Lesson-9

COMMUNICATION

CONTENTS
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 DefinitionofCommunication
9.3 ImportanceofCommunication
9.4 FunctionsofCommunication
9.5 CommunicationStyles
9.6 TheCommunicationProcess
9.7 Directionsof CommunicationintheOrganization
9.8 CommunicationNetworks
9.9 InformalCommunication
9.10 Non-VerbalCommunication
9.11 BarrierstoEffectiveCommunication
9.12 KeystoEffectiveSupervisory Communication
9.13HowCommunicationLeadsGlobally?
9.14 CommunicationandGroup DecisionMaking
9.15 Groupthink
9.16 Summary
9.17 Glossary
9.18 References
9.19 Further Readings
9.20 Model Questions
9.0 OBJECTIVES
Afterstudyingthis lesson,youwillbeableto
1. Understandmeaning,importanceandfunctionsofcommunication
2. Describesteps involvedincommunicationprocess
3. Knowthedownward,upwardandlateralcommunicationintheorganisation
4. Describepatternsof direction(communicationnetwork)
5. Differentiatebetweenformalandinformalactioncommunicationwithinanorganisation
6. Describebarrierstoeffectivecommunication.
7. Discusscommunicationandgroupdecisionmaking.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of
achievingcommon meanings.Unless common meanings are shared, managers find itextremely
difficulttoinfluence others. Whenever group of people interact, communication takes place.
Communication is theexchange of information using a shared set of symbols. It is the process that links
group members andenables them to coordinate their activities. Therefore, when managers foster
effective
communication,theystrengthentheconnectionsbetweenemployeesandbuildcooperation.Communicationa
lsofunctions to build and reinforce interdependence between various parts of the organization. As a
linkingmechanism among the different organizational subsystems, communication is a central feature of
thestructure of groups and organizations. It helps to coordinate tasks and activities within and
betweenorganizations.
9.2 DEFINITIONOFCOMMUNICATION
Wheneveragroupofpeopleinteract,communicationtakesplace.Communicationistheexchange of
information using a shared set of symbols. It is the process that links group members andenables them
to coordinate their activities. Therefore, when managers foster effective communication,they strengthen
the connections between employees and build cooperation. The term “communication”is derived from
the Latin word “communis” which means “common”. This stands for the sharing of
ideasincommon.Itistheprocessofpassinginformation andunderstandingfrom onepersontoanother.
According to Theo Haimann, “Communication, fundamental andvital to all managerial actions,is
theprocessofimpartingideas andmakingoneselfunderstoodbyothers”.
According to Dalton McFarland, “Communication may be broadly defined as the process
ofmeaningful interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is the process by which meanings
areperceivedandunderstandings arereachedamonghumanbeings”.
According to Louis A. Allen, “Communication is the sum of all the things one person does
whenhe wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves
asystematicandcontinuousprocess oftelling,listeningandunderstanding”.
In the words of Newman and Summer, “Communication is an exchange of fact, ideas,
opinionsor emotionsbytwo ormorepersons”.
According to Hudson, “Communication in its simplest form is conveying of information from
onepersonto another”.
According to Charles E Redfield, communication is “the broad field of human interchange
offactsandopinionsandnotthetechnologies oftelephone,telegraph,radioandthelike”.
AccordingtoKoontzandO‟Donnell,“Communication,isanintercoursebywords,letterssymbols or
messages, and is a way that the organization members shares meaning and
understandingwithanother”.
In the words of Jacques, “Communication is the sum total of directly and indirectly,
consciouslyandunconsciouslytransmittedfeeling,attitudesandwishes”.
In the words of Mockler, “Communication is the process of passing information, ideas or
evenemotionsfromone person toanother”.
InthewordsofKelly,“Communicationisafieldofknowledgedealingwithsystematicapplicationofsymbo
lstoacquirecommoninformationregardinganobjectorevent”.
 In the words of Brown, communication is “a process of transmitting ideas or thoughts from
oneperson to another, for the purpose of creating understanding in the thinking of the person receiving
thecommunication”.
According to Sigmund, Communication is “the transmission and reception of ideas, feelings
andattitudes both verbally and non-verbally eliciting a response. It is a dynamic concept underlying all
landsof living systems”.
AccordingtoOrdeayTead,“Communicationisacomposite:
 Ofinformationgivenandreceived,
 Oflearningexperienceinwhichcertainattitudes,knowledgeandskillschange,carryingwiththemaltern
ationsofbehaviour,
 Ofalisteningeffortbyallinvolved
 Ofasympatheticfreshexaminationofissuesbycommunicatorhimself,
 Ofasensitiveinteractionofpointsofview—
leadingtoahigherlevelofsharedunderstandingandcommonintention”
It should be clear from the above definitions that communication is not merely sending or
receivingmessage. It is much more than that. It includes proper understanding of message, its
acceptance andaction on it Unless common meanings are shared,managers find it extremely difficult to
influenceothers Communication is a critical part of every manager‟s job. Without effective
communication, eventhe most brilliant strategies and the best-laid plans may not be successful As a
result, it is not surprisingthat high-level executives, as well as managers at other levels, often mention
effective communicationskills, both oral and written, as crucial elements for managerial success
Communication is thus anattempt to share understanding by two or more persons. It is a two-way
process and is completed
whenthereissomeresponsefromthereceiverofinformation.Ithastwobasicobjectives:
Totransmitmessage,ideasoropinions, and
Tocreate animpressionor understanding inthemindsofthereceiverofinformation.
9.3 IMPORTANCEOFCOMMUNICATION
Communication is an indispensable activity in all organizations. No organization can think of
itsexistence without effective communication. That is why, Chester Bernard remarked, “the first
executivefunctionistodevelop
andmaintainasystemofcommunication”.Anorganization‟sverysurvivaldepends on its employees‟ ability to
communicate with one another and with the members of itsenvironment. The free flow of ideas and
information is an essential ingredient in the drive for quality andcontinuous improvement. The
organization relies on communications to learn what its customers want,to foster cooperation among its
employees, and to identify and adapt to changes in the environment. Aneffective communication
system is essential to pass messages, ideas and information for explainingobjectivesand plans,
controlling,performanceand takingcorrectiveaction.
Outrageous
P.O.S: T. Scott Gross has it; and he thinks every other entrepreneur should, too. P.O.S stands
forPositively Outrageous Service. It is also the title of his book, which encourages entrepreneurs
toprovide customers with service that 1) is random and unexpected; 2) is out of proportion to
thecircumstances; 3) invites the customer to play or be highly involved: 4) creates compelling word
ofmouth; and 5) results in lifetime buying decisions. Who is T. Scott Gross, and what does
P.O.Shavetodo withcommunication?
Grossisaconsultantin“participativeservice,”whichisservicethat“activelyinvolvesthe
 customer, while you market one customer at a time”. He also owns a restaurant, which allows
himto put his ideas into practice. Communications are a vital part of his philosophy between
businessowner and customer as well as between manager and employee. Communication with
thecustomer is necessary — and fun. The random, unexpected, and out-of-proportion
communicationcan be fun (such as when Phil Romano, owner of a restaurant called Macaroni‟s
announced oneeveningthatallhisdinnerguestsweretrulyguests—
theywouldnotbechargedfortheirmeals).Italso requires imagination and courage.
On a more serious note, Gross insists on constant communication with the customer,
includingasking the customer‟s opinion about various aspects of one‟s goods and/or services. He
considersitessentialtofuturesuccess.
Communications between management and employees actually compose a substantial portion
ofGross‟s P.O.S ten rules of management. “Give immediate feedback to employees and
customerswith a highly visible customer response system” he advises in rule #2. “The
communicationssystem should get information immediately into the hands of the employees
involved, so they canmakethementalconnectionbetweentheirbehavior
andcustomerattitudestowardthecompany.”
“Your company‟s communications and meeting should regularly feature stories about
outstandingcustomer service.” He says in rule#3. “Public praise turns ordinary clerks into heroes
andencouragesfutureserviceexcellence.”
Gross has built his own career on good communication skills and has gone a long way
towardimprovingtheskillsofothermanagersandentrepreneurs.There‟snothingoutrageousaboutthat.

Source:T.ScottGross,“Outrageous!”Success,March1992,Page40-42.
Theimportanceofcommunicationin managementcanbejudgedfromthefollowing:
1. Gaining acceptance of policies, winning cooperation of others, getting instructions and
ideasclearly understood and bringing about the desired changes in performance are dependent
uponeffectivecommunication.
2. Communicationhelpsthemanagementinarrivingatvitaldecisions.Initsabsence,itmaynotbe possible
for the top-level management to come in closer contact with each other and
discusstheimportantproblemspertainingtothe organization.
3. Constant communication with personnel helps the management to remain informed about
theirproblems, difficulties and grievances. Appropriate steps can be taken in time to remove
theworker‟s difficulties. Conflicts often arise because of communication gap. They can be
avertedby setting up a regular arrangement of keeping contact with the workers through
communicationmedia.
4. Communicationisquiteessentialforcoordination,whichistheessenceofeffectivemanagement. It
brings about mutual understanding between the personnel at all levels
andfostersthespiritofcooperation.InthewordsofMaryCrushingNiles,“Goodcommunicationsare
essential to coordination. They are necessary upward, downward and sideways, through allthe
levels of authority and advise for the transmission, interpretation and adoption of policies, forthe
sharing of knowledge and information, and for the more subtle needs of good morale
andmutualunderstanding”.
5. Greater, better and cheaper production are the aims of all managers. In today‟s
organizations;theinformationpassesthroughavarietyoffiltersandthereisalwaysachanceformisinter
pretation.Aneffectivesystemofcommunicationcanplayavitalroleinavoidingthis
 illusion. The employees should be told clearly what exactly to do and the way in which
aninstruction is to be carried out. In this process certain directions are to be given, certain
feelingsmust be expressedand acertainamount of interpersonal perceptions mustbe exchanged.
Inthe words of Shobhana Khandwala, “For this, management has to sell ideas, motivate
theworkers to work with a will, and build up higher morale in the company. Communication, as
aninfluence, process, plays a vital role here. It becomes, thus, a part of education,
propaganda,leadershipand guidancefunction ofthemanagement”.
6. Under an effective system of communication it is quite convenient for the employees to
expresstheirgrievances,andbringalltheirproblemstothenoticeofthemanagement.Propercommunic
ations between the interested parties reduce the point of friction and minimize
thosethatinevitablyarise.Hencebyeffectivecommunication,agrouphaving„skill‟and„will‟todoistobeb
uiltup.
7. Communication helps in securing the largest possible participation or consultation in
decisionmaking, planning and general administration. This will give democratic character to
managerialprocessand strengthenthe morale of the staff.
9.4 FUNCTIONSOFCOMMUNICATION
Communicationservesfourmajorfunctionswithinanorganization.
Control
Communicationactstocontroltheemployees‟behaviour.Organizationshaveauthorityhierarchies
and formal guidelines that employees are required to follow. The control mechanism canwork only
when the communication — oral and written, is effective. Informal communication
alsocontrolsbehaviour.
Information
Communicationisavitalnecessitytoanorganization,justasthebloodstreamistotheperson.It is
essential that information must be communicated to the managers on the basis of which the
planscanbe developed;theseplansmustbe communicatedtotheoperatingmanagersandemployees.
Motivation
Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well
theyare doing andwhatcanbe donetoprove performance ifitisunsatisfactory.
Emotional Expression
Communication provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment
ofsocialneeds. Employeesshowtheirfrustrationsandfeelingsof satisfactionthroughcommunication.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Definecommunication?
2. What is the importance of
3. communication?Statethefunctions
ofcommunication?
9.5 COMMUNICATIONSTYLES
Whenpeople communicate, they differ not onlyinnon-verbal behaviours andlanguage but
inthedegreetowhichtheyprovideandseekinformation.Suchdifferencesconstitutevariouscommunicationstyl
es.ApopularmodelfordescribingdifferencesincommunicationstyleistheJohari
windowdevelopedbyJosephLuftandHarrylngham.ThenameJohariisderivedfromthefirstnamesof its
developers. The Johari window is a grid that describes tendencies for facilitating or
hinderinginterpersonalcommunication.

Figure 10.1:TheJohari Window

Themodelclassifiesanindividual‟stendenciestofacilitateorhinderinterpersonalcommunication
along two dimensions: exposure and feedback. Exposure is defined as the extent towhich an individual
openly and candidly divulges feelings, experiences, and information when trying tocommunicate.
Feedback is the extent to which an individual successfully elicits exposure from others.As shown in the
figure above, these dimensions translate into four “windows” — open self, hidden self,blindselfand
undiscovered self.
1. Open Self: The open self is the arena information known to the person and to others. A
largearena results from behaviour that is high in both exposure and feedback. There would
generallybe openness and compatibility and little reason to be defensive. This type of
interpersonalrelationshipwould tenddecrease interpersonalconflict.
2. Hidden Self: In this situation the hidden information is known to the person but not to others;
itencompasses those things or feelings that we are aware of but don‟t share with others for
feartheywillthinklessofusorpossiblyusetheinformationagainstus.Verylargehiddenknowledge can
cause problems if the person expends too much effort in keeping secrets orothers if suspicious
about the lack of disclosure. There is potential interpersonal conflict in thissituation because the
person may keep his or her true feelings or attitudes secret and will notopen uptotheothers.
3. BlindSelf:The blind self are information known to others but not to yourself. This is the
resultofno one ever telling you or because you are defensivelyblocking them out. The person
maybe unintentionally irritating, to the other. The other could tell the person but may be fearful
ofhurting the person‟s feelings. Such a configuration is rarely total human resources.
Furthermore,the person is likely to make many blunders, reflecting insensitivity to others. As in
the “hiddenself‟,thereis potentialinterpersonalconflictinthissituation.
4. Undiscovered Self: The undiscovered self includes feelings, experience, and information
thatneither you nor others are aware of. It arises from lack of communication. A manager
whoseunknownarea isverylarge tends tobe an autocratic leader,perceived
asaloof.Employeesmayhavetroublediscerningwhatthispersonwants.Inotherwords,thereismuchmi
sunderstandingand interpersonalconflictandisalmostsuretoresult.
The Johari window only points out possible interpersonal styles. It does not necessarily
describebut rather helps analyze possible interpersonal conflict situations. The National Training
Laboratory(NTL) recommends seven guidelines for providing feedback for effective interpersonal
relations. Theseguidelines given belowcan help todecreasethepotentialforinterpersonalconflict.
GuidelinesforEffectiveInterpersonalRelations

1. Be descriptive rather than

2. judgmental.Bespecificratherthangener
3. al.
4. Deal with things that can be
5. changed.Givefeedback
6. whenitisdesired.
7. Consider the motives for giving and receiving
feedback.Givefeedbackatthetime
thebehaviourtakesplace.
Source:NationalTrainingLaboratories„SummerReadingBook”,NTLInstituteforAppliedBehavioralScience,
Bethel,Maine,1968.
Givefeedbackwhenitsaccuracycanbecheckedwith others.

9.6 THECOMMUNICATIONPROCESS
Communication is important in building and sustaining human relationships at work. It cannot
bereplaced by the advances in information technology and data management that have taken place
overthepastseveraldecades.Communicationcanbethoughtofasaprocessorflow.Beforecommunication
can take place, a purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed is needed. Itpasses between the
sender and the receiver. The result is transference of meaning from one person toanother.
Thefigurebelowdepictsthecommunicationprocess.Thismodelismadeupofsevenparts:
(1) the communication source, (2) encoding, (3) the message, (4) the channel, (5) decoding, (6)
thereceiver,and(7)feedback.

Figure 10.2:TheCommunication ProcessModel

Source
The source initiates a message. This is the origin of the communication and can be an
individual,group or inanimate object. The, effectiveness of a communication depends to a considerable
degree onthe characteristics of the source. Aristotle believed that acceptance of the source‟s message
could beincreased by:-
 Pathos —Playingontheemotionsofthereceiver.
 Logos —Generatinglogicalargumentsor
 Ethos —Askingformessage acceptancebecause thesourceistrustworthy.
Thepersonwhoinitiatesthecommunicationprocessisknownassender,sourceorcommunicator. In
an organization, the sender will be a person who has a need or desire to send amessage to others. The
sender has some information which he wants to communicate to some
otherpersontoachievesomepurpose.Byinitiatingthemessage,thesenderattemptstoachieveunderstanding
and change in thebehaviourofthe receiver.
Encoding
Once the source has decided what message to communicate, the content of the message
mustbe put in a form the receiver can understand. As the background for encoding information, the
senderuses his or her own frame of reference. It includes the individual‟s view of the organization or
situationas afunctionofpersonaleducation,interpersonalrelationships,attitudes,knowledgeandexperience.
Threeconditionsarenecessaryforsuccessfulencodingthemassage.
 Skill: Successful communicating depends on the skill you posses. Without the requisite
skills,themessageofthecommunicatorwillnotreachtherequisiteskills;themessageofthecommunicat
orwillnotreachthereceiverinthedesiredform.One‟stotalcommunicativesuccess
includesspeaking,reading,listeningand reasoningskills.
 Attitudes: Our attitudes influence our behaviour. We hold predisposed ideas on a number
oftopics andourcommunications areaffected bythese attitudes.
 Knowledge: We cannot communicate what we don‟t know. The amount of knowledge
thesourceholdsabouthis orhersubjectwill affectthemessage heorsheseekstotransfer.
TheMessage
The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. The message
containsthe thoughts and feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in the receiver. The message
has twoprimarycomponents:
 The Content: The thought or conceptual component of the message is contained in the
words,ideas, symbolsandconceptschosentorelaythemessage.
 The Affect: The feeling or emotional component of the message is contained in the
intensity,force, demeanors(conductorbehaviour),andsometimesthegestures ofthecommunicator.
According to D.K Berlo - “when we speak, the speech is the message. When we write,
thewriting is the message. When we paint, the picture is the message. When we gesture, the
movementsof ourarms,theexpressionson ourfacesarethemessage”.
TheChannel
The actual means by which the message is transmitted to the receiver (Visual, auditory,
writtenorsome combination of these three)is called the channel.The channel isthe medium through
whichthe message travels. The channel is the observable carrier of the message. Communication in
whichthesender‟svoiceisusedasthechanneliscalledoralcommunication.Whenthechannelinvolves
written language, the sender is using written communication. The sender‟s choice of a channel
conveysadditional information beyond that contained in the message itself. For example, documenting
anemployee‟spoorperformanceinwritingconveysthatthemanagerhastakentheproblemseriously.

Channel Required Source RequiredReceiv Some Examples

ofActivity erActivity
1. Auditory SpeakingUseofmec Listening Telegraph
hanical
signalsRadio
sendingdevice
Telephoneconversations

2. Visual Action Observing Ship-to-shore visual

signals.Handsignals
Color
emphasisFlagw
3. Written Composition Reading aving
Reports
Company policy
manualsBooks
4. Auditory- Speakingandaction Listening
visualcombina andobserving
Television,moviesBallet
tion
Actionand combination Observing
5. Visual- andreading Students listening to a
writtencombi lectureBillboard
nation advertisingMagazines,
Newspapers,Transitadvertising
Speaking and Listening
actioncombination andreading Students following
6. Auditory- handoutsprovided
writtencomposit bytheinstructor
ion

Source:JerryLGrayandFrederickAStrake“OrganizationalBehavior—
ConceptsandApplicationsCharlesEMerrill Publishing Company,Columbus(ThirdEdition)Page307.

Decoding
Decoding means interpreting what the message means. The extent to which thedecoding bythe
receiver depends heavily on the individual characteristics of the sender and receiver. The greaterthe
similarity in the background or status factors of the communicators, the greater the probability that
amessagewillbeperceivedaccurately.Mostmessagescanbedecodedinmorethanoneway.Receiving and
decoding a message are a type of perception. The decoding process is therefore subjecttothe
perceptionbiases.
TheReceiver
The receiver is the object to whom the message is directed. Receiving the message means
oneor more of the receiver‟s senses register the message - for example, hearing the sound of a
supplier‟svoice over the telephone or seeing the boss give a thumbs-up signal. Like the sender, the
receiver issubjecttomanyinfluencesthatcanaffecttheunderstandingofthemessage.Mostimportant,the
receiverwillperceiveacommunicationinamannerthatisconsistentwithpreviousexperiences.Communicationstha
tarenotconsistentwithexpectationsislikelytoberejected.
Feedback
Thefinallinkinthecommunicationprocessisafeedbackloop.Feedback,ineffect,iscommunication
travelling in the opposite direction. If the sender pays attention to the feedback
andinterpretsitaccurately,thefeedbackcanhelpthesenderlearnwhethertheoriginal,communicationwas
decoded accurately. Without feedback, one-way communication occurs between managers andtheir
employees. Faced with differences in their power, lack of time, and a desire to save face by
notpassingonnegativeinformation,employeesmaybediscouragedformprovidingthenecessaryfeedbacktot
heirmanagers.
9.7 DIRECTIONSOFCOMMUNICATIONINTHEORGANIZATION
Withinorganizations,therearethreedirectionsinwhichcommunicationsflow:downward,upward and
laterally(horizontal).
I. DownwardCommunication
Downward communication involves a message travelling to one or more receivers at the
lowerlevelinthe hierarchy. Themessage frequentlyinvolves directions orperformance
feedback.Thedownward flow of communication generally corresponds to the formal organizational
communicationssystem, which is usually synonymous with the chain of command or line of authority.
This system hasreceived a great deal of attention from both managers and behavioural scientists since
it is crucial toorganizationalfunctioning.
II. UpwardCommunication
In upward communication, the message is directed toward a higher level in the hierarchy. It
isoftentakestheformofprogressreportsorinformationaboutsuccessesandfailuresoftheindividualsor work
groups reporting to the receiver of the message. Sometimes employees also send suggestionsor
complaintsupward•throughthe organization‟shierarchy.
Theupwardflowofcommunicationinvolvestwodistinctmanager-
subordinateactivitiesinadditiontofeedback:
(a) Theparticipationbyemployeesinformalorganizationaldecisions.
(b) Employee appeal is a result against formal organization decisions. The employee appeal is
aresult of the industrial democracy concept that provides for two- way communication in areas
ofdisagreement.
IsClearCommunicationAlwaysDesirable?
Virtuallyallwritingaboutcommunicationexhortspeopletobeclear,precise,andsuccinctwhen they
communicate. It is argued that that clarity, precision, and succinctness lead
tocommunicationeffectiveness.Butisthisalwaysso?Isn‟titsometimesbeneficial(andnecessary)to
bevaguein orderto beeffective?
Consider the manager who is faced with a personality dispute between two subordinates
whomust work together. Each subordinate will undoubtedly give a somewhatdifferent version
ofthe problem as well as some other comments about the other person in the dispute. Does
themanager communicate these comments? NO. Rather, the manager facilitates resolution of
thedispute without communicating certain remarks that each person may have made about
theother. In this way the problem may be resolved by focusing on the areas of agreement
ratherthan the areas of conflict. The problem may thus be solved by leaving certain things
unsaidratherthan clarifying them.
Source:JerryL.GrayandFrederickA.Starke“OrganizationalBehavior-ConceptsandApplications‟
(thirdedition), CharlesE.MerrilPublishingCompany, Columbus.(Page315).
StimulatingUpwardCommunication
Although mostmanagersagree on the need forupwardcommunication,itisoften
notclearwhatactions can be taken to stimulate it. Given this situation, it is important to develop ways
tostimulateupwardcommunication.PlantyandMachavergivethefollowing suggestions.
StimulatingUpwardCommunication

1. Coverage must be systematic and balanced. While spontaneous communication is

oftenuseful, efforts at stimulating upward communication must be planned, systematic,
andbalanced. The planning requirement assures that communication is not left to
chance,whilethebalancerequirementattemptstopreventupwardcommunicationoriginatingfro
m only a few sources. Many times only the most vocal organizational members
areheard,whereasthelessvocalmayhaveimportantthingstosayaswell.Infollowingthese
principles, management obtains information from a wider variety of sources,
andcommunication is not limited to crisis situations. The old adage “no news is good
news”doesnotholdforupwardorganizational communication.
2. The flow of communication must be directed. Communication that is not directed to
theproper receivers becomes rumour and finds its way through the organization according
towho will listen. Proper directed communication, however, reaches those individuals
whoare in a position to take action. Employees who are dissatisfied and wish to
communicatewithmanagementmustbedirectedtothecorrectchannels,andthesechannelssho
uldbeknownto everyone.
3. Listening must be sensitive. Because of the fundamental nature of hierarchical
systems,employees may be conditioned to tell management what they think management
wants tohear rather than what they actually feel. Complaints are often disguised in ways
thatpreventthemfrombeingobvioustothelistener.Consequently,managementmustattempt to
respond not only to the spoken word, but to the meaning of the words. To
alargedegree,thesensitivityofthemanagerdeterminestheamountandtypeofcommunicationth
atisdirected upwardfromsubordinates.
4. Listening must be objective. Upward communication will be selective and infrequent
ifemployeesthinktheircommunicationsarenotbeingperceivedinanobjectivefashion.Itis easy
for managers to show more interest in favorable communication than unfavorableor seek
out those employees who will agree with them and ignore those who do not.Objectivity in
upward communication means that managementmust make a
consciousefforttoavoidthese biases.
5. Listening implies action. Communication is not an end in itself but a means to an
end.Whilelisteningtoemployeesiscertainlyimportant,unlesssomekindofactionisforthcoming,
the listening function loses its value. In some cases, listening itself can givethe employee
the impression that action will be taken, and management must be cautiousnot to leave
the impression that communication efforts guarantee results. If, for example,employees
offer suggestions for work improvements that cannot be implemented, theyshouldbe
toldwhy.

Source:EarlG PlantyandWilliamMachaver,“StimulatingUpwardCommunication,”
inEffectiveCommunicationonthe Job (AmericanManagementAssociation,1956)
Ifproperlyutilized,upwardcommunicationispotentiallyoneofthemostusefulmanagerialpractices.Upward
communicationkeepsmanagersawareofhowemployeesfeelabouttheirjobs,co-
workersandtheorganizationingeneral.Managersalsorelyonupwardcommunicationforideasonhow things
canbeimproved.
III. LateralCommunication
When takes place among members of the same work group, among members of work groups
atthe same level, among managers at the same level or among any horizontally equivalent personnel,
wedescribe it as lateral communications. In lateral communication, the sender and receiver(s) are at
thesame level in the hierarchy. Formal communications that travel laterally involve employees engaged
incarrying out the same or related tasks. The messages might concern advice, problem solving,
orcoordinationofactivities.
Thedirectionofcommunicationinorganizationsexplainedaboveissummarizedinthefigure
below.

Figure10.3:Directionsof CommunicationinOrganization

9.8 COMMUNICATIONNETWORKS
Acommunicationnetworkisthepatternofdirectionsinwhichinformationflowsintheorganization.Chan
nels ofcommunication(networksby whichinformationflows)areeitherformalnetworks or informal networks.
Formal networks follow the authority chain and are limited to task-
relatedcommunications.Theinformalnetwork(grapevine)isfreetomoveinanydirection,skipauthority levels,
and is as likely to satisfy group members‟ social needs as it is to facilitate taskaccomplishments.
Thebasictypesofcommunicationnetworks areshownin thefigurebelow:
 Figure10.4:TypesofCommunication Networks
1. ChainNetwork
In chain network, communication travels up and down through the hierarchy. Each
personcommunicates with only the person directly above or below in terms of reporting relationships.
Thechainnetworkrigidlyfollowstheformalchain ofcommand.
2. YNetwork
In the Y network, the flow communication resembles an upside down Y;information
flowsupwardanddownwardthroughthehierarchy,wideningtoencompassthenumberofemployeesreportingt
oa supervisor.
3. WheelNetwork
In a wheel network, information flows to and from a single person. Employees in the
groupcommunicate primarily with that person rather than with each other. Such a communication
network is afast means of getting information to employees, since the person at the hub of the wheel
can do sodirectly and efficiently. The wheel network relies on the leader to act as the central conduit
(channel) fortheentire group‟scommunication.
The chain network, the Y network and the wheel network are fairly centralized in that
mostmessages must flow through a pivotal (essential, crucial) person in the network. In the wheel
network,the most centralized, all messages must flow through the individual at the centre of t wheel. In
the chainnetwork,sonicmemberscancommunicatewithmorethanone
memberofthenetwork,buttheindividual in the centre of the chain still tends to emerge as the controller of
the messages. In the Ynetwork,themember atthefork
ofthe“Y”usuallybecomesthecentralpersoninthenetwork.
4. CircleNetwork
In a circle network, employees communicate only with adjoining members of the
organization.The circle network is analogous to a group working in a physical arrangement such that
workers cancommunicatewiththeirimmediateneighbourbutnotwithothersinthegroup.
5. TheAll-ChannelNetworkortheStarNetwork
In an all-channel network, communications flow upward, downward and laterally among
allmembers of the group. This pattern of communication supports an egalitarian, (equal,
unrestricted)participative culture and fosters (promote, cultivate) cross-functional efforts. The all-
channel network isbestifyouareconcerned withhaving highmembersatisfaction.
The circle network and the all-channel network are more decentralized in that there is
freercommunicationamongthevariousmembers.Inthecirclenetwork,eachmembercancommunicatewith
the individual on either side. The all-channel network is the most decentralized of the
networks;eachmembercancommunicatewith anyothermember.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. ExplaintheJohariwindow. QUEST

2. Explain the communication

3. process.Explainthedirectionofcommuni
cation.

9.9 INFORMALCOMMUNICATION
Informalcommunicationiscommunicationoutsidetheorganization‟sformallyauthorizedchannels.
Informal communication includes all messages transmitted in the work setting other
thanthosethataregeneratedspecificallytofulfilwork-relatedassignments.Thenatureofsuchcommunication
is nowhere described in the formal communication systems, but the organization couldnotsurvive
withoutit.
TheGrapevine
The network for much informal communication is the organization‟s grapevine.
Grapevinesdevelop in organizations to handle communications that the formal channels of
communication do nothandle. It typically supplements or replaces the organizational hierarchy as the
means for transmittingcommunication. The grapevine serves as an excellent source of information
about employee attitudesas well as an emotional outlet for workers. Thus, grapevine is likely to be
strong during uncertain timesand in organizations that limit the low of information to employees through
formal channels. Also,employeesmayparticipate in agrapevinetohelpmeetsocialneeds.
The development of grapevines is inevitable. Although grapevines are neither good nor bad
inthemselves,themessagestheycarryaresubjecttodistortionasmessagestransmittedfromonehumanlink to
another become progressively more garbled (distorted:confused).Theircontentismisinterpreted,
abbreviated, embellished (overstated) and selectively transmitted in terms of what thesender believes
the receiver wants or needs to know. Since the original message may be only partiallytrue, it is not
surprising that the grapevine is sometimes referred to as a rumour mill. The informationthat travels
through a grapevine typically takes the form of gossip (belief about other people)
andrumours(effortstopredictfuture events).
TheGrapevinehasthreemain characteristics
(a) Itis notcontrolledbymanagement.
(b) Itisperceivedbymostemployeesasbeingmorebelievableandreliablethanformalcommuniquésissue
d bytopmanagement.
(c) itis largelyusedtoservetheself-interestsofthese peoplewithinit.
Thenetworkofagrapevinetypicallytakes ononeofthepatternsshowninthefigurebelow:

Figure10.5:GrapevinePatterns
(i) SingleStrand:Inthesingle-strandchain,communicationmovesseriallyfrompersonAtoBtoC and
soon.
(ii) GossipChain:With gossipchain, personAseeks outandtells others.
(iii) ProbabilityChain:Whenfollowingtheprobabilitychain,personAspreadsthemessagerandomlyas
doindividualsF and D.
(iv) Cluster Chain: In cluster chain, person A tells three selected individuals and then one of
thesetells three others.
Despite the fact that grapevines sometimes create difficulties when they carry gossip and
falserumours, they are a fact of life in organizations and it is unrealistic of managers to think that they
caneliminategrapevines.
TheOld-BoyNetwork
The old-boy network is another network for informal communication. It is an exclusive group
thatwieldspowerthroughsharedinformation.Inanold-
boynetwork,membersshareinformationtohelponeanotheralongintheircareers.Anold-
boynetworkdiffersfromotherkindsofinformalalliancesamonggroups ofemployeesin
thatitsmembershavecontrolovermuchofthe organizationsresources.Belongingtoanold-
boynetworkcanbeadvantageoustoitsmembers,butfromanorganization‟sperspective,anold-
boynetworkcanbeharmful.Itlimitssomeemployees‟accesstoinformationandpreventstheorganizationfromre
adilytappingthepotentialofpeopleoutsidethenetwork.Organizationsthatviewtheirentirepoolofemployeesas
asourceofcompetitiveadvantagethereforeseektobroadenemployees‟accesstoinformation.Themoretheorg
anization‟sgoals,strategies,performanceandstaffingneedsarecommunicatedthroughformalchannels,andth
emoretheorganizationlistenstoitsemployees,thelessimportantareinformalchannelssuchasold-
boynetworks.
9.10 NON-VERBALCOMMUNICATION
Non-verbal communication is communication by means of elements and behaviours that are
notcoded into words. A glance, a star, a smile, a frown, a provocative body movement - they all
conveymeaning. Nonverbal communication includes all elements of communication, such as gestures
and theuseofspace,thatdoesnotinvolvewordsordonotinvolvelanguage.Porterhasdefinedfouraspectsof
non-verbalcommunications:
1. Physical:pertainingtothepersonalmethod,i.e.,facialexpressions,toneofvoice,senseoftouch,smella
nd bodymotion.
2. Esthetics:Creativeexpressionssuchasthosefoundinmusic,dancingoranyofthecreativearts.
3. Symbolic:Conveyingmessagesthroughsymbolicrepresentationsofreality;includesreligious,status
orego-building symbols.
4. Sign:mechanicalmeansofconveyingmessagessuch asbills,buzzers,locksondoors,etc.
9.10.1 TypesofNon-verbalCommunication
Theimportantcategoriesofnon-verbalcommunicationinclude:
1. Proxemics
Proxemics refers to the influence of proximity and space on communication. The study of
anindividual‟sperceptionanduseofspace,includingterritorialspace,iscalledproxemics.Territorialspace
refers to bands of space extending outward from the body. These bands constitute comfortzones. In
each comfort zone, different cultures prefer different types of interaction with others.
Typicallytherearefourzonesofterritorialspace.
(a) Intimate Zone (touching to two feet): This space is normally reserved for closest family
andfriends.Inthiszone,weinteractwithspouses,significantothers,familymembersandotherswithwho
mwehavean intimaterelationship.
(b) Personal Zone (two to four feet): Family and friends may enter this zone without
causingdiscomfortFriendstypicallyinteractwiththis distance
(c) Social Zone (four to twelve feet): The person comfortably interacts with others in this
zoneMost business transactions take place within the social zone We prefer that business
associatesandacquaintancesinteractwithusinthiszone
(d) Public Zone (twelve feet to as far as the person can hear and see): This is the most
distantzone at which communication can occur Most of us prefer that strangers stay at least 12
feetfrom us, and we become uncomfortable when they move closer Lectures and other
formalpresentationstake placewithin thiszone
 In general, a person who moves into a closer zone of personal space is signaling a desire
forgreater closeness. When the receiver of this non-verbal message interprets it as a request for
morecloseness than is desirable,the receiverprobably will feel uncomfortable and try to move
away.Territorial space varies greatly across cultures. People often become uncomfortable when
operating interritorialspacedifferentfromthose inwhich theyarefamiliar.
2. Kinesics
Kinesics is study of body movements, including posture. Like proxemics, kinesics is
culturallybound, there is no single universal gesture Kinesics behaviour refers to body movements,
such
asgestures,facialexpressions,eyemovementsandposture.Weoftendrawconclusionsregardingpeople‟s
feelings about an issue, not only from their words but also from their non-verbal
behaviour,suchastheirfacialexpressions.
(a) Facial Expressions: The face is a rich source of nonverbal communication. The face
oftengives unintended clues to emotions the sender is trying to hide. Although smiles have
universalmeaning,frowns,raisedeyebrows,andwrinkledforeheadsmustallbeinterpretedinconjuncti
onwiththe actors,thesituation andtheculture.
(b) Eye Behaviour: Eye behaviour are used to add cues for the receiver. Eye contact can
enhancereflectivelistening,anditvariesbyculture.InIndia,adirectgazeindicateshonestyandforthright
ness.Appropriateuseofeyecontact signalsinterestintheotherperson.
(c) Gestures:Somepeopleusegesturesextensively;otherscommunicatelittlethroughthischannel. In
India, the handshake is a widely used gesture. People often use the handshake as asource of
information about another person‟s characteristics. A strong, firm handshake is
seenasasignofconfidenceand enthusiasm.
3. Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to vocal aspects of communication that relate to how something is
saidrather than to what is said. Voice quality, tone of voice, laughing, and yawning fit in this
category.Peoplemakeattributionsaboutthesenderbydeciphering(makesenseof;interpretordecode)paralan
guage cues. Rapid, loud speech may be taken as a sign of nervousness or anger. Vocal toneincludes
pitch, loudness, rhythm, rate, and clarity of speech. The standards for what is comfortable varyfrom
onecultureto another.
4. ObjectLanguage
Objectlanguagereferstothecommunicativeuseofmaterialthings,includingclothing,cosmetics,
furniture and architecture. A work area adorned with expensive objects communicate highstatus.
5. Territory
Employees‟ work areas are, in a sense, their territory. The way people arrange themselves
andothers within their territory also conveys messages. In a meeting or training session, arranging
chairs inrows signals that participants will be lectured to and encourages passive behaviour. Arranging
chairs ina circle signals that active participation is encouraged. When interviewing or meeting with
someone inhis or her office, a manager sends different messages depending on whether the manager
remainsbehindthe desk orjoinsthe other person incomfortable chairs onthesame side ofthe desk.
6.Physical Appearance
Aspects of personal appearance such as clothing, hairstyle, jewellery and makeup
communicatepeople‟s values and social group. In the workplace, the norms for appropriate physical
appearancedepend on the industry, job, and organizational culture. People who fail to live up to these
normstypically create a bad impression. Their physical appearance is interpreted as meaning they
either donotunderstandtheirroleordonotcareaboutfulfilling it.
 It is important for the receiver to be alert to these nonverbal aspects of communication.
Youshould look for nonverbal cues as well as listen to the literal meaning of a sender‟s words. You
shouldparticularly be aware of contradictions between the messages. Nonverbal communication is
importantfor managers because of its impact on the meaning of the message. However, a manager
mustconsider the total message and all media of communication. A message can only be given
meaning incontext, and cues are easy to misinterpret. The figure below presents common nonverbal
behaviourexhibited by managers and how employees may interpret them. Nonverbal cues can give
others thewrongsignal.

NONVERBALCOM SIGNALRE REACTIONFROMRECEIVER

MUNICATION CEIVED
Managerlooksawaywhentalkin Dividedattention Mysupervisoristoobusytolistentomyproblem
gtotheemployee. orsimplydoesnotcare.

Manager fails to Unfriendliness. This personis unapproachable.

acknowledgegreetingfromfello
wemployee.
Managerglaresominously(i.e., Anger. Reciprocalanger,fear,oravoidance,depending
givestheevil eye). onwhois sendingthe signalintheorganization.

This person thinks he or she is smarter

Manager rolls the Not taking orbetterthanIam.
personseriously
My opinions do not count. I must be stupid
eyes.Managersighs Disgustordi orboringtothisperson.
spleasure.

deeply. Avoidthis personatallcosts.

Anger or
heavystress.

Managerusesheavybreathing
(sometimes
accompaniedbyhandwaving)
Managerdoesnotmaintaineye
contact
whencommunicatin
g,
Managercrossesarmsandlean
saway.
Managerpeersoverglasses.
Whatdoesthispersonhave tohide?
Suspicion
oruncertaint
y.
This person already has made up his or
hermind;myopinionsarenotimportant.
Apathy or closed-
mindedness, Heorshe doesnotbelieve whatIamsaying.
Scepticism
ordistrust. My opinions are not important enough to
getthesupervisor‟sundividedattention.
Lack ofinterest.

Manager continues to read

areportwhenemployeeisspeaki
ng.
Source:C. HemiltonandB.H.Kleiner, StepstoBetterListening, PersonnelJournal(February1987).
Figure 10.6:CommonNonverbalCuesfromManagertoEmployee
 9.11 BARRIERSTOEFFECTIVECOMMUNICATION
Barrierstocommunicationarefactorsthatblockorsignificantlydistortsuccessfulcommunication.
Effective managerial communication skills helps overcome some, but not all, barriers tocommunication
in organizations. The more prominent barriers to effective communication which everymanagershould
beaware of isgiven below:
1. Filtering
Filtering refers to a sender manipulating information so it will be seen more favourably by
thereceiver. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an organization‟s structure.
Themore vertical levels in the organization hierarchy, the more opportunities for filtering. Sometimes
theinformationisfilteredbythesenderhimself.Ifthesenderishidingsomemeaninganddisclosinginsuchafashi
onasappealingtothereceiver,thenheis“filtering”themessagedeliberately.Amanagerintheprocessofaltering
communicationin hisfavourisattemptingtofiltertheinformation.
2. SelectivePerception
Selective perception means seeing what one wants to see. The receiver, in the
communicationprocess, generally resorts to selective perception i.e., he selectively perceives the
message based onthe organizational requirements, the needs and characteristics, background of the
employees etc.Perceptual distortion is one of the distressing barriers to the effective communication.
People interpretwhat they see and call it a reality. In our regular activities, we tend to see those things
that please usand to reject or ignore unpleasant things. Selective perception allows us to keep out
dissonance (theexistence of conflicting elements in perceptual set) at a tolerable level. If we encounter
something thatdoes not fit out current image of reality, we structure the situation to minimize our
dissonance. Thus, wemanage to overlook many stimuli from the environment that do not fit into out
current perception of theworld. This process has significant implications for managerial activities. For
example, the employmentinterviewer who expects a female job applicant to put her family ahead of her
career is likely to see thatinfemaleapplicants,regardlessofwhethertheapplicantsfeelthatwayornot.
3. Emotions
Howthereceiverfeelsatthetimeofreceiptofinformationinfluenceseffectivelyhowheinterpretstheinfor
mation.Forexample,ifthereceiverfeelsthatthecommunicatorisinajovialmood,heinterpretsthattheinformation
beingsentbythecommunicatortobegoodandinteresting.Extremeemotionsandjubilationordepressionarequit
elikelytohindertheeffectivenessofcommunication.Aperson‟sabilitytoencodeamessagecanbecomeimpaire
d whenthe
personisfeelingstrongemotions.Forexample,whenyouareangry,itishardertoconsidertheotherperson‟sview
pointandtochoosewordscarefully.Theangrieryouare,theharderthistaskbecomes.Extremeemotions-
suchasjubilationordepression-
aremostlikelytohindereffectivecommunication.Insuchinstances,wearemostpronetodisregardourrationalan
dobjectivethinkingprocessesandsubstituteemotionaljudgments.
4. Language
Communicated message must be understandable to the receiver. Words mean different
thingsto different people. Language reflects not only the personality of the individual but also the culture
ofsocietyinwhichtheindividualisliving.Inorganizations,peoplefromdifferentregions,differentbackgrounds,a
ndspeakdifferentlanguages.Peoplewillhavedifferentacademicbackgrounds,different intellectual facilities,
and hence the jargon they use varies. Often, communication gap arisesbecause the language the
sender is using may be incomprehensible, vague and indigestible. Languageis a central element in
communication. It may pose a barrier if its use obscures meaning and distortsintent. Words mean
different things to different people. Age, education and cultural background
arethreeofthemoreobviousvariablesthatinfluencethelanguageapersonusesandthedefinitionsheor
she gives to words. Therefore, use simple, direct, declarative language. Speak in brief sentences
anduse terms or words you have heard from you audience. As much as possible, speak in the
language ofthelistener.Donotusejargonortechnicallanguage exceptwiththosewhoclearlyunderstandit.
5. Stereotyping
Stereotyping is the application of selective perception. When we have preconceived ideas
aboutother people and refuse to discriminate between individual behaviours,we are applying
selectiveperception to our relationship with other people. Stereotyping is a barrier to communications
becausethose who stereotype others use selective perception in their communication and tend to hear
onlythose things that confirm their stereotyped images. Consequently, stereotypes become more
deeplyingrainedas wefindmore “evidence”to confirm our original opinion.
Stereotyping has a convenience function in our interpersonal relations. Since people are
alldifferent, ideally we should react and interact with each person differently. To do this, however,
requiresconsiderable psychological effort. It is much easier to categorize (stereotype) people so that we
caninteract with them as members ofa particular category. Since the number of categories is small,
weend up treating many people the same even though they are quite different. Our communications,
then,may be directed at an individual as a member of a category at the sacrifice of the more
effectivecommunicationona personallevel.
6. StatusDifference
Theorganizationalhierarchyposeanotherbarriertocommunicationwithinorganization,especiallywh
enthecommunicationisbetweenemployeeandmanager.Thisissobecausetheemployee is dependent on
the manager as the primary link to the organization and hence more likely todistort upward
communication than either horizontal or downward communication. Effective supervisoryskills make the
supervisor more approachable and help reduce the risk of problems related to statusdifferences. In
addition, when employees feel secure, they are more likely to be straightforward inupward
communication.
7. UseofConflictingSignals
A sender is using conflicting signals when he or she sends inconsistent messages. A
verticalmessage might conflict with a nonverbal one. For example, if a manager says to his employees,
“If youhave a problem, just come to me. My door is always open”, but he looks annoyed whenever
anemployee knocks on his door”. Then we say the manager is sending conflicting messages.
Whensignals conflict,thereceiversofthemessage havetodecide which,ifany,tobelieve.
8. ReluctancetoCommunicate
Foravarietyofreasons,managers aresometimesreluctanttotransmitmessages.The reasonscould be:
 Theymay doubttheir abilitytodoso.
 Theymay dislikeorbewearyofwritingortalkingtoothers.
 They may hesitate to deliver bad news because they do not want to face a negative
reaction.Whensomeonegivesintothesefeelings,theybecomeabarriertoeffective
communications.
9. Projection
Projectionhastwomeanings.
(a) Projecting one‟s own motives into others behaviour. For example, managers who are
motivatedby money may assume their subordinates are also motivated by it. If the subordinate‟s
primemotiveissomething otherthanmoney,seriousproblemsmayarise.
(b) The use of defense mechanism to avoid placing blame on oneself. As a
defensemechanism,theprojectionphenomenonoperatestoprotecttheegofromunpleasantcommuni
cations.Frequently, individuals who have a particular fault will see the same fault in others,
making theirownfaultseemnotsoserious.
10. The“HaloEffect”
The term “halo effect” refers to the process of forming opinions based on one element from
agroupofelementsandgeneralizingthatperceptiontoallotherelements.Forexample,inanorganization, a
good attendance record may cause positive judgements about productivity, attitude, orquality of work.
In performance evaluation system, the halo effect refers to the practice of singling outone trait of an
employee (either good or bad) and using this as a basis for judgement of the
totalemployee(e.g.,seeingthe well-dressedmanager asthe“good”manager).
9.12 KEYSTOEFFECTIVESUPERVISORYCOMMUNICATION
Managerscanandshouldimprovecommunicationinorganizations.Interpersonalcommunicationbet
weenmanagersandtheiremployeesisacriticalfoundationforeffectiveperformance in organizations. In his
research work F. M Jablin has identified five communication skillsthatdistinguish
“good”from“bad”supervisors.
a) ExpressiveSpeakers
Better supervisors express their thoughts, ideas and feelings. Supervisors who speak out let
thepeopletheywork withknowwheretheystand,whattheybelieveandhowthey feel.
EffectiveListening
Too many people take listening skills for granted. They confuse hearing with listening. What‟s
thedifference? Hearing is merely picking up sound vibrations. Listening is making sense out of
whatwehear.Thatis,listeningrequirespayingattention, interpreting,andrememberingsoundstimuli.
The average person normally speaks at the rate of 125 to 200 words per minute. However,
theaverage listener can comprehend up to 400 words per minute. This leaves a lot of time for
idlemind wandering while listening. For most people, it also means they‟ve acquired a number of
badlisteninghabitstofill inthe “idle time”.
The following eight behaviors are associated with effective listening skills. If you want to
improveyour listeningskills,looktothese behaviorsasguides:
1. Make eye contact. How do you feel when somebody doesn‟t look at you when
you‟respeaking?Ifyou‟relikemostpeople,you‟relikelytointerpretthisasaloofnessordisinterest.
We may listen with our ears, but others tend to judge whether we‟re reallylisteningby
looking atoureyes.
2. Exhibitaffirmativeheadnodsandappropriatefacialexpressions.Theeffectivelistener
shows interest in what is being said. How? Through nonverbal signals.
Affirmativeheadnodsandappropriatefacialexpressions,whenaddedtogoodeyecontact,conve
ytothe speakeryou‟re listening.
3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures. The other side of showing interest is
avoidingactions that suggest your mind is somewhere else. When listening, don‟t look at
yourwatch, shuffle papers, play with your pencil, or engage in similar distractions. They
makethe speaker feel you‟re bored or uninterested. Maybe more importantly, they indicate
youaren‟t fully attentive and may be missing part of the message the speaker wants
toconvey.
4. AskQuestions.Thecriticallisteneranalyzeswhatheorshehearsandasksquestions.
 This behaviour provides clarification, ensures understanding, and assures the
speakeryou‟relistening.
5. Paraphrase.Paraphrasingmeansrestatingwhatthespeakerhassaidinyourownwords. The
effective listener uses phrases like “what I hear you saying is ...“ or “do youmean ...?“
Why rephrase what‟s already been said? Two reasons! First, it‟s an
excellentcontroldevicetocheckonwhetheryou‟relisteningcarefully.Youcan‟tparaphraseaccur
ately if your mind is wandering or if you‟re thinking about what you‟re going to saynext.
Second, it‟s a control for accuracy. By rephrasing what the speaker has said in
yourownwordsandfeedingitbacktothespeaker,youverifytheaccuracyofyourunderstanding.
6. Avoid interrupting the speaker. Let the speaker complete his or her thought before
youtry to respond. Don‟t try to second-guess where the speaker‟s thoughts are going.
Whenthespeakerisfinished,you‟ll knowit!
7. Don’tovertalk.Most ofuswould ratherspeakourown ideas than listen to whatsomeone else
says. Too many of us listen only because it‟s the price we have to pay
togetpeopletoletustalk.Whiletalkingmaybemorefunandsilencemaybeuncomfortable, you
can‟t talk and listen at the same time. The good listener recognizesthis factand
doesn‟tovertalk.
8. Make smooth transitions between the roles of speaker and listener. When you‟re
astudent sitting in a lecture hall, you find it relatively easy to get into an effective
listeningframe of mind. Why? Because communication is essentially one way: The
teacher talksand you listen. But the teacher-student dyad is atypical. In most work
situations, you‟recontinually shifting back and forth between the roles of speaker and
listener. The
effectivelistener,therefore,makestransitionssmoothlyfromspeakertolistenerandbacktospea
ker. From a listening perspective, this means concentrating on what a speaker has tosay
and practicing not thinking about what you‟re going to say as soon as you get
yourchance.

Source:StephenPRobbins„OrganizationalBehavior-
concepts,controversies,applications”(7thedition.(1996)PrenticeHall,Englewood Cliffs Page-388-389.
b) EmpatheticListeners
The better supervisors arewilling,empathetic listeners.Empathetic listeners are able to hearthe
feelings and emotional dimensions of the messages people send them, as well as the content of
theideasandissues.Bettersupervisorsareapproachableandwillingtolistentosuggestionsandcomplaints.
AreYou aGoodListener?
Reflectivelisteningisaskillthatyoucan practiceandlearn. Herearetentipstohelpyoubecome abetter
listener.
1. Stoptalking.Youcannotlistenif yourmouthismoving.
2. Put thespeakeratease.Breakthe icetohelp thespeakerrelax.Smile!
3. Showthespeakeryouwanttolisten.Putawayyourwork.Donotlookatyourwatch.Maintain
goodeyecontact.
4. Removedistractions.Closeyourdoor. Donotanswerthetelephone.
5. Empathizewiththespeaker.Putyourself inthespeaker‟s shoes.
 6. Bepatient.Not
7. everyonedeliversmessagesatthesamepace.Holdyourtemper.D
8. o notflyoffthehandle.
9. Goeasyoncriticism.Criticizingthespeakercanstiflecommunication.Askques
10. tions.Paraphraseandclarifythespeaker‟s message.
Stoptalking.Bythisstage,youareprobablyverytemptedtostarttalking,butdonot.Besurethespeak
er hasfinished.
Evaluateyourselfinthatsituationagainsteachofthetenitems.Whichone(s)doyouneedtoimprove
Thinkofthelasttimeyouhadadifficultcommunicationwithsomeoneatworkorschool.
onthemost?
Source:C. HamiltonandB.H.Klciner StepstoBetterListeningPersonnelJournalFebruary1987.
c) PersuasiveLeaders
Better supervisors are persuasive leaders. They are distinguished by their use of
persuasivecommunication when influencing others. Specifically, they encourage others to achieve
results insteadoftellingotherswhattodo. Theyarenothighlydirectiveormanipulativeintheir
influenceattempts.
d) SensitivetoFeelings
Better supervisors are also sensitive to the feelings, self-image and psychological defences
oftheir employees. Care is taken to avoid giving critical feedback or reprimanding in public. They work
toenhancethatself-esteemasappropriatetotheperson‟srealtalents,abilitiesandachievements.
e) InformativeManagers
Finally, better supervisors keep those who work for them well informed. They give
advancenoticeof organizationalchanges and explaintherationale fororganizationalpolicies.

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Explain the different grapevine
2. patterns.Whatdoyoumeanbytheoldboysnetw
3. ork?
4. Explainthevariouscategoriesofnon-verbalcommunications.
Whatsuggestionsdoyou givetosupervisorstoimprovetheir communication?
9.13 HOWCOMMUNICATION LEADSGLOBALLY
Improved communication might be considered a supportive reason for opening up new
marketsoverseas, because the reason for opening up new markets overseas, because the effective
ability tocommunicate with subordinates and customers has given managers confidence in their ability
to controlforeignoperationsiftheyshouldundertakethem.
 Good, relatively inexpensive international communication enables international firms to
transmitcomputer-orientedtasksworldwideto acheapbutskilledlabourforceabroad.
 Shorter travelling time has also been responsible for numerous business opportunities
becauseforeign businessmen have come to the home country tolook for new products to import
or tobuynewtechnology.
 9.14 COMMUNICATIONANDGROUPDECISIONMAKING
Communication verbal and written are necessary to share ideas with anyone.
Communicationbetween involved parties is important to bring forth opposition with reason as well as
positive forecastinformation. If these aspects cannot be communicated effectively, oversight on many
projects can resultresultingin disasterin termsofmarketing.
Communicationisanessentialprocessinthedevelopmentofgroupculture.Thetypeofcommunication
structure determines leadership, roles and the status hierarchy within the group; groupmorale and
cohesiveness; and it limits or enhances productivity (Hare, 1992). The balance betweentask-
focusedandsocio-emotionalcommunicationiscrucialifagroupistobeeffective.Differenttypesof
communication are needed for different tasks. If a group‟s task is relatively simple, a
centralizedcommunicationnetworkinwhichinteractionbetweenmembersislimitedtendstoincreaseeffective
ness. Complex problem-solving is facilitated by decentralized communication networks (Shaw,1981).
As recommended by Wheelan (1994, p33), the choice of a communication network might bemore
effective if strategies of decision-making were outlined in advance and if urges to stabilize thestructure
too early were resisted, as there is considerable resistance to change once these structuresare
established. Awareness of these issues is usually low and it is one of the tasks of the group leaderor
facilitator to bring them to the group‟s attention. It is notable that a decentralized multi-
stakeholderprocesses communication network does not exclude the existence of a group leader.
Communicationstandards, and thus performance, are raised if the group has clear, performance-
oriented goals; anappropriate task strategy; and a clear set of rules; fairly high tolerance for
intermember conflicts andexplicitcommunicationfeedbacktoensurethatinformation isunderstood.
Major decisions in organizations are most often made by more than one person. Managers
usegroupstomakedecisionsforthefollowing reasons.
1. Synergy: Synergy is a positive force in groups that occurs when group members stimulate
newsolutionstoproblemsthroughtheprocess ofmutual influenceand encouragementinthe group.
2. Commitment:Anotherreasonforusingagroupistogaincommitmenttoadecision.
3. KnowledgeandExperience:Groupsalsobringmoreknowledgeandexperiencetotheproblem-
solving
AdvantagesofGroupDecisionMaking
Comparedwithindividualdecision-making,groupdecisionmakinghasseveraladvantages.
Theyare:
(a) Moreknowledgeandinformationthroughthepoolingofgroupmemberresources;
(b) Increasedacceptanceof,andcommitmentto,thedecision,becausethemembershadavoicein it;
(c) Greater understanding of the decision, because members were involved in the various stages
ofthedecision process;
(d) Anincreasednumber ofalternativescanbedeveloped;
(e) Membersdevelopknowledgeandskillsforfutureuse.
Disadvantages ofGroupDecisionMaking
Despite its advantages, group decision making also has several disadvantages when
contrastedwithindividualdecision making.They are:
(a) Pressurewithin thegroup toconformandfitin;
(b) Dominationofthegroupbyoneforcefulmemberoradominantclique,whomayramrod(ramifications)the
decision;
(c) Itisusuallymoretimeconsuming,becauseagroupisslowerthananindividualtomakeadecision;
(d) Disagreementsmaydelay decisions andcausehardfeelings;
(e) Groupthinkmaycausememberstooveremphasizegainingagreement.
Given the emphasis on teams in the workplace, many managers believe that groups
producebetter decisions than do individuals, yet the evidence is mixed. Two potential liabilities are
found ingroupdecision:GroupthinkandGrouppolarization.Theseproblems are discussedbelow:
9.15 GROUPTHINK
One liability of a cohesive group is its tendency to develop groupthink a dysfunctional
process.Group think is the tendency in cohesive groups to seek agreement about an issue at the
expense
ofrealisticallyappraisingthesituation.Withgroupthink,groupmembersaresoconcernedaboutpreservingthec
ohesionofthegroupthattheyarereluctanttobringupissuesthatmay causedisagreements or to provide
information that may prove unsettling to the discussion. Irving Janis, theoriginator of the groupthink
concept, describes group think as “a deterioration of mental efficiency,realitytesting
andmoraljudgement”resultingfromin-grouppressures.
Certainconditionsfavourthedevelopmentof groupthink.
(a) Highlycohesivegroupstendtoavoidconflictsandtodemandconformity.
(b) Another condition (antecedents) includes directive leadership, high stress, insulation of
thegroup,andlackofmethodicalproceduresfordevelopingandevaluating alternatives.
(c) Having to make a highly consequential decision that has great impact on the group
membersandon outside parties.
(d) When group members feel that they have limited time in which to make a decision, they
mayrushthroughtheprocess.
These antecedents cause members to prefer concurrence in decisions and to fail to
evaluateone another‟s suggestions critically. Such tendencies can have disastrous consequences when
majorissues arebeing considered.
A group suffering from groupthink shows recognizable symptoms. The figure below
presentsthesesymptomsandmakes suggestionsonhowto avoid groupthink.
SymptomsofGroupThinkandHowtoPrevent It
SymptomsofGroupThink
 Illusions of invulnerability. Group members feel they are moral in their actions and
thereforeabove reproach. This symptom leads the group to ignore the ethical implications of
theirdecisions.
 Illusionsofunanimity.Groupmembersbelievethereisunanimousagreementonthedecisions.Silen
ce ismisconstruedasconsent.
 Rationalization.Group membersconcoctexplanationsfortheirdecisionsto makethemappear
rational and correct. The results are that other alternatives are not considered, andthereis an
unwillingness toreconsiderthegroup‟s assumptions.
 Stereotypingtheenemy.Competitorsarestereotypedasevilorstupid.Thisleadsthegroup
 tounderestimateitsopposition.
 Self-censorship.Membersdonotexpresstheirdoubtsorconcernsaboutthecourseofaction.
Thispreventscriticalanalysisofthedecisions.
 Peerpressure.Anymemberwhoexpressdoubtsorconcernsandpressuredbyothergroupmembers
,who questiontheirloyalty.
 Mindguards.Somemembers take itupon themselvestoprotectthe groupfromnegativeactions.
GuidelinesforPreventingGroupthink
 Askeachgroupmembertoassumetheroleofthecriticalevaluatorwhoactivelyvoicesobjectionsordo
ubts.
 Havetheleader avoid statinghis orher positionon theissuepriortothegroupdecision.
 Createseveralgroupsthat workonthedecisionsimultaneously.
 Bringin outsideexpertsto evaluatethegroupprocess.
 Appointadevil‟sadvocatetoquestionthegroup‟scourseofactionconsistently.
 Evaluatethecompetitioncarefully,posingasmanydifferentmotivationsandintentionsaspossible.
 Onceconsensusisreached,encouragethegrouptorethinkitspositionbyreexaminingthealternativ
es.

Source: Irving L Janis, “Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes‟
(secondedition) HoughtonMuffin Company(1982)
Group Polarization: Group polarization is the tendency for group discussion to produce
shiftstowards more extreme attitudes among members. The tendency toward polarization has
importantimplications for group decision making. Groups whose initial views lean a‟ certain way can be
expectedto adopt more extreme views following interaction. Several ideas have been proposed to
explain whygrouppolarization occurs.Theyare:
(a) The Social Comparison Approach: Prior to group discussion, individuals believe they
holdbetter views than the other members. During group discussion, they see that their views are
notsofarfromaverage,sotheyshifttomoreextreme position.
(b) Persuasive Arguments View: It contends that group discussion reinforces the initial views
ofthemembers,sotheytake amoreextreme position.
Both these processes cause the group to develop more polarized attitudes. Group
polarizationleadsgroupstoadoptextreme attitudes.Insomecases,thiscan bedisastrous.
CheckYourProgress
1. What do you mean by group decision-
2. making?Howdoes thesyndromeof
groupthinktakeplace?
9.16 SUMMARY
Wheneveragroupofpeopleinteract,communicationtakesplace.Communicationistheexchangeofinfo
rmationusingasharedsetofsymbols.Communicationisacriticalpartofevery
manager‟s job. Without effective communication, even the most brilliant strategies and the best-
laidplans may not be successful. Communication is an indispensable activity in all organizations.
Noorganization can think of its existence without effective communication. When people
communicate,they differ not only in nonverbal behaviours and language but in the degree to which they
provide
andseekinformation.Suchdifferencesconstitutevariouscommunicationstyles.Apopularmodelfordescribing
differences incommunication style is the Johari window.Withinorganizations, therearethree directions in
which communications flow: downward, upward and laterally. The network for muchinformal
communication is the organization‟s grapevine. Grapevines develop in organizations to
handlecommunications that the formal channels of communication do not handle. It typically
supplements
orreplacestheorganizationalhierarchyasthemeansfortransmittingcommunication.Barrierstocommunicatio
narefactorsthatblockorsignificantlydistortsuccessfulcommunication.Effectivemanagerialcommunications
killshelpsovercomesome,butnotall,barriers tocommunicationinorganizations.
Different types of communication are needed for different tasks. If a group‟s task is
relativelysimple, a centralized communication network in which interaction between members is limited
tends toincreaseeffectiveness.
9.17 GLOSSARY
Communication: The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals,
writing,or behavior.
Johari window: A Johari window is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph Luft and
HarryInghamin1955intheUnitedStates,usedtohelppeoplebetterunderstandtheirinterpersonalcommunicati
on and relationships. It is used primarily in self-help groups and corporate settings as aheuristic
exercise.
Grapevine pattern: The network for much informal communication is the organization‟s grapevine.
Itserve as an excellent source of information about employees attitudes as well as emotional outlets
forworkers.
Groupthink:Theactorpracticeofreasoningordecision-
makingbyagroup,especiallywhencharacterizedbyuncriticalacceptanceorconformitytoprevailingpointsofvi
ew.
Group decision- making: Groups decision making is decision making in groups consisting of
multiplemembers/entities.
9.18 REFERENCES
 StephenP.Robbins,OrganizationalBehaviour,Concepts,PrenticeHall,IndiaGaryDesslar,OrganizationT
heories,Prentice hall,India
 L.M. Prasad,ManagementProcessandOrganizational,SultanChand&Sons
 P.G.Aquinas,“OrganizationalBehaviour”,ExcelBooks,NewDelhi.
 AshburnerL(1990)“Impactof TechnologicalandOrganizationalChange”PersonnelReviewU.K.
 BernardMBassandEdwardCRyterband,(1979)“OrganizationalPsychology”(2ndEd)AllynandBacon,
Boston.
 BossR.W(1989)“OrganizationaldevelopmentinHealthcare”Addison-WesleyMass;Reading.
 DavisPandJohnRohrbugh“GroupDecisionProcessEffectiveness:AcompetingValueApproach”Groupan
dOrganizationStudies,March 1990.
 GeorgeJ.M.(1990)“Personality Effect, andBehaviorinGroups”,Journalof AppliedPsychology, vol.75

9.19 FURTHER READINGS

  HirokawaR.Y(1990)“TheRoleofCommunicationinGroupDecision-MakingEfficacy:Atask-
Contingency Perspective”SmallGroup ResearchMay1990.
 IrwinLJanis(1992)“Groupthink”(2ndEd)HoughtonMifflin.
 JamesHDavis(1964)“GroupPerformance”Addison-WesleyreadingsMass.
 MartellR.FandGuzzoR.A(1991)“TheDynamicsofImplicitTheoriesofGroupPerformance:WhenandH
owDoTheyOperate?”OrganizationalbehaviorandHumanDecisionProcesses,October1991.
 MarvinDDunnette(1976)“HandbookofIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology”RandMcNally,Chicago.
 MarvinEShaw,(1981)Dynamics:ThePsychologyofSmallGroupBehavior”(3rdEdition)McGraw-
HillNewYork.
 OsborneJ.E(1992)“TurningtoTeambuildingtoTackletoughTimes”SupervisorymanagementMay1992.

9.20 MODEL QUESTIONS

1. DefineCommunication.Whyhascommunicationassumedimportanceinmodernindustrialorganizatio
ns?
2. “Communicationissharingofunderstanding”.Comment.
3. Whataretheelements ofcommunication?Explaintheprocess of communication.
4. Bringoutclearlytheimportanceofcommunication.
5. Explainthevarioustypesofcommunication.Discussthecomparativeadvantagesoforalandwrittenco
mmunications.
6. Bringoutclearlythecharacteristics of agoodcommunicationsystem.
7. Describethestepsinthecommunicationprocess.
8. Nameanddescribebrieflythefivedifferentpatternsofcommunicationnetworkswithinanorganization.
9. Whatarethefivecommunication skillsofeffectivesupervisors?
10. Whatiskinesics?Whyisitimportant?
11. Explaintheterm„Grapevine‟asachannelofcommunication.Whatareitsbenefitstothem
anagement?
12. Explaintheprincipalbarriers tocommunicationandsuggestmeasuresforremovingthem.
13. Howdoesperceptionaffectthecommunicationprocess?
14. Contrast encodinganddecoding?
15. Describethecommunicationprocess andidentifyits keycomponents.
16. Whatisthemainfunctionof“effectivelistening”?Whatarethecommonorganizationalsit
uations in whichthistechnique mightbe useful?
17. Whatfunctiondoesfeedback serveinthecommunicationprocess?
18. Whatconditions stimulatetheemergenceofrumours?