Lesson-7

LEADERSHIP

CONTENTS
7. Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2ChallengesofLeadership
7.3Definitions,MeaningandimportanceofLeadership
7.4LeadershipSkills(DeterminantsofLeadership)
7.5 TypesofLeadershipStyles
7.6TheoriesofLeadership
7.7 LeadershipStylesinIndian Organizations
7.8 ContemporaryIssuesinLeadership
7.9 Summary
7.10 Glossary
7.11 References
7.12 Further Readings
7.13 Model Questions
7.0 OBJECTIVES
Afterstudyingthislesson,youwillbeableto:
1. Knowmeaningandnatureofleadership.
2. Describeleadershipstylesandpatterns.
3. Understandaboutvarious leadershiptheories.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of leadership has been one of man‘s major concerns since the days of
antiquity.Leadership was a matter of concern even in biblical times. The children oil Israel needed
someone toguide them out of their bondage in Egypt, and Moses stepped forward to lead them in their
journey tothe promised holy land of Israel. In the 20th century, Great Britain needed the leadership of
WinstonChurchill to successfully combat her enemies in the 2nd World War. In the same way Franklin
DRooseveltprovidedleadershiptotheAmericanpeople,AdolphHitlerinGermany.StalininUSSRand
M.K.GandhiinIndia.
Comingtothebusinessenterprises,peopleworkingthereneedleaders,whocouldbeinstrumental in
guiding the efforts of groups of work to achieve the goals of both individuals and theorganization.
Leadership is a process of influence on a group. Leadership is the ability of a manager toinduce
subordinates to work with confidence and zeal. Peter F Drucker considers ―leadership‖ as ahuman
characteristic which lifts a man‘s vision to higher sights, raises a man‘s performance to
higherstandardsandbuildsman‘spersonalitybeyonditsnormallimitations.
 7.2 CHALLENGESOFLEADERSHIP
The18ChallengesofLeadershipare asfollows:
Challenge1: The Proactive Challenge - learning to write the
storyChallenge2: The Influence Challenge - making a clear
impactChallenge3: TheReality Challenge-understandwhereyouare
Challenge4: The Vision Challenge creating an engaging picture of the
futureChallenge5: The StrategyChallenge -defining apathtothefuture
Challenge6: The Wisdom Challenge - applying your learning from
experienceChallenge7: The InsightChallenge-seeingbeyondthe obvious
Challenge8: TheConfidenceChallenge-developingself-belief
Challenge9: TheInternalCompassChallenge-leadyourselfsoyoucanleadothers
Challenge 10: The ‗Bigger and Bigger Challenge‘ Challenge - continuously growing your skills
baseChallenge11:The VertigoChallenge
Challenge12:The‗ManagingTheTensionBetweenHoldingOnandLettingGo‘Challenge-theartofdelegation
Challenge 13: The ‗Life and Career Transition‘ Challenge - change across the whole
lifespanChallenge14:TheLoneliness Challenge-creatingnetworkstomaintainintegrity
Challenge 15:The Personality Challenge - understanding your impact on
othersChallenge16:ThePathologyChallenge -managingtheeffectsof your blindspots
Challenge17:TheConfusion-Complexity-ChaosChallenge-
performingthroughuncertaintyChallenge18:TheWork-LifeBalanceChallenge–
gettingresultswhilstlivingasatisfyinglife.
7.3 DEFINITIONS,MEANING ANDIMPORTANCE OFLEADERSHIP
Leadershipisagreatqualityanditcancreateandconvertanything.Therearemanydefinitionsof
leadership.Someofthedefinitionsofleadership arereproducedbelow:
―Leadership‖accordingtoAlfordandBeatty―istheabilitytosecuredesirableactionsfromagroupoffollowers
voluntarily,withouttheuseofcoercion‖.
AccordingtoChesterIBarnard,―It(leadership)referstothequalityofthebehaviouroftheindividualwherebyth
eyguidepeople ontheir activities in organizedefforts‖.
AccordingtoTerry,―aleader-showsthewaybyhisownexample.Heisnotapusher,hepullsratherthan
pushes‖.
Thefollowingpointshighlight theimportanceofleadership:
1. Leadershipistheprocessofinfluencingtheactivitiesofanindividualoragrouptowardstheachievement
ofa goal.
2. Aneffectiveleadermotivatesthesubordinatesforhigher level ofperformance.
3. Leadershippromotesteam-spiritandteam-workwhichisquiteessentialforthesuccessofany
organization.
4. Leadershipisanaidtoauthority.Aleadershiphelpsintheeffectiveuseofformalauthority.
5. Leadershipcreatesconfidencein thebygiving them properguidance andadvice.
7.4 LEADERSHIP SKILLS (DETERMINANTSOF LEADERSHIP)
To leadpeople,givethemareasontofollowyou andthefreedomtodo so.
MICHAELDRAFKE
AChinese proverb,says
“Ofthebestleader,whenheis gone,theywillsay;“WedidIiourselves”.
Leadershipskills
————————
Managerialskills

Figure11.1
The leader is expected to play many roles and therefore, must be qualified to guide others
toorganizational achievement. Although no set of absolute traits or skills may be identified, the
individualswho possess abilities to lead others must haves certain attributes to help them in performing
theirleadershiprolls,inabroadwaytheskillswhicharenecessaryforanindustrialleadermaybesummarizedund
er fourheads:
(a) Humanskill
(b) Conceptualskill
(c) Technicalskilland
(d) Personalskill.
HumanSkill
A good leader is considerate towards his followers because his success largely depends on
theco-operation ofhisfollowers. Heapproachesvariousproblemsintermsof peopleinvolvedmorethanin
terms of technical aspects involved. A leader should have an understanding of human behaviour.
Heshould know people; know their needs, sentiments, emotions, as also their actions and reactions
toparticular decisions, their motivations etc. Thus, a successful leader possesses the human
relationsattitude.He always tries to develop social understanding with otherpeople.The human skill
involvesthefollowing.
(a) Empathy: A leader should be able to look at things objectively. He should respect the
rights,belief and sentiments of others. He should equip himself to meet the challenges
emanating
fromtheactionsandreactionsofotherpeople.Theleadershouldbeempathetictowardshisfollowers so
that he can carefully judge their strengths, weakness, and ambitions and give
themtheattentiontheydeserve.
(b) Objectivity: A good leader is fair and objective in dealing with subordinates. He must be
freefrom bias and prejudice while becoming emotionally involved with the followers. His
approach
toanyissueorproblemshouldbeobjectiveandnotbasedonanypressure,prejudiceorpreconceivednoti
ons.Objectivityisavitalaspectofanalyticaldecisionmaking.Honesty,fairplay,justice
andintegrityofcharacterareexpected ofanygoodleader.
(c) Communication Skill: A leader should have the ability to persuade, to inform, stimulate,
directand convince his subordinates. To achieve this, a leader should have good communication
skill.Good communications seem to find all responsibilities easier to perform because they
relate toothersmore easilyand can betterutilize theavailableresources.
(d) Teaching Skill: A Leader should have the ability to demonstrate how to accomplish a
particulartask.
(e) Social Skill: A leader should understand his followers. He should be helpful, sympathetic
andfriendly.He should havethe abilitytowin hisfollowersconfidence andloyalty.
ConceptualSkill
In the words of Chester Barnard -―the essential aspect of the executive process is the sensing
oftheorganizationasawholeandthetotalsituationrelevanttoit‖.Conceptualskillsinclude:
(a) Theunderstandingoftheorganizationbehaviour,
(b) Understandingthecompetitorsofthefirm,and
(c) Knowingthefinancialstatusofthefirm.
Aleadershouldhavetheabilitytolookattheenterpriseasawhole,torecognizethatthevarious functions
of an organization depend upon one another and are interrelated, that changes in oneaffect all others.
The leader should have skill to run the firm in such a way that overall performance ofthefirminthe
longrun will be sound.
TechnicalSkill
A leader should have a thorough knowledge of, and competence in, the principles,
proceduresand operations of a job. Technical skill involves specialized knowledge, analytical skill and a
facility inthe use of the tools and techniques of a specific discipline. Technical competence is an
essential qualityof leadership.
PersonalSkill
The most important task of the leader is to get the best from others. This is possible only if
hepossessescertain qualities.ThesepersonalSkillsinclude-
(a) Intelligence: Intellectual capacity is an essential quality of leadership. Leaders generally
havesomewhathigherlevel ofintelligencethantheaverageoftheirfollowers.
(b) EmotionalMaturity:Aleadershouldactwithself-coincidence,avoidanger,takedecisionsona rational
basis and think clearly and maturely. A leader should also have high frustrationtolerance.
According to Koontz and O‘Donnell — ―Leaders cannot afford to become
panicky,unsureofthemselvesinthefaceofconflictingforces,doubtfuloftheirprincipleswhenchallenge
d, or amenabletoinfluence‖.
(c) Personal Motivation: This involves the creation of enthusiasm within the leader himself to get
ajob done. It is only through enthusiasm that one can achieve what one wants. Leaders
haverelativelyintenseachievementtypemotivationaldrive.Heshouldworkhardmoreforthesatisfactio
nofinnerdrivesthanfor extrinsicmaterialrewards.
(d) Integrity: In the words of F.W Taylor. ―integrity is the straight forward honesty of purpose
whichmakes a man truthful, not only to others but to himself; which makes a man high-minded,
andgiveshimhighaspirationsandhigh ideals‖.
(e) Flexibility of Mind: A leader must be prepared to accommodate other‘s viewpoints and
modifyhis decisions, if need be. A leader should have a flexible mind, so that he may change
inobedience to the change in circumstances. Thomas Cane has said- ―A foolish consistency
isthehobgoblin ofalittlemind‖.
In sum, a leader must have a dynamic personality, intellectual attainment, amiable
disposition,unassumingtemperamentandknowledge ofhowtodealwith hisfollowers.
DifferencebetweenLeadershipandManagement:Leadershipisdifferentfrommanagement.
Themaindifferencesbetweenthesetwotermsare:
1. A manager is required to plan, organize, direct and control. But a leader is one who gets
otherstofollowhim.
2. A manager depends on his authority. But a leader depends on his confidence and goodwill.
Heinspiresenthusiasm.
3. Management is concerned with the formulation of broad policies to guide the operations of
anenterprise. But leadership is concerned with the initiation of action for the accomplishment of
thegoals.
4. An individual is a leader in the true sense if he is accepted as a leader by the group. A
manageris appointed andhederives hisauthority byvirtue of hisoffice.
5. Management is associated with the organized structure. But leadership may be associated
withunorganised groups.
7.5 TYPESOFLEADERSHIPSTYLES
Thebehaviourexhibitedbyaleaderduringthesupervisionofsubordinatesisknownasleadership style.
There are probably as many different styles of Leadership as there are leaders.Basically,threestyles
namely directive,participativeandlaissezfaire,listed thus:
I. Directive,AutocraticorAuthoritarianStyle
An autocratic leader is one who takes all decisions himself without consulting the
subordinates.He centralises power and decision-making in himself. He oversees work from close
quarters andexercises full Control over subordinates. Orders are issued and subordinates are expected
to executethese without back-talk. The leader thus, tries to develop obedient andpredictable
behaviourfromgroup members. He permits very little freedom of action. Discipline is enforced by the
use of rewardsand threats of punishment. Communication tends to take a one-way route. Subordinates
have todepend on the superior for everything (setting goals, determining priorities and implementing
plans, etc.(Figure9.2 and9.3:X=leader;A,B,C,D=subordinates)
 StyleFeatures
• Centralisedpoweranddecision-making.
• Closesupervisionandcontrol.
• Disciplinethroughrewards/punishment.
• One-waycommunication.
• Totaldependenceofsubordinatesonsuperior.

Figure 11.2:AutocraticStyle

Table 11.1:AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofAutocratic Style

Advantages
 Decisionscanbemadequickly.Controlcanbe
centralisedfor orderly operations.
 Well-
developedleadershipskillscanbeapplieddire
ctlyto groupactivities.
 Theleadercan
takedirectcontrolwhenthereisamajorproble
morcrisis.Bestsuitedforcrisismanagement.
 Suitable for managing
inexperienced,insecureandincompetent
subordinates.
 Offersconsistenceingoalsandproceduresbyl
eadermakingthedecisions.
Disadvantages
 May result in low motivation is difficult
todevelop motivation when the leader
makesallthe decisions.
 Thereisverylittlescopefordevelopingthecrea
tivepotentialofpeople.
 Subordinatestendtodevelopdefensiveness;t
heyconstantlylookforwaysandmeanstoavoi
dresponsibility.
 One-way communication may lead
tomisunderstandings atvarious levels.
 Subordinates tend to depend on leader
foreverything.Mattersmoveslowlyandit.beco
mesdifficulttoadaptto change.

II. ParticipativeorDemocraticStyle
Theparticipativeleaderencourageshissubordinatestoparticipateinthedecision-makingprocess. He
consults them before taking. The suggestions put forward by subordinates are taken careof. There is
open, two-way communication. Good rapport is maintained with members of the group. Theleader does
not dominate.He gives lotof freedom to subordinates. The emphasis is on cooperationandparticipation
toachieve themaximum potentialofthe group.
Whentouse ParticipativeStyle?
Participative style is most effective when, (i) the organisation has communicated its goals
andobjectives to all the subordinates and the subordinates have accepted them, (ii) the leader is
genuinelyinterestedinobtainingideasandsuggestionsfromsubordinates,(iii)thearehighlyinterestedinpartici
pating in organisational decision making, (iv) the subordinates have a reasonable amount ofknowledge
and experience and finally, (v) the time for task completion allows participation to take placein a
meaningfulway.
 StyleCharacteristics
 Involves people in decision making
andgoalsetting
 Attitudes, feelings, suggestions
ofmembers considered while
makingdecisions
 Freedom of thinking and
actionavailabletoareasonableextent
 Two way,
opencommunicationbetweenmembers
 Opportunitytouseone‘spotentialintheser
vice oforganisationexists

Figure11.3:ParticipativeStyle

Table 11.2:AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofParticipativeStyle

Advantages Disadvantages
 Motivatespeopletodobetter.  Individualsmaydominatetheparticipationo
rmakedisruptivecontributions.

 Knowledge and experience of  Very time consuming approach from

groupmemberscan beusedin theleader‘spointofview-
decisionmaking. quickdecisionscannot betaken.
 Individual abilities developed  Participationmaybeusedasaninstrumentto
throughparticipation. ‗passthebuck‘tosubordinate.

 Membersfeelmorecommittedtogroupgoals.  Decisionsgetdiluted,whenattemptsarema
Thereislessresistancetomanagerialactions. deto pleaseeveryone.

 Membersdevelophealthyattitudestowardsth  Participation may be viewed as a sign

eleader,theworkandtheorgansation. ofinefficiencyonthepartoftheleader.Subor
dinatesmayviewtheleaderasincompetentt
ohandlethejobindependently.

 Two-  Participation maybe usedto

waycommunicationkeepsmembersinforme manipulatepeopleto still personal ends.
daboutwhatis goingonand why.
IsParticipativeStyleSuperior?
Itiscommonlybelievedthatparticipativestylehelpssubordinatestodeveloptheirtalentsfully.The
participative leader is able to put them on the track easily and get the results without much
difficulty,unlikeanauthoritarianleader.However,thesuperiorityofparticipativestyleoverauthoritarianoneisnot
supportedbyresearch.
In one study, McCurdy and Efer investigated the effects of both these styles on
subordinatesperformance. The teams working under authoritarian leaders were told to simply obey
orders,
whilethoseworkingunderparticipativeleadersweretoldtooffersuggestionsandnotfollowordersblindly.No
difference in productivity between these two groups was found by these researchers. In anotherstudy,
by Morse and Reine it has been found that democratic style results in satisfaction to employeesand
autocratic leadership in greater productivity. If the goal is to increase output, autocratic style
isappropriate and if the goal is to have a highly motivated workforce, a democratic approach is called
for.AccordingtoVroom,thechoiceofaparticularstyledependsonemployeeexpectationsalso.Participativestyl
ewillgivepositiveresultswhenappliedonsubordinateswantingtodothingsindependently.
AutocraticVsDemocraticStyle?
With the above information in the background, is it possible to draw the curtain between
theautocratic anddemocraticstylesnow? Thefollowing tableisdevelopedforthis purpose:
Table11.3:Autocraticvs.DemocraticLeadershipStyle
Autocratic Democratic
 ManagerusingthisstylemaybelabelledasTh  Managerexhibitingthisstylemaybelabelleda
eory.Xleader. s TheoryYleader.
 Theleader istaskorientedandrestrictive.  Theleaderisfollower-
orientedandpermissive.
 Leader structures the work, strives to  Theleaderisconsiderateofhissubordinates,
findoutbettermethodsandkeepstheemploye recognises their needs
es busyonthetask. andrespectstheirhumandignity.
 One-waycommunication.  Two-waycommunication.
 Threadsofcontrolinthehandsofoneindividual  Pushescontrollingpower to
. Decision making is centralised.Quick subordinatestoareasonableextent.Decentra
decisionspossible. liseddecisions taketime.
 Employee resistance may be high;  Resistancefromemployeesisminimumand
gettingthemcommittedtogoalisnoteasy. hence commitment to objectives maybe
high.
 Developingsubordinateandpreparingatraini  Developsthesubordinateandprepareshim
nggroundforfuturemanagersisdifficult. forfuturemanagerialroles.

III. Laissez-FaireorFree-ReinLeadershipStyle
In the democratic style the leader encourages the group to think and develop a solution.
Thelaissez faire or free rein leader goes a step further and turns an entire problem or project over
tosubordinates.Thesubordinatesareaskedsettheirowngoalsanddevelopplansforachievingthem.
The leader does not direct at all. He acts as a passive observer and does not exercise power. There
istotal abdication of responsibility. He offers advice, when required. There is very little over the
groupmembers.
The broken lines, in the above Figure, show the leader passing on materials and information
togroup members on request. There is no attempt to regulate the course of events. Free-rein
leadershipmay be suitable where the organisational goals have been communicated well in advance
and areacceptable to subordinates. The subordinates, in turn, must be well-trained and highly
knowledgeableconcerning their tasks and willing to assume responsibilities. They must be highly
motivated, sincereandduty-conscious.When thesepreconditions aremet,free-reinstylemay yield
goodresults.

Style Characteristics
 Groupmemberssetgoalsanddecidethings
ontheirown.
 Leader is apassiveobserverofthings.
 Leaderdoesnotdecidedoesnotcontrolor
exerciseinfluenceoverthe group.
 Leaderabdicatesresponsibility.
 Members operate in an
unrestrictedenvironment.
 Communication is openandcantake
anydirection.

Figure11.4:Free-reinStyle

Table 11.4:AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofFree-reinStyle
Advantages
 Working independently can be
motivationalforsomepeople.
 Mayencouragesuggestions,creativityandin
novations,inthegroup.
 Groupisflexibleandcanadaptquicklytochang
e.
 Open and direct communication,
withopportunityforself-expression.
Disadvantages
 Activitiesmaysufferowinglolackofcoordinati
on.
 Groupobjectivesmaybeignoredandindividu
alobjectivesmaydominateactivities.
 Lackofcontrolmayleadtodisruptivebehaviou
r.
 Individualsmaygotheirownwaysresultingin
confusion andchaos.

7.6 THEORIESOFLEADERSHIP
“Leaderisapersonwhohastheabilitytogetotherpeopletodowhatthey
don’t wanttodoandlikeit“.
President H. S.TRUMAN
According toKoontz
―Leadership is defined as the act or process of influencing people as that they
willstrivewillinglyandenthusiasticallytowardstheachievementofgroupgoals―.
ImportanceofLeadership
1. Motivatingemployees
2. Creatingconfidence
3. Buildingmorale
Different authorities and different researchers have viewed leadership differently. Some
putemphasis on personal options, while others view leadership as situational. The researches
conductedbybehaviouralscientiststo findoutwhatmakesaleadereffectivehaveresulted
in―theoriesofleadership‖.

Figure11.5:TheoriesofLeadership
1. TraitTheoriesof Leadership
Trait theory seeks to determinepersonal characteristics of effectiveleaders. It points out thatthe
personal traits or personal characteristics of a person make him an effective or successful
leader.Charles Bird examined twenty lists of traits attributed to leaders in various surveys and found
that noneof the traits appeared on all lists. Leaders were characterized a wide variety of traits ranging
all the wayfrom neatnesstonobility.
GreatmanTheory of Leadership
The theory asserts that leaders are born and not made. This is especially so with great
leaderswho are natural leaders. Leadership calls for certain qualities like commanding personality,
charm,courage, intelligence, integrity, persuasiveness, tenacity and aggressiveness. These qualities
are ofsucha nature that they can‘t be taught or learnt in a formal sense. Theimplementationsof
thisapproach are:
 Leadershavecertaininbornleadershipqualities.
 Inbornqualitiesaresufficientforaleadertobesuccessful.
  Ordinarypeoplecannotbecomeleaders.
 Leadershipqualitiescannot beacquired.
Thusgreatleadersare―thegiftofgod‖tomankind.Theybestowgreatgoodonpeoplebytheirdecisions and
activities,which arealsodivinelydestined andapproved.
Limitationsofgreatmantheoryofleadership:
1. Thetheoryisnowregardedasalmostobsoleteandabsurdbecauseithaslittlescientificandempiricalbas
is.
2. Thetheorydoesnotexplainwhoareleaders,howtheyemerge,howtheybehaveandwhatexactly
itisthatmakesfortheir effectiveness.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. DiscussGreatmantheoryofleadership.

Thus, itcanbe summarizedas

Leadershiptheories
TraitTheory
Leaders areborn andnotmade.
Traits

Innate Acquired
 Physicalfeatures  Emotionalstability
 Intelligent  Motivatingskills
 Humanrelations
 Empathy
 Technicalskills
 Communicationskills

Leadersdifferfrom non-leaders(M.STD&DILL)
 Ambitioninenergy
 Desiretolead
 Honesty &integrity
 Self confidence
 Intelligent
 Jobrelevantknowledge
 Selfmonitoring
 TRAITSASSOCIATEDWITHEFFECTIVELEADERSHIP
Drive High level ofeffort;relatively highdesirefor achievement;ambition;
highenergy;persistence;initiative.
Desire toLead Strongdesiretoinfluenceandleadothers;willingnesstotakeresponsibility.

HonestyandIntegrity
Self-confidence
Intelligence
Job-relevantKnowledge
Trustingrelationshipswithfollowers:truthfulness;highconsistencybetweenw
ordsandactions.
Absenceofself-doubt;self-
assurancethatconvincesfollowersoftherightnessoftheleader‘sgoalsanddec
isions.
Abilitytogather,synthesize,andinterpretlargeamountsofinformation;ability
tocreatevisions,solve problems,andmakegooddecisions.
Highlevelofknowledgeabouttheorganization,industry,andtechnicalmattersr
elatedtothe group‘sactivities.

Source:ShellyaKirpatrickandEdwinALocke,―Leadership:DoTraitsreallymatter?‖AcademyofManagementExec
utive,May 1991Page 48 - 60.
Figure11.6:TraitsAssociatedwithEffective Leadership
Applications of Trait Theory: Despite the limitations of trait theory, people still think in terms
ofleadership traits. For example, in many hiring and promotion decisions, the decision maker
selectspeople,heorsheshouldhave―leadershippotential‖.Thereisnothingwrongaboutsuchachoice,butis
this an effective strategy? Probably not. Using valid systems for employee selection results in higher-
quality employeesthanbasingdecisionson non-job-relatedpersonalitytraits.
2.BehaviouralTheories
According to this theory, a particular behaviour of a leader provides greater satisfaction to
thefollowers and so they recognize him as a good leader. The behavioural approach is based on
thepremise that effective leadership is the result of effective role behaviour. A leader uses
conceptual,human and technical skills to influence the behaviour of his subordinates. The behavioural
theory doesnot concentrate on the traits of leaders; it inspires study of the activities of leaders to
identify theirbehaviouralpatterns.
The inability of the trait approach to consistently define specific traits that would
differentiatesuccessful and unsuccessful leaders led to the conclusion that emphasis on the behaviour
of leaders(which could be measured) rather than emphasis on traits (which could not be measured)
were anappropriate new research strategy. Beginning in the late 1940s and continuing through the
early
1960s,researchbasedonthisemphasiswasconductedatOhioStateUniversityandtheUniversityofMichigan.
The Ohio State University Studies: A team of Ohio State University researchers
includingEdwinFleishman conducted extensive surveys.The goaloftheresearchwas to:
(i) Identifythebehaviours exhibitedbyleaders.
(ii) Determinewhataffectthesebehaviourshadonemployeesatisfactionandperformance.
(iii) Identifythebestleadershipstyle.
Todothis,questionnairesweredevelopedtoassessleadershipstyles.TheLeaderBehaviourDescriptionQu
estionnaire(LBDQ)wasdesignedtotapsubordinateperceptionoftheleader‘s
behaviours, whiletheLeader OpinionQuestionnaire(LOQ) measured theleader‘sperception ofhisown
style.
`After an analysis of actual leader behaviour in a wide variety of situations, two
importantleadershipbehaviourswereisolated:
(i) Initiating-structure Behaviour (IS): Clearly defining the roles of leader and follower so
thateveryone knows what is expected. This includes establishing formal lines of communication
anddecidinghow tasksareto be performed.
(ii) Consideration Behaviour (C): Demonstrating concern for followers and trying to establish
afriendly andsupportive workclimatebased onmutual trust.
Continuumof LeaderBehaviour
Tannenbaum and Schmidt have identified the range of possible leadership styles and
presentedthemonacontinuumjourneyingfromauthoritarianleadershipbahaviouratoneendtofree
reinbehaviour atthe otherend,asshown in Figure9.5.

Figure11.7:ContinuumofLeaderBehaviour
Thefigurerevealsthatthemanagerispresentedwithanumberofleadershipbehaviouralternatives. On
the left side of the continuum, are the leaders who enjoy a high degree of control
anddelegateverylittleauthority.Attheextremeright,theemphasisisonthesubordinates.Thesubordinates
enjoy a greater amount of freedom to exercise initiative in work-related matters. Now, thequestion
arises as to how a manager moves along this continuum? This depends upon three forces—
inthemanager,forces inthe subordinatesandforcesin thesituation.
(a) Forces in the manager: These forces include the value system of leader (e.g., the
strongfeeling that subordinates should participate in decisions that affect them), his confidence
in hissubordinates,hisleadershipinclinationsandhistoleranceofambiguity.
(b) Forces in the subordinates: These include the subordinates‘ need for independence,
theirleveloftoleranceforambiguity,readinesstoassumeresponsibilityfordecision-making,their
 interestinandunderstandingofproblems,understandingandidentifyingorganisationalgoals,their
experience withandexpectations ofleadership.
(c) Forcesinthesituation:Theseincludethetypeoforganisation,problems,groupeffectiveness,and
thepressureoftime.
ProblemswiththeContinuumApproach
The leader continuum approach provides a wide range of leader behaviours. It identifies
thenumberofbehaviouralalternativesavailabletoamanager.Thesuccessoftheleadershipstyledepends
onthemodification oftheleadertotheneeds of thesituation.
The basic problem with the continuum approach is that it supports unidimensional thinking.
Aboss-centered leader, as we look at the figure, is seen as greatly interested in task-oriented
activities,but not very concerned with people. An increase in one type of behaviour is automatically seen
as adecrease in the other type. Research evidence, however, brings out that employee-orientation
andtask-orientation are not opposite ends on a continuum. A manager who becomes more employee-
centered does not thereby become less task-oriented. Each orientation has an independent
orientationand, a manager may have both orientations in varying degrees. This has been illustrated,
among others,bytheOhio studies.
BehaviouralTheory

Figure11.8:BehaviouralTheory
LiketFourSystemsofManagement(Prof.Rensis Likert)
Rensis Likert has developed four models of management (known as systems of
management),afterexaminingimportantfactorsthatarecloselyrelatedtothemanagementprocess(suchasmo
tivation, communication, goal setting, controlling, decision making etc). His models are based on
thehumanresourcephilosophyofmanagement.Likertfeltthatpersonnelarepreciousassetsand,therefore,
must be treated and managed properly. Likert classified management philosophies into
fourconvenientstyles:
System1:Exploitativeauthoritative
In this style, he sets goalsand decides the means of achieving them. He decides
thingsunilaterally, issues orders and instructions to subordinates as to how to achieve results. He seeks
totalcompliance from his subordinates. He does not encourage subordinates to participate in any
matter.Communication takes one-way route i.e., top to bottom and is highly formal in nature. The style
ismarked by unfriendly relations, distrust and ill-will. There are rewards for those who achieve
results.Those who fall behind in the race are punished severely (carrots for achievers and stick for
those whofailto achieve the goals).
System2:Benevolentauthoritative
System2managersareautocraticintheirapproachbutnotexploitative.Theyadoptapaternalistic
approach towards the subordinates. They grant some freedom to subordinates to carry
outtheirtaskswithincertainlimits.Goalsettingiscentralised.Decisionsflowfromtoptobottom.Subordinatesha
vetocarryoutthedecisionstakenbythemanagersincerely.Thecarrotandstickpolicy is followed here also.
Efficient employees are rewarded and inefficient onesare punished.Communication is one way; the
superior - subordinate relations are marked by fear, suspicion anddistrust.
System3:Consultativeauthoritative
In this system, managers set goals and issue orders after discussing them with
subordinates.Major decisions are taken at the top. The routine ones are left to subordinates.
Subordinates candiscuss work-related matters with managers freely. There is, thus, two-way
communication. Managerstrust subordinates to a great extent and repose confidence in their
implementation abilities. Greateremphasis is put on rewards than on penalties to motivate
subordinates. The control system is flexible.This systemofmanagement,thus,givesdueweightage
andimportancetothehumanfactor.
System 4: Participativegroup
In this system, managers maintain cordial and friendly relations with subordinates.
Subordinatestake active part in the process of goal-setting and decision-making. The manager acts like
a friend,counsellor and mentor. Communication is open and transparent. Greater emphasis is put on
self-appraisal and self-control, in place of close supervision and ―control from above‖. Subordinates
areencouraged to do things on their own, assume responsibility for their actions. There is a high degree
ofdecentralisation of authority. Subordinates get a stimulating chance to exploit their potential and
scalegreater heightswithinthe organisation.
According to Likert; System 4 is an ideal one which ought to be adopted by organisations so
astoimproveworkers‘satisfactionandperformance.Likert‘s researchalsoindicated
thatSystem4management is far superior to other models. He, therefore, suggested leadership training
at all levels ofmanagementsothatmanagerscanlearnthebasicsofSystem4management.
TheManagerialGrid

Figure 11.9:ManagerialGrid

Figure11.10:Leadership asaContinuum
Robert R Blake and Jane S Moulton have designed an organization development
programemphasizing the importance of the two basic leader behaviours (concern for people and
concern forproduction)originallyidentified intheOhio Stateand Michigan studies.
The managerial grid categorizes leadership behaviour as concern for people and concern
forproduction.However,ratherthanviewingeachtypeofconcernasanabsolutemeasure,themanagerial
gridputsthemalongtwoindependentcontinuums.Amanager thushaslowtohighconcern
forpeopleandlowtohighconcernforproduction.Eachtypeofconcernisrankedonascalefrom1to9,resulting
infivemajorcombinations ofleaderbehaviour.
1. Improvised(1,1)Management:Minimalconcernforproductionorpeople.Thisstyleofmanagementre
sultsin employees doingtheminimumrequired.
2. Authority-Compliance (9,1) Management: High concern for production and low concern
forpeople. Thisstyleofmanagementtendstoresultinefficientoperations.
3. Country Club (1,9) Management: Low concern for production and high concern for
people.Thisstyleofmanagement createsaworkingenvironment whereemployeesfeelcomfortable.
4. Middle-of-
theRoad(5,5)Management:Moderatelevelsofconcernforbothpeopleandproduction.Thisstyleofma
nagementbalancesneedsthroughcompromise,resultinginadequateperformance.
5. Team(9,9)Management: High levels of concern for people and production. This style
ofmanagementresultsinsuperiorperformancefrom committedemployees.
The model is designed to help managers first see their current leadership style and then to
helpthemdevelopthemostdesirablestyle.BlakeandMoutonbelievethereisanidealstyle9,9management.
However, they have found that most managers use the middle-of the road style. Thefigure 11.11
showsthefive possible leadershipstyle.

Style Label LeaderEmphasis on

Production People
1,1 Low Low
9,1 High Low
1,9 Low High
5,5 Moderate Moderate
9,9 High High

Figure11.11:FivePossibleLeadershipStyles
A slightly more complex model of leadership is the managerial grid developed by Robert
Blakeand Jane Mouton. This model is illustrated in figure 11.5 and is called the Leadership Grid in the
latestversionpreparedby Robert Blake and AnneMcCanse.
3.ContingencyTheories/SituationTheories
Contingency theory refers to any of a number of management theories. Several
contingencyapproaches were developed concurrentlyin the late1960s.
They suggested that previous theories such as Weber‘s bureaucracy and Taylor‘s
scientificmanagement had failed because they neglected that management style and organizational
structurewere influenced by various aspects of the environment: the contingency factors. There could
not be―onebestway‖forleadershipororganization.
Historically, contingency theory has sought to formulate broad generalizations about the
formalstructures that are typically associated with or best fit the use of different technologies. The
perspectiveoriginatedwiththeworkofJoanWoodward(1958),whoarguedthattechnologiesdirectlydetermine
differences in such organizational attributes as span of control, centralization of authority, and
theformalizationof rulesand procedures.
FredFiedler‘scontingencymodelfocusedonindividualleadership.
Other researchers including Paul Lawrence, Jay Lorsch, and James D. Thompson were
moreinterested in the impact of contingency factors on organizational structure. Their structural
contingencytheory wasthe do paradigmoforganizational structural theoriesfar most of the 1970s.A
majorempiricaltestwasfurnishedbyJohannesMPenningswhoexaminedtheinteractionbetweenenvironmen
taluncertainty,organization structureand variousaspectsofperformance.

Source: The Leadership Grid Figure for Leadership Dilemmas - Grid Solution, by Robert R Blake and
AnneAdams McCanse (Formerly the Managerial Grid figure by Robert R Blake and Jane S Mouton) Houston:
GulfPublishingCompany Page29.
Figure 11.12:TheLeadershipGrid
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment
thatmight determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to
thistheory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of
variables,includingthe leadershipstyle,qualities ofthefollowers,and aspectsofthe situation.
 There are many forms of contingency theory. In a general sense, contingency theories are
aclass of behavioral theory that contend that there is no one best way of organizing / leading and that
anorganizational / leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful in
others(Fiedler, 1964). In other words: The optimal organization / leadership style is contingent upon
variousinternaland external constraints.
Fourimportant ideasofContingency Theoryare:
1. Thereisnouniversaloronebestwaytomanage
2. Thedesignofanorganizationanditssubsystemsmust‗fit‘withtheenvironment
3. Effective organizations not only have a proper ‗fit‘ with the environment but also between
itssubsystems
4. Theneedsofanorganizationarebettersatisfiedwhenitisproperlydesignedandthemanagementstyleis
appropriatebothtothetasksundertaken andthenatureofthework group.
There are also contingency theories that relate to decision making (Vroom and Yetton,
1973).According to these models, the effectiveness of a decision procedure depends upon a number
ofaspects of the situation: the importance of the decision quality and acceptance; the amount of
relevantinformation possessed by the leader and subordinates; the likelihood that subordinates will
accept anautocratic decision or cooperate in trying to make a good decision if allowed to participate; the
amountof disagreementamongsubordinateswithrespecttotheirpreferredalternatives.

Figure11.13:A SimplifiedModelofContingencyTheoryinOrganizational Research

Path-goalTheory
Developed by Robert House, the Path Goal theory is one of the most respected approaches
toleadership.The essenceofthe theory is thatit‘stheleader‘s job toassisthis or herfollowersinattaining
their goals and to provide the necessary direction and for support to ensure their goals arecompatible
with the overall objectives of the group or organization. According to this theory, leadersattempt to
influence their subordinate‘s perceptions of the payoff for accomplishing theirgoals andshowthem
waystoachievethegoals.Thus,aleader‘sbehaviourismotivationaltothedegreeit
i. Makessubordinateneedsatisfactioncontingenton effectiveperformance,and
ii. Providethecoaching,guidance,supportandrewardsthatarenecessaryforeffectiveperformance.
Totestthesestatements,Houseidentifiedfourleadershipbehavioursorstyles:
i. Directive Style: The leader tells subordinates what is expected of them, gives them
guidanceaboutwhatshould bedone,andalso shows themhow todoit.
ii. SupportiveStyle:The leadershowsconcern forthewell-beingandneedsofhisorhersubordinatesby
beingfriendlyand approachable.
iii. Participative Style: The leader involves subordinates in decision making, consults with
themabout their views of the situation, asks for their suggestions, considers those suggestions
inmakingadecision,andsometimes letsthesubordinatesmakethedecisionthemselves.
iv. Achievement-OrientedStyle:Theleaderhelpssubordinatessetgoals,rewardstheaccomplishment
of these goals and encourages subordinates to assume responsibility for theirattainment.
House assumes that leaders are flexible and implies that the same leader can display any or
allofthese behaviours,depending on thesituation.
Applying Path-Goal Theory: The leader will begin by choosing a leadership style that fits
thesituation.To dothis,theleaderhastoassessfiveaspectsofthesituation andpeople involved:
i. Assess the Task: Structured tasks and clear goals require less direction then less
structuredtasksand lesscleargoals.
ii. Assess the Leader’s Formal Authority: managers with formal authority typically should
notuseadirectivestylebecauseitduplicatestheirauthority,buttheymayusesupportiveachievement-
orientedorparticipativestyles.
iii. Assess the Nature of the Work Group: The leader should assess its cohesiveness as well
asits experience in working together. The more cohesive the group, the less need for
supportiveleadershipsincethisisredundantwiththegroup‘scharacter.
iv. AssesstheOrganization’sCulture:A culture that supports participation also supports
aparticipativeleadershipstyle.Aculturethatencouragesgoalaccomplishmentoraresultsorientationre
inforces anachievement-orientedstyle.
v. AssesstheSubordinate’sSkillsandNeeds: Subordinates skilled in a task require lessdirection
than those less skilled. Subordinates with high achievement needs, require a style thathelps
meet these needs. Subordinates with social needs, require a style that helps meet theseneeds.
ParticipationTheoryofLeadership
Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton developed a leader-participation model that related
leadershipbehaviour and participation to decision making. They assume that leaders use four basic
styles inmaking decisions: authoritative, consultative, group-based and delegative. These styles led to
differentdecision-making processes for solving both individual and group problems. This is shown in the
tablebelow.
 Table11.5:Decision-makingProcess
ForIndividualProblems ForGroup Problems

AI Yousolve ormakethe decision yourself.
All Youobtainanynecessaryinformationfrom All
the subordinate, then decide on
thesolutiontotheproblemyourself.
AI You solve the problem or make the
decisionyourself, using information available
to you atthetime.
You obtain any necessary information
fromsubordinates, then decide on the
solution totheproblemyourself.

Cl You share the problem with the Cl Yousharetheproblemwiththerelevantsubordin

relevantsubordinate, getting his or her ates individually, getting their
ideas ideasandsuggestionswithoutbringingthemtog
andsuggestions.Thenyoumakethedecisio ether. Then you make the decision,
n, which may or may not reflectyour whichmayor
subordinate‘s influence. maynotreflectyoursubordinates‘influence.
GI You share the problem with one of CII Yousharetheproblemwithyoursubordinates in
yoursubordinates, and together you a group meeting, in whichyou obtain their
analyzetheproblemandarriveatamutuallys ideas and suggestions. Thenyoumake
atisfactory solution in an atmosphere thedecision,whichmay or
offreeandopenexchangeofinformationand maynotreflecttheirinfluences.
ideas.

Dl Youdelegatetheproblemwithoneofyour GII Yousharetheproblemwithyoursubordinatesas

subordinates, providing him or agroup.Togetheryougenerateandevaluatealte
herwithanyrelevantinformationthatyoupos rnativesandattempttoreachtrueconsensusona
sess,butgivinghimorherresponsibility for solution.Actingasacoordinatorofthediscussion
making the decision andyour ,youarewillingtoacceptandimplement any
supportforany decision reached. solution that the entire groupsupports.

Source:V.H.VroomandA.GJago,―Decision-
makingasasocialprocess:Normativeanddescriptivemodelsofleaderbehaviour‘,Decision Sciences 5(1974)page745.
EvaluationoftheTheory
1. Theleader-participationmodelisverysophisticatedandcomplex.
2. Leader-
participationmodelconfirmsthatleadershipresearchshouldbedirectedatthesituationratherthanthe
person.
3. Theleader-participationmodelassumestheleadercanadjusthisorherstyletodifferentsituations.
SituationalTheoryofLeadership
The situational theory of leadership is strongly affected by the situation from which a
leaderemerges and in which he works. This theory emphasizes that the entire action between the group
andthe leader is the main factor which makes a leader successful. The people (followers) tend to follow
theperson (leader) who is capable of fulfilling their aspirations. Thus, a leader recognizes the need of
thesituationandactsaccordingly.Themeritofthistheoryisthatitmakesitabundantlyclearthatthereis
no single universally ―best style‖ of leadership. A leader has to change his style of leadership
fromsituationto situation.
Contingencyorsituationaltheoriesdifferfromtheearliertraitandbehaviouraltheoriesinasserting that
no single way of leading works in all situations. Recent research suggests that managersshould select
a leadership that best fits with the situation at a given time. Effective managers diagnosethe situation,
identify the leadership style that will be most effective, and then determine if they canimplement the
required style. Early situational research suggested that three general factors affect
theappropriateleadership style in a givensituation.
i. SubordinateConsiderations:Reflecttheleader‘sawarenessofsubordinate‘sexpertise,experience
,competence,jobknowledge,hierarchicallevelandpsychologicalcharacteristics.
ii. Supervisor Considerations: Reflect the leader‘s degree of upward influence, as well as his
orher similarityofattitudesand behaviourstothoseinhigherpositions.
iii. TaskConsiderations:Reflectthedegreeoftimeurgency,amountofphysicaldanger,permissible
error rate, presence of stress, degree of autonomy, degree of job scope,
importanceandmeaningfulness,and degreeofambiguityofthe work being performed.
The precise aspects of each dimension that influence the most effective leadership style vary
indifferentsituations.Mostsituationaltheoristssuggestthateffectiveleadersdeveloparangeofleadershipstyle
s,whichtheyadapttodifferentsituations.
Limitationsofsituationaltheoryleadership:
a. Thistheorystressestheleadershipabilityofapersoninagivensituationbutitissilentonthequestionwhet
herhewill fitin anothersituation.
b. If the leader adopts some style under all situations, he may not be successful. This is not
alwaystrue,butleaders havebeensuccessfulatalltimesand atallsituations.
Insummerizedfromwehave
1. SituationalTheories/ContingencyTheories

Figure11.14
2. PathGoalTheory

Figure11.15
3. VroomYettonModel
(degree of participation in decision
making)Autocratic I (Al) Solves, takes
decision aloneAutocratic II (AII) gathers
informationConsultative I (CI) shares
problemConsultativeII (CII)Group
Groupparticipation(PII)sharesproblemswithgroup, groupgeneration,alternategroupdecision
making
4. HerseyandBlanchard’ssituationalleadershipmodel
Task Behaviour RelationshipBehaviour

Figure11.16

Figure 11.17:RepresentationofContingencyTheoryinMISResearch
4. NeoCharismaticTheories

Figure11.18
A. CharismaticLeadership Theory
Leader has a vision, he communicate his vision to the subordinates, he is willing to take risk
toachievethevision and gives directionsto achievethatvision.
B. TransformationLeadership(BernardM.Bass)
Leadersarecharismatic,inoperationalinintellectual.
C. VisionaryLeadership
5. TransactionalvsTransformationalLeaderships
According to James Burns there are two types of leaders: transformational and
transactional.Transformational leaders are those who recognise, exploit and satisfy the needs of
followers whileelevatingthemintohigh levelsofmotivation andmorality.
Table11.6:FeaturesofTransformationalLeaders

⚫ IndependentIniti ⚫ Inspirational
⚫ atorsChangeorie ⚫ Active and
⚫ nted ⚫ achievingForwardthi
⚫ Charismatic nking

Transformational leadership elevates the goals of subordinates and inspires them to give
theirbest to an organisation. Transformational leadership, primarily, consists of three dimensions:
charisma,individualisedconsideration and intellectualstimulation.
a) Charismatic behaviour is that which instils pride, faith and respect and, effectively articulates
asense of vision. Examples include J.F. Kennedy, F.D. Roosevelt, General George Patton and
inIndia,JawaharlalNehruetc.Charismaticbehaviouriscertainlyimportantforelevatingsubordinates‘g
oalsbutdoesnotofferthenecessaryfollow-throughforsuccessfulgoalaccomplishment. Individualised
consideration and intellectual stimulation are needed to
convertexpectationsintoreality.Bossagreedthatratherthanbeingamysticalgift,rarelyseen,charisma
maybenormally,distributed andthatall leaderspossessvaryingdegreesofit.
b) Individualisedconsiderationinvolvesdelegatingtaskstostimulateandinducelearning,recognisingthe
individualneedsofeachsubordinateandrespectingeachsubordinateascapableofachieving
theassigned goals.
c) Intellectual stimulation involves introducing and encouraging new ideas as well as rethinking
oftraditionalmethods,withemphasisonthemany angles in doingajob.
InTransactionalleadership,theleaderexercisesinfluenceduringdailyleader-
subordinateexchangeswithoutanyspecialemotionalinputsorconsiderations.Theleaderoffersrewardstosub
ordinates who achieve the tasks assigned to them (or, for showing appropriate behaviour).Hisfocus is
on achieving results in a practical way, clarifying things to subordinates. He is hardworking,tolerant and
fair minded. He generally takes pride in keeping things running smoothly and efficiently. Heoften
emphasises the importance of impersonal aspects of performance such as plans, schedules
andbudgets. He has a sense of commitment to the organisation and con forms to organisational norms
andvalues.
Table11.7:FeaturesofTransformationalLeaders
 Task Centred
 Short-term
 PlannersPractical
 PassiveMaintain
 StabilityConcrete
 Tangible


7.7 LEADERSHIPSTYLESIN INDIANORGANISATIONS

According to Myers, most Indian managers are authoritarian in their relationships with
lowermanagementandlabour.Ganguli‘sstudyofleadershipbehaviourinastate-ownedengineeringcompany
confirmed this. Rangaswamy‘s study of leadership behaviour of 56 top executives found thatIndian
managers are more employee-oriented than their counterparts in America. Elhance and Agarwalfound
the democratic style to be more prominent in selected public and private sector units; whereasSingh
and Das found the bureaucratic (autocratic) style to be popular in selected public and privatesector
units. Aged managers were found to be favouring autocratic style whereas young managerspreferred
the democratic style. Those who are exposed to formal education in management favoureddemocratic
style compared to those who do not have such exposure. Other studies by Jaggi, Josephand Kesavan
indicated that leadership style is influenced by factors such as age of executives, theirpositions and
functions, and size of the organisation. Thus, the findings do not give us any concreteevidence of a
particular style taking precedence over others. The findings are too diverse and
even,contradictory.Intheabsenceofauthenticempiricalevidence,wehavetobroadlylinkleadershipstyleof
managers with the type of organisation in which their services are utilised.In family-
managedorganisations, autocratic style is commonly resorted to. According to Dasgupta, proprietors
generally gofor the paternalistic type, taking care of employee needs in a considerate way. In
multinationals
andprofessionallymanagedprivatesectorunits,participativestyleismorepopular.Thebureaucraticstyleis
popularin publicsectorunits.
ThusweconcludethatfollowingaretheleadershipstylesinIndianOrganisations:
1. Familymanagedorg.IndianSociety
2. PublicsectorIndianmanagers
3. Privatesector

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What dooyu mean by path goal theory?
2. What kind of leadership is found in Indian organizations ?

7.8 CONTEMPORARYISSUESINLEADERSHIP
1. EmotionalIntelligenceinLeadership
 Selfawareness
 Self management
 Self motivating
 Empathy
 Socialskills
2. TeamLeadership:Teamleadersareliaisons,troubleshootersconflictmanagers andcoaches.
3. MoralLeadership
4. CrossculturalLeadership
ThefivekeyFACETSofQualityLeadership

Figure11.19
TheseQualitiesofLeadersofthefuture
1. Interrogative
2. Experimentalmindset
3. GoodListener
1. Male/Femaleleadershipstyles:Asmorewomenassumevisibleleadershiproles,manyobservers
perceive differences in the leadership styles of the two sexes. The studies that havefound
differences between male and female leadership styles typically find that women tend tolead
more democratically than their male counterparts. Women are more likely to
encourageparticipation in decision making, to share power and information, and to try to
enhance the self-worth of their followers. They influence through their charisma, expertise,
personal contacts, andinterpersonal skills. In contrast, men are more likely to rely on the
authority of their position andissuedirectivestotheirfollowers.
2. Leadingthroughempowerment:Managersarecurrentlyadvisedtoleadthroughempowerment.Effe
ctiveleaderssharepowerandresponsibilitieswiththeiremployees.The
 empowering leader‘s role is to show trust, provide vision, improve performance,
dismantleblockingbarriers,offerencouragement,motivateandcoach employees.
3. Biological basis for leadership: A growing body of research suggests the best leaders are
notnecessarily the smartest, strongest, or more aggressive of a group but rather those who
aremost proficient at handling social interactions. Researchers have found that effective
leaderspossess a unique biochemical mixture of hormones and brain chemistry that helps them
buildsocial alliances and cope with stress. Higher levels of the chemical serotonin increases
levels ofsociability and controls aggression, while higher levels of testosterone increase
aggressivetendenciesandcompetitive drive.
7.9 SUMMARY
People working in business enterprises need leaders who could be instrumental in
guiding theefforts of groups of workers to achieve the goals of both the individual and the
organization. Leadershipis a process of influence on a group. Leadership is the ability of a
manager to induce subordinates
toworkwithconfidenceandzeal.Leadershipisapsychologicalprocessofinfluencingfollowers(subord
inates) and providing guidance, directing and leading the people in an organization
towardsattainment of the objectives of the enterprise. People working in an organization need
individuals(leaders) who could be instrumental in guiding the efforts of groups of workers to
achieve goals andobjectives of both the individuals and the organization. The leader guides the
action of others inaccomplishing these tasks. Major decisions in organizations are most often
made by more than oneperson.
7.10 GLOSSARY
Leader:Onethatleadsorguides.
Leadership: Leadership is the process through which an individual tries to influence another
individualor agroupofindividualsto accomplish agoal.
Skill: ‗skill‘ is used to denote expertise developed in the course of training and experience. It
includesnot only trade and craft skills acquired by apprenticeship, but high-grade performance in many
fieldssuchasprofessionalpractice,thearts,games,and athletics.
Social Skill: The knowledge of and ability to use a variety of social behaviors that are appropriate
tointeractpositivelywithotherpeople.
Conceptual Skill: Conceptual skills refer to the ability to form concepts. These are various levels
ofcognitive (mainly verbal) abstractions beginning with the exercise of detonating simple physical
objects(e.g.acat)to higher levelabstractionswhichgobeyond thephysically visible (e.g.truth).
TechnicalSkill:Operationalcapabilitiesnecessarytoperformcertainjobspecifications.WordProcessingisav
erywidely usedtechnicalskill inmanyorganizations.
Interpersonal Skill: ―Interpersonal skills‖ refers to mental and communicative algorithms applied
duringsocialcommunications andinteractionsin orderto reachcertaineffectsorresults.
7.11 REFERENCES
 A.GJagpoandVictorH.Vroom,“HierarchicalLevelandleadershipstyle,”OrganizationalBehaviorandH
umanPerformance No.18(1977)
 Fred E. Fiedler, “A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness” McGraw Hill, New
York (1967)

 StephenP.Robbins,OrganizationalBehaviour,Concepts,PrenticeHall,India
7.12 FURTHER READINGS
 GaryDesslar,OrganizationTheories,PrenticeHall, India
 L.M. Prasad,ManagementProcessandOrganizational,SultanChand&Sons

7.13 MODELQUESTIONS
1. Whatis leadership?What areitscharacteristics?
2. ―Agoodleaderisonewhounderstandshissubordinates,theirneedsandtheirsourcesofsatisfaction.‖Co
mment.
3. Brieflydiscusstheessentialopacitiesof leadership.
4. Criticallyexaminethedifferentapproachestothestudyofleadershipbehaviour.Isthereonebeststyle
ofleadership?

5. ExplainthevariousTheoriesofleadership.
6. ―ASuccessfulLeaderisnotnecessarilyeffective.‖Comment.
7. Explainthequalitiesofagoodleader
7. .