TRANSIENTS IS IN FACT HYDROPOWER

For those WHO are not very familiar : Transient means time-based or dependant on time.

Ta/Tw (ratio of machine and water acceleration times is what I was to follow by way of 'formulas' and complete the
equation to build to replace the 'Energy" from the hydraulic system (which you call J); these determine the governor
characteristics to limit speed/frequency variation......but then that is hydro heritage by way of technology!! Else
anyone who could manufacture pumps could be a manufacturer of a hydro turbine too because mathematically
turbine is opposite of pump; but that has not ideally worked out globally......TRANSIENTS IS IN FACT HYDROPOWER
TECHNOLOGY, when we go beyond civil engineering and fluid dynamics of pumps.

The wave velocity 'a' in m/s is dependent on head of a hydro project and is approx. as 665 m/s at 10 m head, 717
m/s at 30 m, 777 ms at 60 m, 837 m/s at 100m, 883 m/s at 140m, 1000 m/s at 300 m, 1110 m/s at 600 m and 1184
m/s at 1000 m. You can create a curve from these values.

For a hydro project, water time constant (LV)/(gH) is an important factor. Note that Tw=(LV)/(gH) is a product of
(aV)/(2gH) and (2L)/a. Wave velocity constant 'a' cancels out.

For regulation of a generating set, the ratio of Tw/Ta is equally important and must be selected at project stage. 'Ta'
is unit acceleration time (or machine time constant). Ta is proportional to generator inertia and square of rated
speed and inversely proportional to power. Typically Tw/Ta is selected in the range of 0.16 to 0.4.

Ta/Tw > 3 or even 4.

Inertia constant > 3.

Load step 10% with frequency within 4%.

The primary purpose of hydraulic transient simulations is therefore to protect the system against rapid changes in
the electrical and/or hydraulic components of the hydroelectric system. In each case, hydraulic transients result
from changes in the variables controlled by the governor.

Electrical Load or Torque on the turbine-generator system varies with the electrical load in the distribution grid. In
steady-state operation, the electrical torque and the hydraulic torque are in dynamic equilibrium. From a hydraulic
perspective, electrical torque is an external load on the turbine-generator unit.

Speed is another possible control variable for numerical simulations. For turbines, however, the governor strives to
keep the turbine at synchronous speed by varying the wicket gate position during load variation and acceptance
(assuming a perfect governor).

Once the time-varying electrical torque and wicket gate positions are known, the turbine equations (Numerical
Representation of Hydroelectric Turbines), we can solve flow, Q, and rotational speed, N, in conjunction with the
characteristic curves for the turbine unit(s). This yields the transient pressures for the load rejection, load
acceptance, emergency shutdown, operator error or equipment failure.

Load Rejection

Load rejection occurs when the distribution grid fails to accept electrical load from the turbine-generator system.
After the load is rejected by the grid, there is no external load on the turbine-generator unit and the speed of the
runner increases rapidly. This can be catastrophic if immediate steps are not taken to slow and stop the system. To
keep the speed rise within an acceptable limit, the wicket gates must close quickly and this may result in high
(followed by low) hydraulic transient pressures in the penstock. Since load rejection usually results in the most
severe transient pressures, it typically governs the design of surge control equipment.
During load rejection, the generation of electrical power by the turbine-generator unit should decrease to zero as
quickly as possible to limit the speed rise of the unit. To accomplish this, the wicket gates close gradually in order to
reduce flow. The table below shows an example of electrical load and wicket gate position versus time for load
rejection.

In a real turbine a governor would control the wicket gate closure rate, however the turbine governor is not
modeled explicitly and the operator controls the rate of wicket gate closure.

If the power generated by the water flowing through the turbine is greater than the electrical load, then the turbine
will speed up; if the electrical load is greater, the turbine will slow down.

Table 1: Load and Wicket Gate Changes for Load Rejection

Time (s) Electrical Load (MW) Wicket Gate Position (%)

0 350 100

1 100 50

2 0 0

Instant Load Rejection

Instant Load Rejection is similar to the Load Rejection case, except the electrical load on the turbine drops
instantaneously to zero (i.e. the turbine is disconnected from the generator).

During instant load rejection, the generation of electrical power by the turbine-generator unit should decrease to
zero as quickly as possible to limit the speed rise of the unit. To accomplish this, the wicket gates close gradually in
order to reduce flow.

The table 2 below shows an example of wicket gate position versus time to simulate Instant Load Rejection. In a real
turbine a governor would control the wicket gate closure rate, however the turbine governor is not modeled
explicitly and the operator controls the rate of wicket gate closure.

Table 2: Wicket Gate Changes for Instant Load Rejection

Time (s) Wicket Gate Position (%)

0 100

1 50

2 0

Load Acceptance

Full load acceptance occurs when the turbine-generator unit is connected to the electrical grid. Transient pressures
generated during full load acceptance can be significant but they are usually less severe than those resulting from
full load rejection.

The turbine initially operates at no-load speed (NLS), and the turbine generates no electrical power. When the
transient simulation begins, the electrical grid is connected to the output terminal of the generator and wicket
gates have to be open as quickly as possible to meet the power demand - all without causing excessive pressure in
the penstock.
Note that in this case, we assume the turbine governor is 'perfect' - in other words the power produced by the
turbine always equals the electrical load. Therefore the operator doesn't need to enter an electrical load; just a
curve of wicket gate position versus time, and the turbine's rated flow and head. Under the Load Acceptance case
the turbine will always operate at its rated (or synchronous) speed.

Table 3: Wicket Gate Changes for Full Load Acceptance

Time (s) Wicket Gate Position (%)

0 0

1 50

2 100

Load Variation

Load variation on the turbine-generator unit can occur due to the diurnal changes in electricity demand in the
distribution grid. During load variation, the governor controls the wicket gate opening to adjust flow through the
turbine so that the unit can match the electrical demand. The water column in the penstock and conduit system
accelerates or decelerates, resulting in pressure fluctuations.

The transient pressures that occur during general load variation may not be significant from a hydraulic design
perspective since they are often lower than the pressure generated during a full load rejection or emergency
shutdown.

At steady-state, the turbine-generator system usually runs at full load with the wicket gates 100% open. The
amount of electricity produced by the system depends on the flow through the wicket gates. A decrease in
electrical load requires a reduction in the wicket gate opening to adjust the flow. The table below shows an
example of typical user input of transient pressures for load variation.

Note that in this case, we assume the turbine governor is 'perfect' - in other words the power produced by the
turbine always equals the electrical load. Therefore the operator doesn't need to enter an electrical load; just a
curve of wicket gate position versus time, and the turbine's rated flow and head. Under the Load Acceptance case
the turbine will always operate at its rated (or synchronous) speed. .

Table Wicket Gate Changes for General Load Variation

Time (s) Wicket Gate Position (%)

0 100

5 85

10 70

15 57

20 43

30 30

35 35

42 42
55 57

65 70

80 85

90 100

Fundamentally, a turbine is a type of rotating equipment designed to remove energy from a fluid. For a given flow
rate, turbines remove a specific amount of the fluid's energy head.

• Turbine between 2 Pipes—A turbine that undergoes electrical load rejection at time zero, requiring it to be
shut down rapidly. The four-quadrant characteristics of generic units with certain specific speeds. The
turbine element allows nonlinear closure of the wicket gates and is equipped with a spherical valve that can
be closed after a time lag. It has the following parameters:
• Time (Delay until Valve Operates) is a period of time that must elapse before the spherical valve of the
turbine activates.
• Time for Valve to Operate is the time required to operate the spherical valve ; it is set equal to one time
step.
• Pattern (Gate Opening) describes the percentage of wicket gate opening with time.
• Operating Case allows you to choose among the four possible cases: instantaneous load rejection, load
rejection (requires torque/load vs time table), load acceptance and load variation.
• Diameter (Spherical Valve) is the diameter of the spherical valve.
• Efficiency represents the efficiency of the turbine as a percentage. This is typically shown on the curves
provided by the manufacturer. A typical range is 85 to 95%, but values outside this range are possible.
• Moment of Inertia The moment of inertia must account for the turbine, generator, and entrained water.
• Speed (Rotational) denotes the rotation of the turbine blades per unit time, typically as rotations per
minute or rpm. The power generated by the turbine depends on it.
• Specific Speed enables you to select from four-quadrant characteristic curves to represent typical turbines
for three common types: 30, 45, or 60 (U.S. customary units) and 115, 170, or 230 (SI metric units). You can
enter your own four-quadrant data.
• Turbine Curve For a transient uses a 4-quadrant curve based on Specific Speed, Rated Head, and rated
Flow. This is only used for steady state computations.
• Flow (Rated) denotes the flow for which the turbine is rated.
• Head (Rated) denotes the head for which the turbine is rated.
• Electrical Torque Curve defines the time vs torque response for the turbine. Only applies to the Load
Rejection operating case.

Surge Tanks

A surge tank (also known as a stand pipe) typically has a relatively small volume and is located such that its normal
water level is typically equal to the hydraulic grade line at steady state. When low transient pressures occur, the
tank feeds water into the system by gravity to avoid subatmospheric pressure at the tank connection and vicinity.

There are two different surge tank types.

Simple Surge Tanks

This can operate in three distinct modes during a transient analysis:

-normal (level between the top and the connecting pipe(s) at the bottom);

-weir overflow (level at the top) with the cumulative volume being tracked ; and
-drainage (level at the elevation of the connecting branch(es).

If equipped with an optional check valve, it becomes a one-way surge tank which supplies the pipeline with liquid whenever
the adjacent head is sufficiently low (the refilling operation is a slow process). During normal operation, the continuity
equation applied to is dHT / dt = Q / A, where HT is the tank level, A is the tank's cross-sectional area and Q = Qi is the net
inflow to the tank. At the mouth of the tank, there is a differential orifice with head loss , where the subscripts T and or refer to
the tank and orifice, respectively, b is the head loss coefficient and d = di for inflow (Q > 0) and -1 for outflow (Q < 0). By
definition, d (known as the Ratio of Losses in HAMMER) asserts that head losses are di times greater for inflow than for
outflow. A typical value of di is 2.5.

Simple Surge Tank. The choices are: a). Circular - so a tank diameter is required; b). non-circular - so an equivalent cross-
sectional area is required; or c). variable area - where the cross-sectional area is provided in a table as a function of elevation.

Differential Surge Tanks

There are numerous modes of operation for differential surge tanks ranging from drainage, with the entry of air into the
pipeline, to overflow from the tank. Other modes are distinguished by the riser level relative to the orifice elevation and the
tank level versus the top of the riser. For "normal" operation, the tank level is between the orifice and the top of the riser.
During a powerful upsurge, the upper riser will overflow into the tank to complement the orifice flow.