Lesson-8

MOTIVATION

CONTENTS
8. Objectives
8.1Introduction
8.2DefinitionofMotivation
8.3NatureandCharacteristicsofMotivation
8.4ImportanceandBenefitsofMotivation
8.5TypesofMotivation
8.6Theories ofMotivation
8.7RequirementsofaSoundMotivation System
8.8MethodsofMotivatingPeople
8.9SpecialIssuesinMotivation
8.10 Summary
8.11 Glossary
8.12 References
8.13 Further Readings
8.14 Model Questions
8. OBJECTIVES
Afterstudyingthislesson,youwillbeableto:
1. Describemeaning,natureandtypesofmotivation.
2. Understandvarioustheories relatedtomotivation.
3. Explainthepre-requisitesofmotivation.
4. Knowthemethods ofmotivationandspecialissuesinmotivation.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Motivation is the process of channelling a person‘s inner drives so that he wants to
accomplishthe goals of the organization. Motivation concern itself with the will to work. It seeks to know
theincentives for work and tries to find out the way and means whereby their realization can be helped
andencouraged.Managers,bydefinition,arerequiredtoworkwithandthroughpeople,sotheymustgainat least
some understanding of the forces that will motivate the people they are to manage. People arecomplex
and they are uniquely different. What motivates one person may not motivate another. Mostsuccessful
managers have learned to understand the concept of human motivation and are able to
usethatunderstandingtoachieve higher standardsofsubordinateworkperformance.
 8.2 DEFINITIONOFMOTIVATION
―Motivation‖ is a Latin word, meaning ―to move‖. Human motives are internalised goals
withinindividuals. Motivation may be defined as those forces that cause people to behave in certain
ways.Motivation encompasses all those pressures and influences that trigger, channel, and sustain
humanbehaviour.Mostsuccessfulmanagershavelearnedtounderstandtheconceptofhumanmotivationand
areabletousethatunderstandingtoachievehigher standardsofsubordinatework performance.‖
MotivationhasbeendefinedbyMichaelJJuicusas―theactofstimulatingsomeoneoroneselftogetadesir
edcourseofaction‖.
In the words of Lewis Allen, ―Motivation is the work a manager performs to inspire,
encourageandimpelpeopletotakerequiredaction‖.
According to Dubin, Motivation is, ―The complex of forces starting and keeping a person at
workin an organization. To put it generally, motivation starts and maintains an activity along a
prescribed lineMotivation is something that moves the person to action, and co him in the course of
action alreadyinitiated‖.
According to William G Scott, ―Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action
toaccomplishdesiredgoals‖.
According to Koontz and O‘Donnell, ―Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class
ofdrives,needs,wishesand similarforces‖.
In the words of Brech, ―Motivation is a general inspiration process which gets the members
ofthe team to pull their weight effectively, to give their loyalty to the group, to carry out properly the
tasksthey haveacceptedandgenerally toplayaneffectivepartinthejobthatthegrouphas undertaken‖.
In the words of Dalton E McFarland, ―Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives,
desires,aspirations,strivingorneeds direct,controlorexplainthebehaviourofhumanbeings‖.
InthewordsofTolman,―Thetermmotivationhasbeencalledaninterveningvariable.Intervening
variables are internal and psychological process which are not directly observable andwhich, in
turn,accountforbehaviour‖
The Encyclopedia of Management observes: ―Motivation refers to the degree of‘ readiness of
anorganism to pursue some designated goal, and implies the determination of the nature and locus of
theforces,includingthe degree ofreadiness‖.
In the words of C. B. Mamoria —Motivation is — ―a willingness to expend energy to achieve
agoal or reward. It is a force that activates dormant energies-and sets in motion the action of the
people.Itis thefunctionthatkindlesa burningpassionforactionamongthehumanbeings ofanorganization‖.
Motivation is a process by which a need or desire is aroused and a psychological force
withinour mind sets us in motion to fulfil our needs and desire. An unsatisfied need becomes the motive
for aperson to spend his energy in order to achieve a goal. In a business organization the 4 P‘s
praise,prestigepromotion andpay arethebestpositivemotivators.
8.3 NATUREANDCHARACTERISTICSOFMOTIVATION
Psychologists generally agree that all behaviour is motivated, and that people have reasons
fordoing the things they do or for behaving in the manner that they do Motivating is the work a
managerperforms to Inspire, encourage and impel people to take required action. The process at
motivation ischaracterszedbythefollowing :
MotivationisanInternal Feeling
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates in the mind of an individual
thefeeling that he lacks certain things and needs those things. Motivation is a force within an individual
thatdriveshimtobehavein acertain way.
Motivationis Relatedto Needs
Needs are deficiencies which are created whenever there is a physiological or
psychologicalimbalance.In ordertomotivate apersonwehavetounderstand
hisneedsthatcallforsatisfaction.
MotivationProducesGoal-DirectedBehaviour
Goals are anything which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. An individual‘s behaviour
isdirectedtowardsa goal.
Motivationcanbeeither PositiveorNegative
Positive or incentive motivation is generally based on reward. According to - ―positive
motivationisaprocessofattemptingtoinfluenceotherstodoyourwillthroughthepossibility of gainor reward‖.
Negative or fear motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a
certainwaybecausetheyareafraid of theconsequencesiftheydon‘t.
8.4 IMPORTANCEANDBENEFITSOFMOTIVATION
Amanager‘sprimarytaskistomotivateotherstoperformthetasksoftheorganization.Therefore,theman
agermustfindthekeystogetsubordinatestocometoworkregularlyandontime,to work hard, and to make
positive contributions towards the effective and efficient achievement oforganizational objectives.
Motivation is an effective instrument in the hand a manager for inspiring thework force and creating
confidence in it. By motivating the work force, management creates ―will
towork‖whichisnecessaryfortheachievementoforganizationalgoals.Thevariousbenefitsofmotivationare:
(i) Motivation is one of the important elements in the directing process. By motivating
theworkers, a manager directs or guides the workers‘ actions in the desired direction
foraccomplishingthegoalsofthe organization.
(ii) Workers willtend to beas efficientas possibleby improvingupon theirskillsandknowledge
so that they are able to contribute to the progress of the organization
therebyincreasingproductivity.
(iii) Forperforminganytasks,twothingsarenecessary.Theyare:(a)abilitytoworkand
(b) willingness to work. Without willingness to work ability to work is of no use.
Thewillingness to workcanbecreated onlybymotivation.
(iv) Organizational effectiveness becomes, to some degree, a question of
management‘sabilitytomotivateitsemployees,todirectatleastareasonableefforttowardstheg
oalsoftheorganization.
(v) Motivation contributes to good industrial relations in the organization. When the
workersare motivated, contented and disciplined, the frictions between the workers and
themanagementwill bereduced.
(vi) Motivationisthebestremedyforresistancetochanges.Whenchangesareintroducedin an
organization, generally, there will be resistance from the workers. But if the workersof an
organization arc motivated, they will accept, introduce and implement the changeswhole
heartilyandhelp to keepthe organizationon therighttrackofprogress.
 (vi) Motivation facilitates the maximum utilization of all factors of production, human,
physicalandfinancialresourcesand therebycontributestohigherproduction.
(viii) Motivationpromotesasenseofbelongingamongtheworkers.Theworkersfeelthattheenterpris
ebelongstothem andtheinterestoftheenterpriseis theirinterests.
(ix) Manyorganizationsarenowbeginningtopayincreasingattentiontodevelopingtheiremployees
asfutureresources uponwhichtheycan draw astheygrowand develop.
8.5 TYPEOFMOTIVATION
If a manager wants to get work done by his employees, he may cither hold out a promise of
areward (positive motivation) or he may install fear (negative motivation). Both these types are
widelyusedbymanagements.
I. PositiveorIncentiveMotivation.
Thistypeofmotivationisgenerallybasedonreward.Apositivemotivationinvolvesthepossibility, of
increased motive satisfaction. According to Flippo - ―Positive motivation is a process ofattempting to
influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or reward‖. Incentivemotivation is the ―pull‖
mechanism. The receipt of awards, due recognition and for work-well donedefinitely lead
togoodteamspirit,co-operationand afeelingofhappiness.
Positivemotivationinclude:
 Praiseandcreditforwork done
 WagesandSalaries
 Appreciation
 Asincereinterest insubordinatesas individuals
 Delegationofauthorityandresponsibility
II. Negative orFearMotivation
This type of motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a certain
waybecause they fear the consequences. Negative motivation involves the possibility of decreased
motivesatisfaction.Itisa―push‖mechanism.
The imposition of punishment frequently results in frustration among those punished, leading
tothe development of maladaptive behaviour. It also creates a hostile state of mind and an
unfavourableattitude to the job. However, there is no management which has not used the negative
motivation atsometimeortheother.
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. DefineMotivation?
2. Explainthenatureandcharacteristic ofmotivation.
3. Whatis thebenefits ofmotivation?
4. Explainthetypes ofmotivation.
8.6 THEORIESOFMOTIVATION
EarlyApproachtoMotivation
The study of motivation can be traced back to the writings of the ancient Greek
philosophers.Theypresentedhedonismasanexplanationofhumanmotivation.Theconceptofhedonismsayst
hat
aperson seeksoutcomfortandpleasureand avoidsdiscomfortand
pain.Manycenturieslater,hedonismwasstillabasicassumptionintheprevailingeconomicandsocialphilosoph
iesofeconomists like Adam Smith and J.S. Mill. They explained motivation in terms of people trying
tomaximizepleasure andavoid pain.
Early psychological thought was also influenced by the idea of hedonism; Psychologists in
the1800sandeventheearly1900sassumedthathumansconsciouslyandrationallystrivefor(ahedonistic
approachto)pursuitofpleasure andavoidance ofpain.
In organizations, one of the first individuals to address worker motivation explicitly was
FredrickTaylor, who did so through his writings on scientific management between 1900 and 1915.
BecauseTaylor believed that people are motivated mainly by economic factors, he advocated a wage
incentivesystem to encourage workers to excel at doing the job exactly as specified by management.
However,theroutineandspecializednatureofthework,theofmanagerstoreducewageincentivesasproductio
n rose, and worker concerns that higher production would lead to job cutbacks led to workerresistance.
Money, especially when it was curbed as production rose, did not seem to have the desiredeffects.
Theapparentlimitationsofmoneyasthesolemotivationaltoolpiquedthecuriosityofresearchers in the
human relations school. On the basis of investigations such as, the Hawthornestudies, these
researchersargued for devoting greater attention to thesocial aspects of the
job.Accordingtotheirprescription,managersshouldmakeworkersfeelimportant,increaseverticalcommunica
tion, allow some decision making on very routine matters related to the job, and pay greaterattention to
work group dynamics and group incentives. Still, like the scientific management advocatesthe human
relations school emphasized gaining strict compliance with managerial directives in carryingout
extremely routine, specialized jobs. As a result, these efforts met with only limited success
inmotivatingworkers‘ behaviour.
By demonstrating the inadequacy of viewing workers as robot-like appendages that can
bemanipulated into compliance, these early efforts laid the groundwork fore more sophisticated
approachandabetterunderstanding ofthemotivationprocess.

TheoriesofMotivation

Early Contemporary
theoriesofMo theoriesofMotivati
tivation on

1. ‗MaslowNeedHierarchyTheory
2. McGregor‘sTheory XandTheoryY.
3. Herzberg‘sTwofactorTheory
1. Alderfer‘sERGTheory
2. McClellandaNeedsTheory
3. Locke‘sGoalSettingTheory
4. Skinner‘sReinforcementTheory
5. AdamsEquityTheory
6. VictorVroom‘sExpectancyTheory
EarlyTheoriesofMotivation
The 1950s were a fruitful period in the development of motivation concepts. Three
specifictheories were formulated during this time, which, although heavily attacked and now
questionable interms of validity, are probably still the best-known explanations for employee motivation.
Those theoriesare:
1. ‗HierarchyofNeeds‘Theory.
2. TheoriesX andY,and
3. TheMotivation-HygieneTheory.
1. ‘Maslow’sNeedHierarchy’Theory
AbrahamMaslowwasapsychologistwhoproposedatheoryofhumanmotivationforunderstandingbeh
aviourbasedprimarily uponahierarchyoffiveneedcategories.Herecognizedthat

Need for
selfactualization,n
eed
to realize one‘s
fullestpotential

Esteem needs: Needs

toachieve, to gain
competence,togainrespectfro
m others

Belonging and love needs – need to

loveand be loved, need to affiliate with
otherand he accepted

SafetyNeeds:Needforsafetyandsecurity

Physiological Needs: Need to satisfy the basic biological

needsforfood, water, oxygen,sleep andeliminationofbodily
Figure7.1:Maslow’sHierarchyofNeeds
wastes
there were factors other than one‘s needs (for example, culture) that were determinants of
behaviour.However,hefocusedhistheoreticalattentiononspecifyingpeople‘sinternalneeds.Maslowlabelled
the five hierarchical categories as physiological needs, safety and security needs, love (social)
needs,esteemneedsandtheneed forself-actualization.
Humans have a variety of needs or motives. Clearly, some needs are more critical to
sustaininglife than others. We could live without self-esteem, but obviously we could not live long
without air tobreathe,watertodrink,orfoodto eat.
Abraham Maslow (1970) proposed a ‗hierarchy of needs‘ to account for the range of
humanmotivation. He placed physiological needs such as food and water at the base of the hierarchy,
statingthattheseneedsmustbe adequatelysatisfied beforehigheronescanbeconsidered.
If our physiological needs (for water, food, sleep, sex and shelter) are adequately met, then
themotives at the next higher level (the safety and security needs) will come into play. When these
needsare satisfied, we climb another level to satisfy our needs to belong, and to love end be loved.
Maslowbelieved that failure to meet the belonging and love needs deprives individuals of acceptance,
affectionand intimacy and is the most prominent factor in human adjustment problems. Still higher in
thehierarchy are the needs for self-esteem and the esteem of others. These needs involve our sense
ofworthandcompetence,our needtoachieveandbe recognizedfor it,andour needtoberespected.
At the top of Maslow‘s hierarchy is the need for self-actualization the need to actualize or
realizeour full potential. People may reach self-actualization through achievement in virtually any area
of life‘swork. But the surest path of self- actualization is one in which a person finds significant and
consistentwaystoserveandcontributetothe well being ofhumankind.
Maslow conceptually derived the five need categories from the early thoughts of William
Jamesand John Dewey, coupled with the psychodynamic thinking of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler.
Onedistinguishing feature of Maslow‘s need hierarchy is the following progression hypothesis.
AlthoughsomelaterresearchhaschallengedsomeofMaslow‘sassumptions,thetheoryinsiststhatonlyungratif
ied needs motivate behaviour. Further, it is the lowest level of ungratified needs that motivatebehaviour.
As a lower level of need is met, a person progresses to the next higher level of need as asource, of
motivation. Hence, people progress up the hierarchy as they successively gratify each levelof need.
Some possible work-related means of fulfilling the various needs in the hierarchy are shown infigure7.2
below:

PotentialMeansofFulfillmentatwork
Self-ActualizationNeeds Challengingprojects,opportunitiesforinnovationandcreativit
NeedHierarchy

y,training
EsteemNeeds Importantprojects,recognition,prestigiousofficelocation
BelongingnessNeeds Goodco-workers, peers,superiors,customers
SafetyNeeds Job security; benefits, like life insurance;
safetyregulations
PhysiologicalNeeds Basicpay,workspace,heat,water,company cafeteria

Figure7.2:Maslow’sHierarchy of NeedsandPotentialMeansofFulfillmentatWork
 Maslowrecognizedthataneedmightnothavetobecompletelyfulfilledbeforewestartdirecting out
attention to the next level in the hierarchy. At the same time, he argued that once we haveessentially
fulfilled a need, that need ceases to be a motivator and we begin to feel tension to fulfilneeds at the
next level. While Maslow‘s hierarchy has stimulated thinking about the various needs thatindividuals
have, it has some serious shortcomings. Research suggests that needs may cluster into
twoorthreecategoriesratherthanfive.Also,the,hierarchyofneedsmaynotbethesamefareveryone.For
instance, entrepreneurs frequently pursue. their dreams for years despite the relative deprivation
oflower level needs. Finally, individuals often seem to work on satisfying several needs at once,
eventhoughsomeneedsmaybemoreimportantthanothersata givenpointoftime.
2. McGregor’sTheoryXandTheoryY
One important organizational implication of the hierarchy of needs concerns the
philosophiesand techniques that have a bearing on how to manage people at work. Douglas McGregor,
taking a cueon motivation from Maslow‘s need-based theory, grouped the physiological and safety
needs as ―lower-order‖ needs and the social, esteem and self-actualization needs as ―upper-order‖
needs; McGregorproposed two alternative sets of assumptions about people at work, based upon
which set of needswere the active motivators. He labelled these sets of assumptions — one basically
negative as —TheoryXandtheotherbasicallypositive—
asTheoryY.Afterviewingthewayinwhichmanagersdealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a
manager‘s view of the nature of human beings isbased on a certain grouping of assumptions and that
he or she tends to mould his or her behaviourtowardsubordinatesaccording tothese assumptions.
Table 7.2: Table below lists the assumptions that McGregor makes about people, resolving
theminhis nowfamoustheoryX andtheoryY
Theory X Theory Y
 People are by nature indolent. That  Peoplearenotbynaturepassiveorresistantto
is,they work aslittleas possible. organizationalneeds.Theyhave become so
as a result of experienceinorganizations.
 Peoplelackambition,dislikeresponsibility
andprefertobeled.  Themotivation,thepotentialfordevelopment,t
hecapacityforassumingresponsibility, and
 People are inherently and indifferent
the readiness to directbehaviour toward
toorganizational needs.
organizational goals
 Peoplearebynatureresistanttochange areallpresentinpeople.Managementdoesno
t put them there. It is a responsibility
 People are gullible and not very ofmanagement to make it possible for
bright,thereadydupesofthecharlatanandt peopletorecognizeanddevelopthesehuman
hedemagogue. characteristicsforthemselves.
 Theessentialtaskofmanagementistoarrange
conditionsandmethodsofoperation so that
people can achieve
theirowngoalsbestbydirectingtheirowneffort
stowardorganizationalobjectives.

Source:D.MMcGregor,―TheHumanSideofEnterprise‖,ManagementReview.‗November1957:Page22-28.
88.92.
 According to McGregor, people should be treated differently according to whether they
aremotivatedbylower-orderorhigherorderneeds;Specifically,McGregorbelievedthatTheoryXassumptions
are appropriate for employees motivated by lower-order needs. Theory Y assumptions, incontrast, are
appropriate for employees motivated by higher-order needs, and Theory X assumptionsare then
inappropriate. In addition, McGregor believed that in the 1950s when he was writing, themajority of
American workers had satisfied their lower-order needs and were therefore motivated byhigher-order
needs. Therefore, he proposed such ideas as participative decision-making, responsibleand
challenging jobs, and good group relations as approaches that would maximize employee‘s
jobmotivation. Unfortunately, no evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is valid or that
acceptingTheoryYassumptionsandalteringone‘sactionsaccordingly willleadtomoremotivated workers.
3. TheMotivation-hygieneTheory,Herzberg’sTwoFactorTheory
Fredrick Herzberg departed from the need hierarchy approach to motivation and examined
theexperiences that satisfied or dissatisfied people‘s needs at work. This need motivation theory
becameknown as the ‗two-factor theory‘. Herzberg‘s original study included 200 engineers and
accountants inWestern Pennsylvania during the 1950s. Prior to that time, it was common for those
researching workmotivation to view the concept of job satisfaction as one-dimensional, that is, job
satisfaction and jobdissatisfaction were viewed as opposite ends of the same continuum. This meant
that something thatcaused job satisfaction, would cause job dissatisfaction if it were removed; similarly,
something thatcausedjobdissatisfaction,ifremoved,would result,in
jobsatisfaction.Baseduponunstructuredinterviews with 200 engineers and accountants, Herzberg
concluded that this view of job satisfactionwas incorrect, and that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were
actually conceptually different factorscaused by different phenomena in the work environment. These
two views of job satisfaction are showninfigure 7.3 below

TraditionalView

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction
Herzberg‘sView

Satisfaction
NoSatisfaction

Nodissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Source:StephenPRobbins―Organization.Behaviour—
Concepts,Controversies,Applications‖(seventhEdition)1996 page 217.
Figure7.3:ContrastingViews of SatisfactionandDissatisfaction
Workconditionsrelatedto satisfactionofthe needforpsychological growth werelabelledmotivation
factors. Work conditions related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain was Iabelled‗hygiene
factors‘. Each set of factors relate to one aspect of what Herzberg identified as the human-being‘s dual
nature regarding the work environment Thus, motivation factors relate to job
satisfaction,andhygienefactorsrelatetojobdissatisfaction.Thesetwoindependentfactorsaredepictedinfigur
e7.4.
 Hygiene:JobDissatisfaction MotivatorsJobDissatisfaction

Achievement

Recognitionofachievement

Workitself

Responsibility

Advancement

Growth

Company policy and

administrationSupervision

Interpersonal

relationsWorkingCo

nditions

Salary*

Status

Security

* Because of its ubiquitous nature, salary commonly showed up as a motivator as well

ashygiene. Although primarily a hygiene factor, it also often takes on some of the properties of
amotivator,withdynamics similartothoseofrecognitionforachievement.
Source: Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To Be Efficient is to be Human — Salt Lake
City:Olympus.1982.
Figure7.4:HygieneandMotivatingFactors
MotivationFactors
According to Herzberg, building motivation factors into a job produces job satisfaction.
Thisprocess is known as job enrichment. In the original research, the motivation factors were identified
asresponsibility, achievement, recognition, advancement and the work itself. These factors relate to
thecontentofthejobandwhattheemployeeactuallydoesonthejob.Whenthesefactorsarepresent,they lead to
superior performance and effort on the part of job incumbents. Motivation factors lead topositive mental
health and challenge people to grow, contribute to the work environment, and investthemselves in the
organization. The motivation factors are the most important of the two sets of factors,because they
directly affect a person‘s motivational drive to do a good job. When they are absent, thepersonwill be
de-motivatedtoperformwell andachieve excellence.
HygieneFactors
Job dissatisfaction occurs when the hygiene factorsare either not presentornotsufficient.
Intheoriginalresearch,thehygienefactorswerecompanypolicyandadministration,technicalsupervision,
interpersonal relations with one‘s supervisor and working conditions, salary and status.These factors
relate to the context of the job and may be considered support factors. They do notdirectly affect a
person‘s motivation to work but influence the extent of the person‘s discontent.
Thesefactorscannotstimulatepsychologicalgrowthorhumandevelopment.Excellenthygienefactorsresultin
employees‘ being not dissatisfied and contribute to the absence of complaints about these
contextualconsiderations.
CriticismsoftheTwo-factorTheory
Themotivation-hygiene-
theoryisnotwithoutitsdetractors.CriticismshavebeenmadeofHerzberg‘stwo-factortheory.R.JHouse
andL.A.Wigdormentionthefollowing:
1. The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its methodology. When things are going
well,peopletendtotakecredit themselves.Contrarily,theyblamefailureontheexternalenvironment.
2. ThereliabilityofHerzberg‘smethodologyisquestioned.Sinceratershavetomakeinterpretations, it is
possible they may contaminate the findings by interpreting one response
inonmannerwhiletreatinganother similarresponse differently.
3. The theory, to the degree it is valid, provides an explanation of job satisfaction. It is not really
atheoryofmotivation.
4. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized, in other words, a person may dislike part of
hisor herjob,yetstill think the jobisacceptable.
5. Thetheoryisinconsistentwithpreviousresearch.Themotivation-
hygienetheoryignoressituationalvariables.
6. Herzbergassumesarelationshipbetweensatisfactionandproductivity.Buttheresearchmethodology
he used looked only at satisfaction, not at productivity. To make such
researchrelevant,onemust,assumeahighrelationship betweensatisfactionandproductivity.
Regardless of criticisms, Herzberg‘s theory has been widely read and most managers a
familiarwith his recommendations. He two-factor theory has important implications for job enrichment
and thedesignofwork.
ContemporaryTheoryofMotivation
Thetheoriesdiscussedabovearewellknownbuthavenotheldupwellundercloseexamination.
Therefore, a number of authorities on the subject have come up with their version of thetheories of
motivation. These contemporary theories have one thing in common: each has a
reasonabledegreeofvalid supporting documentation.
 These theories are called contemporary theories not necessarily because they were
developedrecently,butbecausetheyrepresentthecurrentstateoftheartinexplainingemployeemotivation.
1. Alderfer’s ERGTheory
Because of the criticisms of Maslow‘s ‗hierarchy of needs‘ theory, motivation researcher
ClaytonAlderfer of Yale University has reworked Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs to align it more closely
withempiricalresearch.HisrevisedneedhierarchyislabelledERCTheory.ThenamestemsfromcombiningMa
slow‘sfiveneeds intothreeneedlevels:existence,relatednessandgrowth.
i. Existence Needs: include the various forms of material and physiological desires, such as
foodand water, as well as work-related forms such as pay, fringe benefits and physical
workingconditions.
ii. Relatedness needs: address our relationships significant others, such as families,
friendshipgroups, work groups and professional groups. They deal with our need to be accepted
by others,achieve mutual understanding on matters that are important to us and exercise some
influenceoverthose withwhom we interactonanongoingbasis.
iii. Growths needs: impel creativity and innovation, along with the desire to have a
productiveimpacton oursurroundings.
ERG need levels differ in terms of concreteness, that is, the degree to which their presence
orabsence can be verified. The existence need level is the most concrete, relating to issues such as
ourrate of pay and the pleasantness of our work surroundings. The growth need level is the least
concrete,involving more nebulous issues such as our level of creativity the degree to which our
capabilities aregrowingrelativetoourcapacityandthelong-
termimpactofoureffortsonourorganization.Accordingto ERG theory, we generally tend to concentrate
first on our most concrete requirements. As existenceneedsare resolved,we havemore
energyavailableforconcentrating onrelatednessneeds, whichoffer a potential source of support that can
help us in satisfying growth needs. Thus, ERG theoryincorporatesasatisfaction-
progressionprinciplesimilartothatofMaslowinthatsatisfactionofonelevelofneedencouragesconcernwiththe
nextlevel.
Besidessubstitutingthreeneedsforfive,howdoesAlderfer‘s?ERGTheorydifferfromMaslow‘s?TheE
RGTheorydiffersfromthehierarchyofneedstheoryinthreesignificantways.
i. Although the general notion of a hierarchy is retained, Alderfer‘s theory argues that we can
beconcerned with more than one need category at the same time. Needs at lower levels are
notnecessarilyfairlywellsatisfiedbeforeweconcernourselveswithotherneeds,althoughsatisfaction
of lower-level needs can be helpful In allowing us to devote our attention to higher-level needs.
ii. ERG of theory is more flexible in acknowledging that some individuals‘ needs may occur in
asomewhatdifferentorderthanthatposited bythe,ERGframework,
iii. ERG theory incorporates a frustration-regression principle. This principle states that if we
arecontinuallyfrustratedinourattemptstosatisfyahigher-levelneed,wemayceasetobeconcerned
about that need. Instead, we may regress to exhibiting greater concern for a lowerlevelneed
thatismore concreteandseeminglymorewithin ourgrasp.
In summary, ERG theory argues — like Maslow — that satisfied lower order needs lead to
thedesire to satisfy higher order needs; but multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the
sametime, and frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher level need can result in regression to a lower
levelneed. Both Maslow‘s hierarchy theory‘ and ERG theory are extremely difficult to test because
theyinvolve measuring and tracking an individual‘s changing needs and fulfilment levels over time. So
far,thelimitedresearchonERGtheoryhasgenerallybeensupportive.IfERGtheoryiscorrectin
predicting that individuals attempt to fulfil multiple needs at the same time, then motivating individuals
islikely to require offering a variety of means for need fullilment. Because of the frustration-
regressionaspect of ERG theory, managers need to be particularly concerned with providing
opportunities tosatisfygrowth needs,lestemployees ceaseto beinterestedinthem.
2. McClelland’sTheoryofNeeds
While the hierarchy of needs theory and ERG theory view certain needs as an inherent part
ofour makeup, psychologist David C McClelland offers a different perspective, ‗acquired-needs‘
theory,which argues that our needs are acquired or learned on the basis of our life experience.
Although suchneeds tend to be a product of a variety of conditions to which we are exposed,
sometimes even aspecific eventcanprofoundlyinfluence ourdesires.
In the late 1930s, Murray developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Twenty
pictureswere shown to subjects who were asked to make up a dramatic story about each one. Based
on theresults,Murrayargued
thatabouttwentybasichumanneedsthatmotivatedbehaviourcouldbeidentified.Beginninginthe1950s,formo
rethanthreedecades,McClellandandhisassociatesresearched three of these needs extensively—power,
affiliation, and achievement. He measures theseneeds using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT),
which involves having test takers write
storiesaboutpicturesthatarepurposely,ambiguous.Thestoriesarethenscoredaccordingtotheachievement
affiliation and power themes that they contain, the assumption being that individuals writeabout themes
that are important to them. McClelland believes that each person possesses all threeneeds, but people
differ in the degree to which the various motives dominate their behaviour. Themotivesaredescribed as:
i. Needforpower (nPow): The individual exhibiting this need as the dominant one
derivessatisfaction from his or her ability to control others. Actual achievement of desired goals
is ofsecondary importance to the, high nPow individual; instead the means by which goals
areachieved (the exercise of power) are of primary importance. Individuals with a high nPow
derivesatisfaction from being in positions of influence and control. Organizations‘ that foster the
powermotivetendtoattract individuals witha highneedfor power(forexamplemilitaryorganization).
ii. Needforaffiliation(nAff):Individualsexhibitingthisneedasadominantmotivederivesatisfaction
from social and interpersonal activities. There is a need to form strong interpersonalties and to
―get close‖ to people psychologically. If asked to choose between working at a taskwith those
who are technically competent and those who are their friends, high nAff individualswillchose
theirfriends.
iii. Need for achievement (nAch): Individuals high in nAch derive satisfaction from reaching
goals.The feeling of successful task accomplishment is important to the high achiever. High
achieverspreferimmediatefeedbackontheirperformanceandtheygenerallyundertaketasksofmoder
atedifficultyratherthanthosethatareeitherveryeasyorverydifficult.Theyalsopreferto work
independently so that successful task performance (or failure) can be related to
theirowneffortsratherthanthe effortsofsomeoneelse.
McClellandhasanalyzedvariousneedsintermsoftheirrelationshiptomanagerialeffectiveness. He
originally thought that individuals with a high need for achievement would make thebest managers. His
subsequent work suggests that, to the contrary, high-nAch individuals tend toconcentrate on their own
individual achievements rather than on the development and achievements ofothers. As a result, high-
nAch individuals often make good entrepreneurs because initial successfrequently depends largely on
individual achievement. They may not, however, make good managers insituations that require working
with a number of others and waiting to learn the results of their efforts.Similarly, individuals with a
personal-power orientation run into difficulties as managers because
theyoftenattempttousetheeffortsofothersfortheirown personalbenefit.
 McClelland‘s work suggests that individuals with a high institutional-power need make the
bestmanagers because they are oriented toward coordinating the efforts of others to achieve long-term
ogoals. Thus, the need profile of successful managers, at least in competitive environments, appear
toinclude
 Amoderate-to-highneedforinstitutionalpower.
 Amoderateneedforachievementtofacilitateindividualcontributionsearlyinone‘scareerandadesirefor
theorganization tomaintaina competitive edge as onemovesto higher levels,and
 Atleastaminimumneedforaffiliationtoprovidesufficientsensitivityforinfluencingothers.
The most distinctive element of the achievement motivation theory is the claim by
McClellandthat the need can be learned (or unlearned). McClelland has reported numerous instances
in
whichindividualswithalowinitialneedtoachieveweresubtoasofclassroomexperiencesthatresultedinanincre
asedneedtoachieve.Thistypeoftrainingexposesindividualstotasksinvolvingtheachievement of goals and
gradually makes the situations more challenging as the individuals increasetheir ability to handle the
tasks. Again, a development program may be undertaken to reduce the needto achieve, to bring it more
in like with the other two needs. So, while the need to achieve has receivedthe greatest publicity,
McClelland‘s theory is actually concerned with matching an individual motivationpatternstothe
organizationsin which heisworking.
CriticismsofMcClelland’sTheory:Thefollowingarethethreemajorcriticisms:
i. The use of a projective technique such as, TAT to determine basic needs has been
questioned.Whileprojectivetechniqueshavemanyadvantagesoverstructuredquestionnaires,theint
erpretationofsubjectivecommentsisatbestanart,andatworstanthebiasoftheresearcher, not the
subject. Because of this criticism, it is useful to use different techniques
tomeasureMcClelland‘sthree needs.
ii. Theargumentthattheneedforachievementcanbetaughttoadultsconflictswiththelargebody of
psychological literature that argues that the acquisition of motives normally occurs
inchildhoodand is verydifficulttochange,onceithas been established.
iii. McClelland‘sproposalhasseenquestionedongroundsofperformance.Whileitmaybefeasible to
teach the need to achieve under carefully controlled conditions, it may be only atemporarily
inducedfeeling ratherthana permanentchangein behaviour.
On balance, McClelland‘s work seems to have numerous practical applications, at least in
theeconomic realm. It would appear that the current problem is to concentrate on the development of
anenvironment that will support the desired need, be it affiliation, power, or achievement, or to change
theneed to fit the environment. In many respects, however, McClelland‘s work holds promise for
workmotivation.
3. Locke’s&Latham’sGoal-SettingTheory
Intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation. That is, goals tell
anemployee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended. Whilegoal
settingwas originally viewed as a technique, it is developing into a motivational theory as researchers
attemptto understand better the cognitive factors that influence success. Goal-setting experts Edwin A
Lockeand Gary P Latham argue that goal setting works by directing attention and action, mobilizing
effort,increasing persistence, and encouraging the development of strategies to achieve the goals.
Feedbackregardingresultsalso isan essential elementinmotivating throughgoalsetting.
The success of goal setting in motivating performance depends on establishing goals that
havetheappropriateattributesorcharacteristics.Inparticulargoalsshouldbespecificandmeasurable,
challenging, attainable, relevant too major work of the organization, and time-limited in the sense
ofhivinga defined periodoftime withinwhich thegoal mustbeaccomplished.
Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of ―do
yourbest‖. The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus. If factors like ability and
acceptancethe goal are held constant, we can also state that the more difficult the goal, the higher the
level ofperformance. However, it‘s logical to assume that easier goals are more likely to be accepted.
But onceanemployeeacceptsahardtask,heorshewillexertahighlevelofeffortuntilitisachieved,loweredor
abandoned.
People will do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward
theirgoals because feedback helps identity discrepancies between what they have done and what they
wanttodo;thatis,feedbackactsto guidebehaviour.
Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goal, that is,
determinednot to lower or abandon the goal. This is most likely to occur when goals are made public,
when theindividual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than
assigned. Self-efficacy refers to an individual‘s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The
higher yourself-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your-ability to succeed in a task. So, in
difficult situations,wefindthatpeoplewith lowself-efficacywell tryhardertomasterthechallenge.
4. Skinner’sReinforcementTheory
In reinforcement theory, we have a behaviouristic approach, which argues that
reinforcementconditions behaviour. Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and
concentratessolely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action. Because it does
not
concernitselfwithwhatinitiatesbehaviour,itisnot,strictlyspeaking,atheoryofmotivation.Butitdoesprovidea
powerful means of analysis of what controls behaviour and it is for this reason that it is
typicallyconsideredin discussionsofmotivation.
Noted psychologist; B. F Skinner has pioneered the best-known approach to
reinforcementtheory, sometimes also called operant conditioning theory or behaviourism. According to
reinforcementtheory, our behaviour can be explained by consequences in the environment and
therefore, it is notnecessary to look for cognitive explanations. Instead, the theory relies heavily on a
concept called thelaw of effect, which states that behaviours having pleasant or positive consequences
are more likely tobe repeated and that behaviours having unpleasant or negative consequences are
less likely to berepeated.
The way the reinforcement process works is that a stimulus provides a cue for a response
ofbehaviour that is then followed by a consequence. If we find the consequence rewarding, we are
morelikely to repeat the behaviour when the stimulus occurs in the future, otherwise, we are less likely
torepeat the behaviour The use of techniques associated with reinforcement theory is known a;
behaviourmodification;
TypesofReinforcement
In behaviour modification, four types of reinforcement are available to help managers
influencebehaviour: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment.
Skinner arguesthat positive reinforcement and extinction encourage individual growth whereas negative
reinforcementand punishment are likely to foster immaturity in individuals and eventually contaminate
the entireorganization.Thefigurebelowexplains thetypesofreinforcementsituations.
1. PositiveReinforcement:Positivereinforcementinvolvesprovidingapleasant,rewardingconsequen
cetoencouragethatbehaviour.Therewardingconsequence,suchaspraise,araise,ortime off, is said to be a
positive rein forcer if it leads to repetition of the desired behaviour.
Sinceindividualsdifferinregardtowhattheyfindpleasantandrewarding,managersneedtomonitorthe
effectsofaparticularreinforcertodeterminewhetheritiseffectiveinencouragingthedesiredbehaviour.
Because individuals frequently do not execute a new behaviour exactly as required whenthey first try it,
managers often find it useful to encourage new behaviours through shaping. ―Shaping isthe successive
rewarding of behaviours that closely approximates the desired response until the
actualdesiredresponse ismade.

IncreasesBeheviour
NegativeRe
inforcement

Extinction Punishment
DecreasesBeheviour

Encourages Encourages
Maturity Immaturity

Figure 7.5:TypesofReinforcementSituationsAccordingto Skinner

2. Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement involves providing a noxious stimulus so
thatan individual will engage in the desired behaviour in order to stop the noxious
(unpleasant)stimuli.With negative reinforcement,either the noxious stimulus is actually present
or thepotential is high for the noxious stimuli to occur unless the individual engages in the
desiredbehaviour. Although the use of negative reinforcement may encourage the desired
behaviour,
ithasthedisadvantageofpossiblymakingtheindividualfeelnegativetowardthepersonproviding the
negative reinforcement, in such cases, individuals may react by doing only what
isrequired,declining toputinextratimewhenit mightbehelpful,orevenleavingtheorganization.
3. Extinction:Extinctioninvolveswithholdingpreviouslyavailablepositiveconsequencesassociated
with a behaviour in order to decrease that behaviour. Eliminating any reinforcementthat is
maintaining behaviour is called extinction. When the behaviour is not reinforced, it tendsto be
gradually extinguished. For example, Professors who wish to discourage students fromasking
questions in class can eliminate this behaviour in their students by ignoring those whoraise their
hands to ask questions. Hand rising will become extinct when it is invariably met
withanabsenceofreinforcement.
4. Punishment: Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate
anundesirable behaviour, for example, giving an employee a twoday suspension from work
withoutpayforcomingto‗workinaninebriatedcondition.Punishmentdiffersfromnegativereinforcemen
tin atleasttwo ways.
i. Punishmentaimstodecreaseordiscourageanundesirablebehaviour,whereasnegative
reinforcementattemptstoincreaseor encourage adesirablebehaviour.
ii. Punishmentisusuallyappliedaftertheindividualhasengagedinanundesirablebehaviour,conv
ersely,withnegativereinforcementthenoxiousstimulistopsorisavoidedwhen thedesirable
behaviouroccurs.
Bothpunishmentandnegativereinforcementconstitutenegativeapproachtoaffectingbehaviour.
 Argumentsagainsttheuseofpunishmentarethatitcanhaveundesirablesideeffects(example:-
negative feeling toward the punisher) and may eliminate the undesirable behaviour only aslong as the
threat of punishment remains. Also, it does not provide a model of correct behaviour. Still,punishment
may be necessary under some circumstances, particularly if the undesirable behaviour
hasaseriousimpactontheorganization orendangersothers.
Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on
whathappens to a person when he or she takes some action. Because, it does not concern itself with
whatinitiates behaviour, it is not, strictly speaking, a theory of motivation. But it does provide a
powerfulmeans of analysis of what controls behaviour, and it is for this reason that it is typically
considered indiscussions of motivation. Reinforcement is undoubtedly an important influence on
behaviour, but fewscholars are prepared to argue it is the only influence. The behaviour you engage in
at work and theamount of effort you allocate to each task are affected by the consequences that follow
from yourbehaviour. For example, if you are consistently reprimanded for out producing your
colleagues, you willlikely reduce your productivity. But your lower productivity may also be explained in
terms of goals,inequity orexpectancies.
5. Adam’sEquityTheory
As the name implies, this motivation theory is based on the assumption that individuals
aremotivated by their desire to be equitably treated in their work relationships. When employees work
foranorganization,theybasicallyexchangetheirservicesforpayand otherbenefits.Equitytheoryproposes
that individuals attempt to reduce any inequity they may feel as a result of this exchangerelationship.
Adam‘s Theory of Equity is one of the popular social exchange theories and is perhaps the
mostrigorously development statement of how individuals evaluate social exchange relationships.
Basically,the theory points out that people are motivated to maintain fair relationships with others and
will try torectify unfair relationships by making them fair. This theory is based on two assumptions about
humanbehaviour:
i. Individuals make contributions (inputs) for which they expect certain outcomes (rewards).
Inputsinclude such things as the person‘s past training and experience, special knowledge,
personalcharacteristics,etc.Outcomesincludepayrecognition,
promotion,prestige,fringebenefits,etc.
ii. Individuals decide whether or not a particular exchange is satisfactory, by comparing their
inputsandoutcomestothose ofothersinthe
formofaratio.Equityexistswhenanindividualconcludesthathis/herown outcome/inputratioisequal
tothatofothers.
Thefigurebelowshowsthebasic equitymodel.

Person Other

Inputs comparison Inputs

Outcomes Outcomes

Figure 7.6:TheBasicEquityModel
 Themotivationalaspectof equitytheoryisbasedon itstwomajorpremises:
1. Thetheoryarguesthattheperceptionofinequitycreatesatensioninus.
2. The tension motivates us to eliminate or reduce inequality. The greater the perceived
inequity,the stronger the tension and the greater our motivation to reduce it. When attempting to
reducefeltinequity,anindividualislikely totry anumberof alternatives,someofwhichare:
(i) The personmayincrease ordecreaseinputsoroutcomesrelativetothoseoftheother;
(ii) Thepersonmaysubjectivelydistortperceptionsotherownortheother‘sinputsoroutcomes;
(iii) Thepersonmaychangetoadifferentcomparison‗other‘;
(iv) Thepersonmay leavethe situation.
ReducingorEliminatingInequity
Although the specific actions an individual takes will depend on what appears to be feasible in
agiven situation, Adam suggests that maintaining one‘s self is an important priority. As a result,
anindividual will probably first attempt to maximize outcomes and to personally, resist costly changes
ininputs.Changingperceptionsabouttheinputsandoutcomesofothersorattemptingtoaltertheirsideof the
equation will usually be more palatable than cognitively changing or actually altering one‘s ownside of
the equation. Actions to leave the situation will probably be taken only in cases of high inequitywhen the
other alternatives are not feasible. Finally, an individual will be highly resistant to changing
thecomparisonothers,especiallyiftheobjectsofcomparisonhave stabilizedovertime.
Although Adam‘s equity formulation considered one situation at a given point of time,
recentwork on the theory also considers inequities that extend over a period of time. The addition of the
timeperspective helps explain why people sometimes blow up over seemingly small inequities.
Residuesfrom previous inequities may pile up until the small incident becomes the ―straw that broke the
camel‘sback‖,and wereactstrongly.
NewPerspectiveonEquityTheory
Since the original formulation of the theory, a number of revisions have been made in light
ofnewtheoriesand research. Oneimportant theoretical revisionproposesthree typesofindividualsbasedon
preferencesforequity.
i. Equitysensitives:arethosepeoplewhopreferequitybasedontheoriginally formedtheory.
ii. Benevolents: are people who are comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of his or
hercomparisonother.
iii. Entitleds: are people who are comfortable with an equity ratio greater than their comparison
totheother.
Implications: for Manager: Equity theory makes several helpful suggestions to supplement
therecommendations ofexpectancytheory.
i. Managers need to maintain two-way communication with subordinates so that they have
someideaofsubordinatesequityperceptions.
ii. It is important to let subordinates know the ―rules‖ that will govern the allocation of
outcomesrelated to inputs. This issue is closely related to the expectancy theory
recommendation that therelationshipbetweenperformance
andoutcomesbemadecleartosubordinates.
iii. A pattern of inequalities over a period of time can build into major difficulties, which is
anotherreason for maintaining good communication with subordinates,superiors, peers,
customers,andotherindividualsassociatedwiththejob.
6.VictorVroom’sExpectancyTheory
Whereas Adam‘s theory of inequity focuses on a social process, Victor H Vroom‘s
expectancytheory of motivation focuses on personal perceptions. His theory is founded on the basic
notions thatpeople desire certain outcomes of behaviour, which may be thought of as rewards or
consequences
ofbehaviour,andthattheybelievethereisarelationshipbetweentheeffortstheyputforth,theperformance they
achieve, and the outcomes they receive. In its simplest form, expectancy theory saysthata
person‘smotivation tobehaveinacertainway isdetermined by
i. Outcomesthepersonseesas desirable, and
ii. The person‘s belief that these desired outcomes can be
attained.Thekeyconstructsintheexpectancytheoryofmotivation
are:
i. Valence: Valence is the value or importance one places on a particular reward. The valance
ofan outcome is positive when the individual desires it and negative when he or she wishes
toavoidit; valances aretherefore scaledovera wide rangeofpositive andnegative values.
ii. Expectancy: Expectancy is the belief that effort leads to performance, for example, ―If I
tryharder, I can do better‖. Expectancy refers to the perceived relationship between a given level
ofeffort and a given level of performance. People attach various expectancies to an
outcome.Competentandsecureindividualstendtoperceiveexpectancymorepositivelythanincompet
entandpessimisticindividuals.
iii. Instrumentally: Instrumentality is the belief that performance is related to the rewards.
Forexample, ―If I perform better, I will get more pay‖. Instrumentality ranges from — 1 to + 1
(beliefthat one desired outcome is attainable only without the other) through 0 (belief that there
is norelationship between the two outcomes) to + I (belief that the first outcome is necessary
andsufficientforthesecondoutcometooccur).
A model for the expectancy theory notions of effort, performance and rewards is depicted in
thefigurebelow:

Source:DebraLNelsonandJamesCampbellQuick‗OrganizationalBehaviorFoundations,RealitiesandChall
enges‖ (Secondedition)WestPublishingCompanyMinneapolis(1997)Page149.
Figure7.7:AnExpectancy ModelforMotivation
 A person‘s motivation increases along with his or her belief that effort leads to performance
andthat performance leads to rewards, assuming that person wants the rewards. This is the third key
ideawithin the expectancy theory of motivation. It is the idea that the valance, or value, that people
place onvarious reward varies. One person prefers salary to benefits, whereas another, person prefers
just thereverse.All people donotplacethesamevalue oneachreward.
MotivationalProblems:Motivationalproblemsstemfromthreebasiccauseswithintheexpectancythe
oryframework. They are:
1. Ifthemotivationalproblemisrelatedtotheperson‘sbeliefthateffortwillnotresultinperformance, the
solution lies in altering belief. The person can be shown how a increase
ineffortoranalterationinthekindofeffortputforthcanbeconvertedintoimproved performance.
2. If the motivational problem is related to the person‘s belief that performance will not result
inrewards, the solution lies in altering this belief. The person can be shown how an increase
inperformanceorasomewhatalteredformofperformance willbe convertedinto rewards.
3. If the motivational problem is related value the person places on, or the preference the
personhas for certain rewards, the solution lies in influencing the value placed on the rewards
oralteringtherewardsthemselves.
ExpandingExpectancyTheory
If you ask several people whether they would agree that satisfied workers work harder, they
arelikely to reply in the affirmative. Although the notion seems to have intuitive appeal, research, has
notalways found a strong link between worker satisfaction and performance. To understand the Lyman
WPorterandEdwardELawler IIIdeveloped‗expandedexpectancytheory‘model,seethefigure7.8.

Source:LymanWPorterandEdwardELawlerIII,―ManagerialAttitudesandPerformance‖,Irwin,HomewoodIII(196
8)page 165.
Figure7.8:AnExpanded ModelofExpectancyTheory
 According to this model, satisfaction does not lead to performance. Rather, the reverse is
true:performance can (but not always) lead to satisfaction through the reward process. How do we get
to theIdealofhighperformanceandhigh satisfaction?Assuggested by theextended model,a crucialelement
is rewarding high performance. Rewarding high performance leads to a high P�O expectancy,an
important component of motivation. Equally critical, poor performance should not be
rewarded.Rewardingpoorperformanceleadstoalow P�Oexpectancyand
ultimatelytolowsubordinatemotivationtoperform.
Expectancy,theoryhassomemajorimplicationsformanagers:
(i) It is useful for managers to foster a high E�P expectancy in subordinates. This can be done
bybeing very clear about performance expectations, setting performance goals so that they
arechallenging, but doable, making sure that employees have the training and resources
necessarytoreach ‗the‖requiredperformancelevelsandproviding encouragement.
(ii) Another major factor in encouraging motivation is off opportunities for rewards (both
extrinsicandintrinsic)with ahighvalance toemployees.
(iii) The extended model of expectancy theory also indicates that managers might not get
theexpected results from their motivational efforts unless employees perceive their outcomes
andrewards asequitable.
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONs
1. Explain theory X and theory
2. Y.Explaintheneedhierarchytheory.
3. Explaintheterm‗valence‘and‗expectancy‘.
4. Explainthefeaturesoftheneedachievementtheory
8.7REQUIREMENTSOFA SOUNDMOTIVATION SYSTEM
It is very difficult for an average manager to sort through all the different motivational
theoriesand models and know when and how to maximize their application in widely differing situations.
Thereshould be a sound system of motivation to make the workers put forth their bestefforts. A
soundsystem ofmotivation should have thefollowingessential features.
1. Asoundmotivationsystemshouldsatisfytheneedsandobjectivesofbothorganizationandemployees.
2. Motivationalsystemshouldchangewiththechangesinthesituation.
3. Jobs shouldbedesignedinsuchawayastoprovide challengeandvariety.
4. Managersshouldrecruittheactiveco-operationofsubordinatesinimprovingtheorganization‘soutput.
Subordinatesshouldbemadetorealizethatthey arestakeholdersintheorganization.
5. Themotivationalsystemshouldsatisfythedifferentneedsofemployees.Itshouldbedirectlyrelatedtoth
e effortsofthe employers.
6. Themotivationalsystemshouldbesimplesothatitis easily understoodbytheworkers.
8.8METHODSOFMOTIVATING PEOPLE
Several factors influence human behaviour. There are numerous and needs which can act
asgood motivators moving people to work and getting things done through them as per the plan.
Peoplerespond to physiological needs, social needs and egoistic needs. Human needs and desires are
thedoor ways through which the manager channelises his motivation efforts. There are three types
ofmotivationalprogrammes toimproveaperson‘sbehaviour towardshisJob. Theseare:-
1. Payincentiveplans,
2. Jobenrichmentand
3. Managementbyobjectives.
FactorsDeterminingResponse toMotivation
Therearefourimportantfactors governingemployeeresponsetothemeasuresofmotivation:
 Theintensityorurgeofthe Drive.
 Past Experience—canherelyuponthepromises given bytheboss.
 AmountofReward—
ThequantityandqualityoftherewardcanInfluence,theamountofextraeffortputforth bytheemployee.
 TimeRelationshipofResponsetoReward—
Longrangepromisesarelesseffectivethanimmediatefulfilment.
8.9SPECIALISSUESINMOTIVATION
Various groups of employees provide specific challenges in terms of motivation. Some of
themare explained below:
1. Motivating the Diversified Work Foce: Not everyone Is. motivated by money. The needs
ofwomen, physically disabled and other diverse groups are not the same. If you are going
tomaximize your employees‘ motivation, you have got to understand and respond to this
diversity.This can bedone inthefollowing ways:
(i) Weshouldbereadytodesignworkschedules,compensationplans,benefits,andphysicalwork
settings,etc. toreflectthe employees‘variedneeds.
(ii) Allowingemployeeswhoaregoingforfurthertrainingtocollegestovarytheirworkschedule.
(iii) Offeringemployeesfacilitieslikechildcareflexibleworkhoursandjobsharingforemployeeswith
familyresponsibilities.
(iv) Foremployeescomingfromotherstates/countries,providingthemflexibleleavepossibilitiesto
enablethemto gohomeforextensiveperiods.
2. MotivatingTemporaryWorkers:Temporaryworkersmay bemotivatedinthefollowingways:
(i) When there is a system whereby permanent employees are selected from a pool
oftemporaryemployees,thelatter willoftenworkhardinhopesofbecomingpermanent.
(ii) The ability of a temporary employee to find a new job is largely dependent on his or
herskills.Therefore,temporary employeesmaybeprovidedtheopportunityfortraining.
(iii) When temporary employees work alongside permanent employees who earn more
payfor doing the same job, they are likely to be demotivated. Separating such
employeesmighthelptolessenthisproblem.
3. Motivating Professionals: Professionals have a strong and long-term commitment to their
fieldofexpertise.Theirloyaltyismoreoften to theirprofessionthan to
theiremployer.Theseprofessionalsreceiveagreatdealofintrinsicsatisfactionfromtheirwork.Theyma
ybemotivatedinthefollowing ways:
(i) Their loyalty is towards their profession. To keep current In their fields, they need
toregularlyupdatetheirknowledge.Therefore,providingthemopportunitiesfortraining
 and development is one sure way of motivating them. Reward them with
educationalopportunities — staging workshops, attending conferences — that allow
them to keepcurrentintheirfield.
(ii) Thechiefrewardofaprofessionalisthejobitself.Theypreferchallengingjobs.Therefore,provid
ethemwith ongoing challenging projects.
(iii) Professionals want others to think what they are working on is important. Therefore,
askquestionsand engage inotheractions that demonstrate to them you are
sincerelyinterestedin whattheyare doing.
8.10 SUMMARY
Peoplearecomplexandthey are uniquelydifferent. What motivates oneperson may
notmotivateanother.Mostsuccessfulmanagershavelearnedtounderstandtheconceptofhumanmotivation
and are able to use that understanding to achieve higher standards of subordinate workperformance.
Motivation is the process of channeling a person‘s inner drives so that he wants
toaccomplishthegoalsoftheorganization.Motivationconcernitselfwiththewilltowork.TheEncyclopedia of
Management observes ―Motivation refers to the degree of readiness of an organism topursue some
designated goal, and implies the determination of the nature and locus of the
forces,includingthedegreeofreadiness‖.Motivationfacilitatesthemaximumutilizationofallfactorsofproductio
n, human, physical and financial resources and there by contributes to higher production.Motivation
promotes a sense of belonging among the workers. The workers feel that the
enterprisebelongstothemandtheinterestoftheenterpriseistheirinterests.
Motivation to work is very complex. The internal and environmental variables that affect
themotivation to work. Behavioural scientists started to search new facts and techniques for
motivation.Thesetheories aretermed astheoriesofmotivation.

8.11 GLOSSARY

Motivation: Itis the abilityto change behavior. Itisa drive that compels one toactbecausehumanbehavior
isdirectedtoward some goal.
Hygienefactors:Theseare factors thatdonotmotivateifpresent,but,ifabsentresultindemotivation,
e.g.status,jobsecurity,salaryandfringe benefits.
Valence: Thedegreeattractionoraversionthatanindividualfeelstowardaspecific object orevent.
Instrumentality:This isthebeliefthatperformanceisrelatedtotherewards.
Expectancytheory:Itsuggeststhatindividuals‘expectationsabouttheirabilitytoaccomplishsomethingwill
affecttheirsuccess inaccomplishing it.

8.12 REFERENCES
 John‘W.NewstromandKeithDavis,“OrganisationalBehaviour:HumanBehaviouratWork”TateMcGr
aw-Hill,New Delhi(1998)
 Peter F. Drucker, “How to be an Employee” Psychology Today,
(March 2968)RensisLikert,“NewPatternsofManagement”McGraw-
Hill,NewYork(1961)

 RobertDubin,“HumanRelationsinAdministration”Prentice-HallofIndia,NewDelhi(1974)
 RobertL.MathisandJ.HJackson,“Personnel-
ContemporaryPerspectivesandApplications”WestPublishingNewYork(1982)
 RobertN.Ford;“MotivationThroughtheWorkItself”,AmericanManagementAssociation,NewYork(1969)

8.13 FURTHER READINGS.

 Abraham H. Maslow, “Motivation and Personality” Harper and Row, New York
(1954)AbrahamK.Korman,“OrganizationalBehaviour”Prentice-
Hall,EnglewoodCliffs,N.J(1977)
 BernardBerelsonandGerryA.Steiner “HumanBehaviour”Harcourt,Brace&World,NewYork(1964)
 ClaytonP.Alderfer,“Existence,RelatednessandGrowth:HumanNeedsinOrganisationalSettings”
 FreePress,NewYork(1972)

8.14 MODEL TESTQUESTIONS

1. DefineMotivation.Whatisitsimportance?

2. ―Managementisessentiallyaprocessofmotivation‖.Explain.

3. CriticallyexamineMaslow‘sneedprioritytheory.Howfarupthehierarchicalladderdomostpeopleprogr
ess?

4. Distinguishbetweenmotivators andhygienefactors.Whyisitimportanttomakethisdistinction?

5. Does moneyplayanyroleinmotivatingpeople?Explain.

6. Define―morale‖andexplainitsimportanceinanorganization.

7. Explainthe requirementsofa soundmotivationalsystem.

8. Discusssomeofthespecialissues inmotivation.
9. WhatarethefivecategoriesofmotivationalneedsdescribedbyMaslow?Giveanexampleofhow each
canbesatisfied.
10. DiscussMaslow‘shierarchyofneeds.WhatassumptionsdoesMaslowmakeaboutmotivation?
11. CompareandcontrastMaslow‘shierarchyofneedstheorywith(a)Aldarfer‘sERGtheoryand
(b)Herzberg‘smotivation-hygienetheory.
12. WhataretheTheoryXandTheoryYassumptionsabouthumannatureasproposedbyMcGregor?Howd
otheyrelatetoMaslow‘s hierarchy of needs?
13. Describethe―traditionalviewofjobsatisfactionandcontrastitwithHerzberg‘sview.Whichismorereaso
nable?
14. Describethedifferencebetween―motivators‖and―hygiene‖inHerzberg‘stwo-factortheory.
15. ComparethemotivationtheoriesofHerzbergandMaslow.Howaretheysimilar?Howdotheydiffer?
16. WhatthreemanifestneedsdoesMcClellandidentify?
17. BrieflydescribethethreeneedsthatMcClellandhasstudied.WhatarehisconclusionsaboutnAch?Wh
atarethe implications ofhisfindingsfororganizations?
18. Describethethreeneeds isolatedbyMcClelland.Howaretheyrelatedtoworkerbehaviour?
19. Discussthedifficultiesthatareencounteredwhenmanagersusemotivationtheories(exampleEquity
and Expectancy)thatrelyonsubjective employeeresponses.
20. Whatarethekeyconceptsintheexpectancytheoryofmotivation?
21. Whataretheimplications ofTheoryX andTheoryYformotivation practices?
22. Discusstheroleofself-efficacyingoalsetting.
23. Identifythevariablesinexpectancytheory.
24. Howcaninequity beresolved,ifit exists?
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