention Community policing;
and support among scholars, police administrators, and criminal justice crime prevention; police
practitioners. This article synthesizes the available empirical evidence legitimacy; fear of crime
on the effectiveness of community policing initiatives using a variety of
outcome measures. An overview of community policing is first provided
with particular attention paid to its essence and objectives. Prior studies
that have analyzed community policing effectiveness are then reviewed
and assessed in terms of their methodological rigor and scientific merit. A
discussion and future research considerations are presented to conclude.

Introduction
Community policing is an organizational philosophy that stresses the importance of law ­enforcement
working cooperatively with community members to identify and resolve issues related to crime and dis-
order. Taken collectively, community policing strategies are designed to increase partnerships between
police and the community, while emphasizing problem-solving approaches, to improve overall quality
of life for citizens. Through attention to little problems, the police, working together with the commu-
nity, can reduce issues such as disorder and fear of crime as well as increase attitudes towards and trust
in the police (Cole & Smith, 2007; Trojanowicz, Kappeler, Gaines, & Bucqueroux, 1998), all of which
are factors that can impact crime occurrence. Nevertheless, evaluating the effectiveness of community
policing strategies is a very difficult endeavor. This is due, in part, to the lack of conceptual and defi-
nitional clarity of community policing strategies along with considerable variation and complexity in
strategies and initiatives classified as community policing (Schnebly, 2008; Weisburd & Eck, 2004).
Through a synthesis of the available research evidence, this article seeks to examine the effective-
ness of community policing on multiple outcome measures, including fear of crime, police legitimacy,
attitudes towards community policing and job satisfaction, and crime. Results, specific to each of
these outcome measures, were mixed. As evidenced in the literature, some of the most advantageous
community policing strategies enhance citizen attitudes toward the police and the manner in which
they view them as a legitimate authority. The ability of community policing to improve officer job
satisfaction and reduce fear of crime among citizens is less clear. In addition, contrary to the oft-held
perception that community policing reduces crime, no consistent, substantial crime reduction benefit

CONTACT  Justin N. Crowl  jcrowl@mansfield.edu

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2   J. N. CROWL

of community policing interventions was found in this review. In the next section, a review of the
essence and core elements of community policing is presented. Next, the methodology is provided,
with emphasis placed on discussing the criteria used to select and assess the scientific merit of relevant
studies. This article concludes with a discussion of the findings and considerations for future research.

Background
Community policing has become an overwhelmingly popular innovation in American policing. This
type of strategy, according to Eve and colleagues (2003), arose from reports in the 1960s claiming that
there was a large-scale disconnect in the relations between the police and the community. During
that period, many individuals began to declare that the police had lost contact with members of the
general public, particularly minorities. This policy-community detachment was attributed, in part,
to police embracing more of a legalistic approach to policing as well as switching from foot to car
patrol (Sherman, Farrington, Welsh, & MacKenzie, 2002). Since this period, many police departments
nationwide have reportedly shifted from a reactive, traditional form of policing to a community-based
style, or some form thereof.
The concept of community policing has received considerable attention over the years from police
administrators, practitioners, and academicians (Hancock, 2016). There is, however, a general lack of
consensus among the policing and academic communities regarding how community policing should
be conceptualized and operationally defined (Connell, Miggans, & McGloin, 2008). This is due, in
part, to the considerable variability in the types of initiatives and programs classified as community
policing (Schnebly, 2008). One source, the Community-Oriented Policing Services [COPS] (2010),
defines community policing as ‘a philosophy that promotes organizational strategies … to proactively
address the immediate conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime, social disorder,
and fear of crime’ (p. 1). The concept, which offers an alternative to the traditional policing model,
emphasizes problem-solving strategies along with the importance of community-police partnerships
(Eve et al., 2003).
The concept of community policing, according to Skogan and Hartnett (1997), involves a number
of elements. These characteristics include: (1) the decentralization of authority, (2) an emphasis on
problem-oriented strategies, (3) a focus on facilitating public involvement in influencing the deci-
sion-making priorities of the police, and (4) empowering citizens to take an active role in preventing
crime in their own communities. Collectively, these elements emphasize the need for the police and the
community to collaboratively work together to reduce neighborhood crime and disorder. Moreover,
community-oriented policing strategies commonly accentuate crime prevention through environ-
mental manipulation and increased communal awareness of strategies for target hardening (Davis,
Henderson, & Merrick, 2003; Skogan, 1990).
Community policing can take many forms, with its objectives being just as diversified. Sherman
and colleagues (2002) described several interrelated objectives or philosophies of this type of policing
strategy. An overarching objective of a community policing model is focused on increasing the quality
and quantity of contact between police and the community. At the center of this objective is the belief
that the police and the community should proactively cooperate with each other as often as possible
to address issues associated with crime, disorder, and fear of crime within a geographic area or com-
munity (Gill, Weisburd, Telep, Vitter, & Bennett, 2014; Schnebly, 2008; Sherman et al., 2002). This
collaborative effort can involve things such as neighborhood watch programs, community meetings,
door-to-door visits, and police storefronts (Sherman et al., 2002).
Another objective of community policing involves increasing the flow of knowledge and informa-
tion between the community and the police. This sharing of knowledge is reciprocal in nature. The
assumption is that by mutually sharing information and knowledge, the police and the community
can cohesively work together to develop an effective partnership that can help reduce neighborhood
disorder and crime (Ganapathy, 2000; Moore, 1992). Citizens, for example, can work closely with the
police by readily reporting criminal and deviant behavior that occurs within their own neighborhood
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH   3

(Schnebly, 2008). Similarly, the police can proactively work with citizens to emphasize the rewards
of reporting behavior. When the police are engaged and more visible within a community, there is
evidence to suggest that they will be viewed in more favorable terms by citizens (Cole & Smith, 2007;
Skogan, 1990, 1994). This, in turn, can result in citizens being more likely to cooperate with the police
and comply with their directives.
Community policing activities can impact the extent to which citizens view the police as legitimate
authority figures. The legitimacy of policing is evidenced by the extent in which individuals are willing to
accept police directives and comply with their requests (Hinds & Murphy, 2007). This concept involves
the attitudes that the general public has regarding fairness and equity in operations of the police; it can
be achieved through procedurally just policing. When the police treat citizens in a procedurally fair
manner, people are more likely to view them as being legitimate, which can lead to a greater amount of
amenability, collaboration and trust between both groups. Police activities, then, can have a direct impact
on the way in which people perceive them as a legitimate authority. This legitimacy can be maintained
and even enhanced through the effectiveness of law enforcement in preventing crime and maintaining
social order in a community (Hinds & Murphy, 2007; Skogan, 1994; Tyler, 1990).
Recently, Gill et al. (2014) conducted a systematic review, using meta-analytical procedures, to exam-
ine the effect of community policing on various outcomes, including fear of crime, police legitimacy,
official crime, and satisfaction with the police. The review was extensive and methodologically rigorous;
however, it failed to consider a vital factor in assessing community policing – that is, the extent in which
community policing can influence officer job satisfaction. It stands to reason that for community policing
activities to be effective, officers must ‘buy into’ the intervention, in theory and practice, and embrace
the elements of problem-solving and, more broadly, organizational change. If officers fail to fully accept
these strategies, or if they resist, their efforts toward community-oriented policing may not be as effective,
thereby perhaps leading to greater levels of job dissatisfaction. This review assesses extant evaluation
research on community policing, with a focus on police officer perceptions of job satisfaction along with
other non-crime and crime-reduction outcomes, thus considerably extending the current literature.

Methodology
The purpose of this article is to synthesize the community policing literature and assess the scientific merit
of studies that examine the impact of community policing on fear and crime reduction, police legitimacy,
and job satisfaction. In selecting studies for inclusion in this review, the following criteria were used:
(1)  The study assessed a particular strategy or initiative that falls under the auspice of community
policing. Suitable studies included those that brought together citizens and the police in an
effort to jointly identify and/or solve problems. Examples of relevant strategies include com-
munity meetings, providing information to the community, increasing police-community
contacts, door-to-door police visits, and problem-solving initiatives that involve community
collaboration with law enforcement.
(2)  The research design employed to examine the community policing strategy was described
in sufficient detail to permit for an analysis of the study’s scientific merit.
(3)  There was a reported direct outcome measure related to crime, fear of crime, police legiti-
macy and/or attitudes of police toward job satisfaction or community policing.
(4)  Any study, published or unpublished, since 1970 was eligible for inclusion in this review. This
period coincides with the paradigm shift from the professional policing era to the beginning
of a new community policing philosophy and the increased interest thereto.

Search strategies for identification of relevant studies

Several search strategies were utilized to identify relevant studies for this review. Online academic
databases from multiple disciplines, including criminal justice, criminology, law, and psychology, were
4   J. N. CROWL

searched using these keywords: community policing, crime prevention, community problem solving,
community-oriented interventions, police-community relations, and police legitimacy. In addition, the
websites of governmental agencies, such as the National Institute of Justice, the RAND Corporation,
and the Police Foundation, were searched to identify relevant studies for inclusion. Abstracts from
leading policing journals along with the reference lists of extant community policing studies were
also reviewed. Lastly, contact with colleagues and key policing scholars aided in obtaining any study
that was unavailable in one of the online databases, thereby helping to ensure the comprehensiveness
of this review.
Studies included in this review were identified through the use of the aforementioned parameters.
It is anticipated that differences in the outcome measures (e.g., fear of crime, police legitimacy, job
satisfaction, crime) will emerge based on the community policing activities assessed in each study.
The methodologies, research designs and treatment effects employed in these studies vary quite
considerably, and as a result, the decision was made not to conduct a meta-analysis. To add context,
Gill and colleagues (2014) utilized meta-analytical procedures to quantitatively examine the effect of
community policing on various outcomes. Although rigorous, the study may have overestimated the
true effect size while ignoring key methodological and outcome differences across the studies that
were included, despite making an effort to overcome some inherent challenges of a meta-analysis
design. To this end, and considering the substantial heterogeneity in the studies reviewed in this
study, the decision was made to not include a summary of statistical effect. The following section
describes the manner in which the strength of evidence of each study was assessed for scientific
merit and methodological rigor.

Assessing scientific merit

Evaluating the merit and methodological rigor of research evidence is an important undertaking. In
a report submitted to Congress, which was based on a review of more than 500 evaluations of crime
prevention strategies, Sherman (1997) laid the groundwork for the development of the Maryland
Scientific Methods Scale. Based on a classic book by Cook and Campbell (1979), the scale was designed
to measure internal validity using specific criteria that serve as an indicator of methodological quality.
The scale, which corresponds to the five research designs typically used in policing evaluations, is as
follows:
(1)  Correlations at one point in time (e.g., fear of crime was lower in areas where community
policing tactics were used).
(2)  Before-and-after differences, with no control condition (e.g., fear of crime decreased after
the adoption of community policing strategies in an area).
(3)  Before-and-after differences with comparable control conditions (e.g., fear of crime decreased
in the targeted area but remained unchanged in the control area.
(4)  Before-and-after comparisons in experimental and control groups, controlling for other
influential constructs (e.g., fear of crime in community policing area decreased compared
to fear of crime control area, after controlling for community variables.
(5)  Randomized experiments with control conditions (e.g., areas randomly assigned to be
policed using a community-based style experienced decreases in fear of crime compared
to areas that were not).
The research designs of studies that have evaluated the effectiveness of community policing initi-
atives vary quite noticeably, as evidenced in the following section. The strength of scientific evidence
of each study examined henceforth is categorized, with each study being assigned a specific value that
corresponds to the above scale. For instance, studies that utilized basic correlations between community
policing and fear of crime at one point in time are assigned a value of ‘1’, which reflects the weak infer-
ences and the inability of the design to establish temporal ordering and rule out many internal validity
threats (e.g., selection bias, history). On the other hand, studies that employed experimental designs
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH   5

with randomization and control conditions are rated as a ‘5’, reflecting a more rigorous research design
that is better able to control for extraneous influences on the outcome. Such designs, as depicted in the
literature (see, for instance, Sherman et al., 2002), are considered the gold standard of evaluation design.

Findings
This section reviews the extant evaluation research evidence on community policing. Included in
this review are studies, of all which have met the specified criteria for inclusion, that have examined
the impact of community policing programs and initiatives on various direct outcome measures,
including fear of crime, police legitimacy, attitudes towards community policing and job satisfaction,
and crime. An extensive review of the extant evaluation research yielded 27 studies being identified,
covering nearly three decades of published research in professional criminal justice journals and
scholarly reports. These studies are reviewed, with consideration given to the methodological rigor
of, and the results that emerged from, each study. In particular, studies are evaluated, with use of
the Maryland Scientific Methods Scale (SMS), in terms of strength of evidence and internal validity.
Subsequent discussion is presented and tailored to each outcome measure to draw conclusions based
on community policing effectiveness.

Selection of eligible studies

The combined search strategies utilized in this review generated a plethora of abstracts and citations
on the topic of community policing. These items were carefully screened to identify relevant commu-
nity policing studies that met the inclusion criteria. In particular, the search strategies generated 8000
distinct abstracts, of which 1500 abstracts were selected for further review. Upon this initial review,
a total of 275 potentially eligible studies were identified. Twenty-seven studies, which contained 70
independent comparisons, met the eligibility criteria outlined in the previous section and were thus
included in this study. The majority of these comparisons were drawn from studies that were conducted
in the United States, with many of them published as a technical or governmental report.
Table A1, included as Appendix 1, provides an overview of the research methodology, key findings,
and assigned scientific rating score from each of the studies reviewed herein. This table includes five
columns or categories. The first category includes the author(s) and year of each study, listed in chron-
ological order by publication date. The second category depicts the outcome measures used in each
study. For most studies, numerous measures were used, such as fear of crime, police perceptions, and
satisfaction. The third column illustrates the methods employed in each study to examine community
policing effectiveness. The findings of each study are reflected in the fourth column. Here, the impact
of community policing strategies on the identified outcome measures is identified. The last category
displays the assessed strength of the evidence, using the Scientific Methods Scale, where each study is
assigned a numeric value that ranges from 1 (weakest) to 5 (strongest) on internal validity. The next
section presents the results, specific to each community policing outcome measure, of this review.

Narrative review
Fear of crime
Reducing fear of crime has become a legitimate focus for police departments, especially those that
operate under a community policing philosophy. It can be argued, especially in recent years, that fear
of crime has become as (if not more) important of a police and policy consideration than crime itself
(Greer & Reiner, 2012). This is understandable, particularly given the adverse, potentially long-term
consequences associated with heightened levels of fear (Scheider, Rowell, & Bezdikian, 2003). For
instance, a person’s psychological and social well-being can become adversely affected to the point
where they may become withdrawn from others and public life in general. Fear of crime can also
undermine formal and informal efforts to control crime and delinquency, thereby leading to greater
6   J. N. CROWL

Table 1. Community policing outcome measures and comparisons.

Category n (comparison groups) Effective n (%) No change n (%) Not effective n (%)
Fear of crime 16 9 (56.3) 5 (31.2) 2 (12.5)
Citizen satisfaction 18 12 (66.7) 4 (22.2) 2 (11.1)
Police legitimacy 9 7 (77.8) 1 (11.1) 1 (11.1)
Job satisfaction 10 9 (90.0) 0 (0) 1 (10.0)
Official crime 43 8 (18.6) 18 (41.9) 17 (39.5)

levels of social disorder and a sense of distrust for authority figures, especially the police (Skogan, 2006).
This, in turn, can lead to heightened amounts of antisocial and deviant behavior along with crime and
delinquency. It is possible too that people may become even more fearful of crime as a result of such
factors (Scheider et al., 2003). To this end, it is clear to see why many community-oriented policing
efforts have targeted fear of crime as an outcome measure.
Extant evaluation research reveals mixed results with respect to community policing activities
being able to effectively reduce citizen fear of crime. As revealed in Table 1, sixteen comparisons,
drawn from 10 studies modest in methodological rigor, included fear of crime as an outcome measure.
Community policing activities were associated with a reduction in fear of crime in a little over half
(n = 9, 56.3%) of the comparison groups. For instance, Segrave and Collins (2005), using a quasi-ex-
perimental design, evaluated a suburban crime prevention team, a community policing initiative.
Results revealed that the initiative reduced fear of crime and enhanced police-community relations.
Moreover, using data from the Criminal Victimization and Perception of Community Safety survey,
Roh and Oliver (2005) found that community policing strategies were correlated with fear of crime;
this relationship, however, was mediated by resident perceptions of neighborhood disorder and quality
of life. Conversely, Gill and colleagues (2014), through a systematic review, found limited effects of
community policing on fear of crime.

Citizen perceptions
The attitudes people have toward the police, and the manner in which they perceive them as a legit-
imate authority, is critical to the essence and sustainability of any police agency (Crowl, 2013). It is,
therefore, essential that positive, supportive police-community relations are established and subse-
quently fostered to the furthest extent possible. This type of relationship can enhance the amount of
trust that people have in the police and their satisfaction with the tasks they perform, which in turn
can improve quality of life and help alleviate fear of crime concerns. Evidence has shown that people
who view the police as a legitimate authority are more likely to obey the law (Mazerolle, Bennett,
Antrobus, & Eggins, 2012; Tyler & Huo, 2002), support and cooperate with the police (Murphy, Hinds,
& Fleming, 2008; Sunshine & Tyler, 2003), report crime to police officials (Schnebly, 2008), assist with
fighting crime (Reisig & Lloyd, 2009; Tyler & Fagan, 2008), and participate in community policing
efforts (Reisig, 2007). Accordingly, stemming from these evidentiary considerations, there has been
a growing emphasis on, and commitment to, legitimacy and professionalism in the police industry.
As evidenced in the extant literature, the most promising community policing initiatives focus on
improving police legitimacy and perceptions among citizens. Several studies, which vary in method-
ological rigor, reveal that community policing interventions are effective in enhancing the attitudes of
citizens toward law enforcement. As illustrated in Table 1, satisfaction with the police was measured
in 18 comparisons across eight studies included in this review. Community policing interventions
were linked to enhanced positive police perceptions among citizens in 66.7% of the comparisons.
For instance, Scheider and colleagues (2003) found that perceptions of community policing activities
was significantly related to satisfaction with the police. Skogan and colleagues (1995) conducted an
evaluation of the CAPS program over five police areas using a time-series analysis. Results revealed
that the program was associated with a higher level of satisfaction with the police along with a decline
in crime-related problems.
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH   7

Other studies, modest in scientific rigor, have examined the effect of community policing
i­ nterventions on police legitimacy. Community policing activities improved police legitimacy in the
majority (n = 7, 77.8%) of the nine treatment-control comparisons included in this review (see Table 1).
This suggests that citizens regularly conveyed confidence in the police and felt they were treated
justly by law enforcement in areas that received community policing. For instance, using six sites pair
matched with controls, Tuffin and colleagues (2006) found that the National Reassurance Policing
Program, a community policing initiative, had a positive impact on confidence in the police and feel-
ings of safety along with crime reduction and perceptions of crime. Hawdon and colleagues (2003)
utilized quantitative survey data from 1347 residents in 41 communities in South Carolina to examine
whether community policing strategies can improve police legitimacy. Results provided evidence of
a strong relationship between community policing strategies and increased citizen perceptions of the
­legitimacy of the police.

Job satisfaction
Community policing efforts aim to enrich the attachment of police officers to the policing profession
as well as to the community in general (Greene, 1989; Rosenberg, Sigler, & Lewis, 2008). An impor-
tant consideration with regard to community policing effectiveness relates to its acceptance by police
personnel. When a move from traditional to community policing is undertaken, for it to be successful,
a re-examination of the police mission becomes critical (Ford, Weissbein, & Plamondon, 2003). The
shift in focus also becomes important along with the reactions from police personnel. Some personnel
may be accepting of community policing and the objectives that exemplify this popular innovation.
They also may be supportive of their new role in helping to ensure the proper implementation of
community policing interventions. To the contrary, other personnel may exhibit greater receptivity
toward traditional policing techniques, thus maintaining values consistent with crime control along
with maintaining order to reduce crime and improve overall quality of life (Ford et al., 2003; Greene,
2000). It is, therefore, reasonable to deduce that police personnel who ‘buy into’ community policing
will be more likely to embrace the focus of the department and their new role, leading to heightened
levels of job satisfaction.
Research has recognized the impact of community policing activities on police perceptions toward
job satisfaction and policing behaviors. These studies, which have utilized moderately strong research
designs, have produced largely positive results. For this review, ten independent comparisons, drawn
from six studies, measured job satisfaction in assessing community policing effectiveness (see Table 1).
Community policing activities were associated with higher levels of job satisfaction among officers
in 90% of the comparisons. For instance, Pelfrey (2004) found that community policing officers had
significantly higher levels of job satisfaction as well as favorable attitudes towards the community than
traditional police officers. Using a time-series analysis to evaluate the COPS AHEAD community
policing program, Greene and colleagues (2002) found that the program lead to higher levels of officer
job satisfaction and feelings of safety among citizens. Yates and Pillai (1996) examined the relationship
between community policing attitudes and job satisfaction and whether this relationship was influ-
enced by the elements of strain, frustration, commitment, and support. Results indicated a positive
relationship, mediated by job strain, between community policing attitudes and job satisfaction.

Crime reduction
Community policing has become a popular innovation that has served as a driving force behind police
efforts designed to maintain order and reduce crime (Zhao, Scheider, & Thurman, 2002a). Over the last
decade or so, violent crime rates have steadily declined nationwide, leading some citizens to develop
and maintain more favorable attitudes toward the police as a result. Recently, however, high-profile
events like the shooting of teenager Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri have led many citizens to
express dissatisfaction with the police and question their ability to effectively maintain order and pre-
vent crime. This has spurred continued discussion about the need for police to establish and maintain
positive, meaningful and mutually beneficial relationships with the community in which they serve.
8   J. N. CROWL

In doing so, the assumption is that the police can better maintain social order, address quality of life
concerns, including fear of crime, and ultimately reduce crime in the community.
As depicted in Table 1, contrary to the belief that community policing reduces crime, empirical
studies have often failed to find a significant, positive effect of community policing on crime reduc-
tion. Official crime was measured in 43 of the 70 comparisons, drawn from 12 studies, included in
this review. Community policing interventions had no significant effect on crime reduction in the
majority (81.4%) of comparisons that measured this outcome. For instance, Weisburd and colleagues
(2008) conducted a methodologically rigorous evaluation of a community policing program using
matched pair census blocks. Results revealed no effect of the program on self-reported crime along
with perceptions of risk and police legitimacy. Kessler and Duncan (1996) found that community
policing interventions in four neighborhoods in Houston, Texas had no significant, measurable impact
on crime. To the contrary, community policing was associated with reductions in crime in less than
20% (n = 8) of the comparisons included in this review. Connell and colleagues (2008), for example,
found that property and violent crime significantly reduced in the intervention site that received
community policing. Tuffin and colleagues (2006) also found support for the crime reduction benefit
of a community policing program administered across six sites.

Discussion
This study synthesized the research evidence on the effectiveness of community policing strategies on
select outcome measures. Studies were included that used a variety of statistical analyses, methodologi-
cal designs, and outcome measures, including fear of crime, police legitimacy, job satisfaction, attitudes
toward community policing, and crime rates. This was done to capture the essence of community
policing and the measures often used to ascertain effectiveness. The methodological rigor of these
studies ranged, with about one-fourth of the studies using quasi-experimental or experimental research
designs. The scientific methods score assigned to each study (see Table A1) reflect this observation.
Taken as a whole, the available research on the effectiveness of community policing is mixed at best.
This evidence has been the result of a small but growing body of evaluation research. Extant research
examining the impact of community policing initiatives has focused on a number of outcome meas-
ures, including but not limited to, fear of crime, police legitimacy, attitudes towards job satisfaction,
and crime. When fear of crime has been analyzed as an outcome measure, research studies, many
of which were modest in scientific rigor, indicate mixed support for the effectiveness of community
policing. Importantly, while community policing strategies can perhaps assist with reducing citizen
fear of crime, this relationship is far from conclusive. More research is needed to conclude with any
reasonable certainty that fear of crime reduction serves as a significant correlate of community policing.
In addition to reducing fear of crime, community policing initiatives, when correctly adopted and
performed by officers, can improve citizen perceptions of the police and enhance their view of the
police as a legitimate authority. Recall that some of the most encouraging community policing ini-
tiatives, as depicted in this review, center on maximizing police legitimacy and ensuring procedural
justice. Empirical evidence has suggested, with considerable regularity, that when the police act in a
procedurally fair manner, people are more likely to view them as legitimate, and in turn, comply with
requests and obey their orders. This finding has key implications for police departments nationwide.
In today’s society, when public satisfaction and cooperation with the police is perhaps more critical
than ever before, police officers should ensure procedurally just interactions with residents to the
furthest extent possible. In doing so, the police can enhance their own legitimacy and continue to
empower citizens to proactively work with them to help maintain order and prevent crime within
their community.
As previously mentioned, community policing has become an increasingly popular policing strat-
egy and organizational philosophy in America. It is important to note, however, that although many
police departments claim to do community policing, few agencies have actually adopted this policing
style, or at least elements thereof. To this end, the style of community policing currently practiced
 POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH   9

by police departments may not necessarily enhance police legitimacy, particularly if they claim to be
doing community policing but in reality are actually doing something else. To enhance citizen views
of police legitimacy, officers must police in a procedurally just manner, while emphasizing prob-
lem-solving strategies and empowering citizens to work with the police in such a way that promotes
the decentralization of authority and healthy police-community relations.
The positive impact of community policing on officer job satisfaction is evident yet less decisive
than the relationship between community policing and police legitimacy. Previous research has indi-
cated that community police officers report greater levels of job satisfaction than officers who operate
under a traditional policing model. This is not a universal finding, however. Nevertheless, it stands to
reason that for community policing programs to be effective, police officers must first ‘buy into’ com-
munity policing and support the objectives often associated with this policing style. When community
policing officers are not fully supportive of a community-based style of policing, or if they exhibit a
greater receptivity to a more traditional police role, they may become dissatisfied with their job. This,
in turn, can adversely influence behavior along with their ability to effectively accomplish the typical
objectives of a community policing model.
Dissimilar to the relationship between community policing and job satisfaction, there is consider-
able variability with respect to the impact of community policing on crime. Compounding this issue
is the fact that many studies use methodologically moderate to weak designs and outcome measures
other than crime to examine the effectiveness of community policing. To this end, the conclusions
that can be drawn and the generalizations made regarding the crime prevention benefits of commu-
nity policing interventions are limited. Notwithstanding, relatively few studies reveal support for the
ability of community policing initiatives to reduce specific types of crime; other studies have failed
to find any evidence of such a relationship. Many of these studies employ fairly rigorous research
designs, and according to some research, the likelihood of finding a positive effect on an outcome is
impacted by methodological rigor. Accordingly, we should cautiously avoid making the conclusion
that community policing has no crime prevention benefit. To this end, the relationship between the
variables, in an empirical sense, remains unclear at best.

Conclusion
Past research assessing the effect of community policing strategies on multiple outcome measures has
been far from conclusive. Most of the studies reviewed herein were of moderate scientific rigor – only
a handful of studies utilized randomized experimental or quasi-experimental designs. This review
provides evidence that community-based policing activities can improve citizen trust and satisfaction
with law enforcement. A less clear finding was the effect of community policing on job satisfaction.
While some research lends empirical support to the assertion that community policing improves job
satisfaction among officers, other studies find no such relationship. In addition, it is possible, though
much less definite, that community policing strategies can assist with reducing citizen fear of crime.
It should be noted, however, that this finding deserves further investigation, as some reviews (see, for
instance, Gill et al., 2014) have found no distinct effect of community policing interventions on fear
of crime. No substantial evidence of the crime reduction benefit of community policing was found
in this study.
Community policing has evolved quite considerably over the years. Through information sharing
and established collaborative partnerships, the police can work with the community to identify and
resolve problems and better improve the quality of life for the citizens they serve. Importantly, for com-
munity policing strategies to be effective, the police must persist in finding ways to enhance their own
legitimacy, an outcome achieved through procedurally just policing. To ensure procedural justice, the
police must interact with citizens in a fair and equitable manner, thereby demonstrating their legitimacy
to the public. And when citizen view the police as being legitimate authorities, they are more likely to
interact and work with law enforcement. The police must also embrace organizational change and ‘buy
into’ the philosophy of community policing. To this end, job satisfaction may serve as an important
10   J. N. CROWL

precursor to community policing effectiveness. Future research should devote considerable attention
to community policing and explore, through the use of rigorous research designs, its impact on job
satisfaction and other non-crime reduction outcome measures like fear of crime, perceptions of crime
and disorder, and police legitimacy. Ultimately, knowing more about the effectiveness of community
policing approaches will be beneficial, particularly to policing professionals as they continually look
for ways to improve the services they provide and advance efforts to make our communities safe.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on contributor
Justin N. Crowl is an assistant professor in the Criminal Justice Administration Department at Mansfield University
of Pennsylvania. He has a PhD in Criminology from Indiana University of Pennsylvania and a MS degree in Criminal
Justice from Youngstown State University. His research and teaching interests include police legitimacy and procedural
justice, fear of crime, criminological theory application, and evidence-based crime and delinquency prevention. He
has published several articles and reference work contributions and has presented research at numerous regional and
national conferences, including the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences and the American Society of Criminology.

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Appendix 1
Table A1. Key research findings with SMS score.
Study Outcome measures Methodology/research design Findings SMS score
Sozer and Merlo (2013) Property and violent crime rates LEMAS 2003, UCR (2 waves), and US Census 2000 data COP associated with higher property and violent 3
crime rates in large and small agencies
Connell et al. (2008) Property, violent and drug crime Police interviews, time-series analysis Reduction in property and violent crime 3
Weisburd et al. (2008) Perceptions of risk, attitudes toward Evaluation of RFPP program, 13 matched pair census No effect of RFPP program on perceptions of risk, 5
police legitimacy, crime blocks, randomized design police legitimacy, and self-reported crime
Wilson and Cox (2008) Violent and property crime rates Evaluation of COP program, time-series analysis of 20 beats No reduction in aggregate levels of violent and 3
property crime
Tuffin et al. (2006) Crime, perceptions of crime, self-reported Evaluation of National Reassurance Policing Program (6 Program had a positive impact on crime, perceptions 3
victimization and confidence in police sites pair matched with controls) of crime and anti-social behavior, feelings of safety
and confidence in the police
Roh and Oliver (2005) Fear of crime (FOC) Secondary survey data COP and FOC relationship mediated by perceptions 2
of social disorder
Segrave and Collins Crime, FOC, community satisfaction with Quasi-experimental (pre- and post-test of SCPT initiative No change in crime, reduction in FOC, no change 4
(2005) police, police-community relations, in perceptions of the police, positive police-com-
suburb perceptions, community munity relations, increase in resident’s perception
problems of suburb, no change in satisfaction with police
dealing with problems
Pelfrey (2004) Job satisfaction, attitudes of COP Survey (multiple waves) Higher job satisfaction and attitudes for COP 3
Hawdon et al. (2003) Police legitimacy Secondary survey data Enhanced positive perceptions of police legitimacy 2
Scheider et al. (2003) Satisfaction with police and FOC Telephone survey Increase satisfaction with police, no impact on FOC 2
Greene et al. (2002) Crime rates, police perceptions and Evaluation of COPS AHEAD program, time-series analysis Decrease in property and drug rates, higher levels of 3
satisfaction, safety job satisfaction & feelings of safety
Zhao, Schneider, and FOC, police satisfaction Meta-analysis Increased police presence and satisfaction reduced 3
Thurman (2002b) FOC
Katz, Webb, and Disorder and crime (multiple offense Assessment of qualify-of-life police initiative, time-series Quality-of-life police initiative had strongest effect 3
Schaefer (2001) categories) analysis on physical disorder and public morals
Torres and Vogel Perceptions of police and FOC Survey (pre-test and post-test) Lower citizen FOC and increased satisfaction 3
(2001)
Sabath and Carter Resident perceptions of police Quasi-experimental design (4 comparison beats) Enhanced ratings of police performance; no evi- 4
(2000) dence of greater trust in the police
Collins, Greene, Kane, Perceived disorder and community Evaluation of PHA COP program, 5 treatment sites and a Decrease in perceptions of disorder and community 3
Stokes, and Piquero problems, job satisfaction, crime rates comparison area, time-series analysis problems, higher levels of job satisfaction, no
(1999) across multiple categories significant decreases in crime
Davis and Taylor (1997) Domestic violence victimization Experimental matched pair randomized design No reduction in domestic violence, increased confi- 5
dence in the police
POLICE PRACTICE AND RESEARCH 

Kessler and Duncan Crime rates, calls for service Time-series analysis; four study sites No significant impact on neighborhood crime 3
(1996)
Yates and Pillai (1996) Job satisfaction, attitudes of COP Survey Positive impact on police job satisfaction and citizen 2
interactions
 13

(Continued)
Table A1. (Continued)
14 

Kratcoski and Noonan Job satisfaction, attitudes of COP Survey Greater dissatisfaction among officers, more nega- 2
(1995) tive attitudes
Skogan et al. (1995) Satisfaction with police, quality of police Evaluation of CAPS program, Time-series analysis (5 police Higher level of satisfaction with police services, 3
services areas, 4 comparison areas) decline in crime-related problems
Rosenbaum, Yeh, and Job satisfaction, attitudes of COP Survey (pre-test and post-test) Positive attitudes toward COP, increase in job satis- 3
Wilkinson (1994) faction among officers
 J. N. CROWL

Wycoff and Skogan Worry about crime, satisfaction with Survey responses (experimental COP area) Citizens less worried about crime and more satisfied 3
(1994) police overall with the police
Uchida, Forst, and Perceived fear of safety, perceptions of Quasi-experimental (pre-posttest), 3 treatment areas Increased perceptions of safety and favorable atti- 4
Annan (1992) police services and visibility tudes toward the police (services, visibility)
Williams and Pate Fear of personal and property crime Quasi-experimental and experimental Positive impact on FOC, police satisfaction enhanced 4
(1987)
Pate, Wycoff, Skogan, Fear of victimization, worry about crime, 5 comparisons across two sites (Houston & Newark), qua- Limited positive effects regarding evaluations of 4
and Sherman (1986) evaluation of police, perceptions of si-experimental and experimental design police and crime problems in addition to fear of
disorder victimization and perceptions of disorder
Rosenbaum, Lewis, Crime preventionFear of crime Evaluation of neighborhood watch No fear or crime reduction 3
and Grant (1986)