LECTURES IN

THERMODYNAMICS
Claus Borgnakke
CHAPTER 4

For the 8th Edition of:

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics
Claus Borgnakke, Richard Sonntag
John Wiley & Sons, 2013
 Chapter 4

• The Conservation of Mass and the Control Volume

• The Energy Equation
• The Steady State Process
• The Steady State Multiple Flow Devices
• The Transient Flow Process
• Typical Devices and Applications

2
 The Continuity Equation

Conservation of mass principle:

Rate of change = + in – out

𝑑
𝑑𝑡
( 𝑚𝐶𝑉 ) = ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 – ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑒

1
𝑚𝐶𝑉 = ‫𝑉𝐶׬ = 𝑉𝑑 𝜌 𝑉𝐶׬‬ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 + 𝑚𝐶 + …
𝑣
𝑚𝐴 = 𝜌𝐴 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴 / 𝑣𝐴 etc. over each subdomain A, B, C
Volume flow rate
𝑉ሶ = A V = ‫ 𝑆𝐶׬‬V𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝐴
Mass flow rate
ሶ = ‫ ׬‬V𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝐴
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌 𝑉ሶ = 𝑉/𝑣 𝐶𝑆 𝑣
=𝜌AV=AV/𝑣

Using average quantities (𝜌, 𝑣, V ) over the flow area A

3
The Continuity Equation

4
 The Energy Equation

𝐸ሶ cv = 𝑄ሶ – 𝑊ሶ + Flow terms

Energy per unit mass: e = u + ½ V2 + gZ

Work associated with flow in/out.
Examples: add air to a tire, blow a balloon up; air must be pushed in against the
prevailing pressure.
As flow cross control volume surface: 𝑊ሶ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = F V = PA V = P 𝑉ሶ = P 𝑣 𝑚ሶ

𝐸ሶ cv = 𝑄ሶ – 𝑊ሶ + ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 𝑒 + 𝑃𝑣 𝑖 – ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑃𝑣 𝑒

𝑒 + 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 + ½V2 + 𝑔𝑍 = ℎ + ½V2 + 𝑔𝑍

𝐸ሶ cv = 𝑄ሶ – 𝑊ሶ + ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 ℎ𝑖 + ½V2𝑖 + 𝑔𝑍𝑖 – ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑒 ℎ𝑒 + ½V2𝑒 + 𝑔𝑍𝑒

If multiple domains inside CV then

𝐸𝐶𝑉 = ‫ 𝐴𝑒 𝐴𝑚 = 𝑒 𝑉𝐶𝑚 = 𝑉𝑑 𝑒𝜌 𝑉𝐶׬‬+ 𝑚𝐵 𝑒𝐵 + 𝑚𝐶 𝑒𝐶 + …

5
The Energy Equation, flow work

With only Patm outside a hole the

water will flow out

6
 The Energy Equation

Definitions: ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡 ≡ ℎ + ½V2 + 𝑔𝑍

ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ≡ ℎ + ½V2
Then
𝐸ሶ cv = 𝑄ሶ – 𝑊ሶ + ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑖 – ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑒 ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑒

The heat transfer term 𝑄ሶ and the work term

𝑊ሶ can be a summation over several terms
as illustrated in the figure for work.

The right hand side terms are transfer terms

crossing the control volume boundary, the
state of the flow is right at the control volume
surface where it crosses.

7
 The Steady State Process

Processes in which any property is constant in time for a fixed location.

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
( 𝑚𝐶𝑉 ) = 0; 𝑑𝑡
( 𝐸𝐶𝑉 ) = 0

Continuity Eq.: 0 = ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 – ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑒

Energy eq.: 0 = 𝑄ሶ – 𝑊ሶ + ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑖 – ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑒 ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑒

Rewrite as ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑒

𝑄ሶ + ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑖 = 𝑊ሶ + ∑ 𝑚ሶ 𝑒 ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑒

Both equations say: in = out

8
 The Steady State Process Single Flow

Steady state application with a single flow.

Continuity Eq.: 0 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 – 𝑚ሶ 𝑒 so 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑒 = 𝑚ሶ

Energy eq.: 0 = 𝑄ሶ – 𝑊ሶ + 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑖 – 𝑚ሶ 𝑒 ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑒

Take scaling out 0 = q – w + ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑖 – ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑒

or q + ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑖 = w + ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑒

With specific heat transfer and specific work

ሶ 𝑚ሶ
q = 𝑄/ and ሶ 𝑚ሶ
w = 𝑊/

Example of single flow steady state devices:

pipe section, valve, nozzle, heater, cooler, fan, blower

pump, turbine, diffuser, throttle, boiler,

See Table 4.1 for a longer list with purpose and assumptions for each device.
9
The Steady State Process

10
 The Energy Equation, A Nozzle

Example 4.4
An insulated steam nozzle is shown.
Find the exit state.

Analysis __________________________________________________
CV nozzle. This is a single flow, steady state device.
Process: Device: w = 0, Insulated: q = 0, Small, horizontal: Zi = Ze
2 2
Energy Eq.: 0 = hi + ½ V i – ( he + ½ V e )

Solution __________________________________________________
Properties from B.1.3 (600 kPa) and B.1.2 (150 kPa)
2 2 2 2 m2/s2
he = hi + ½ (Vi – Ve ) = 2850.1
kJ/kg + ½ [50 - 600 ] 1000 J/kJ
= 2671.4 kJ/kg = (467.1 + xe 2226.5) kJ/kg
xe = 0.99
11
 The Energy Equation, A Nozzle

Example 4.4E
An insulated steam nozzle is shown.
Find the exit state.

Analysis __________________________________________________
CV nozzle. This is a single flow, steady state device.
Process: Device: w = 0, Insulated: q = 0, Small, horizontal: Zi = Ze
2 2
Energy Eq.: 0 = hi + ½ V i – ( he + ½ V e )

Solution __________________________________________________
Properties from B.1.3 (600 kPa) and B.1.2 (150 kPa)
2 2 2002 - 20002 ft2/s2
he = hi + ½ (Vi – Ve ) = 1227.5
Btu/lbm + ½ 32.17 × 778
lbm-(ft2/s2)/Btu
= 1148.3 Btu/lbm = (198.31 + xe 958.81) Btu/lbm
xe = 0.99 12
 The Energy Equation, Compressor, Aftercooler

Example 4.5
A compressor receives carbon dioxide at 100 kPa, 280 K,
with low velocity. The carbon dioxide exits at 1100 kPa,
500 K with velocity 25 m/s, and then flows through a
constant pressure aftercooler (heat exchanger) where it is
cooled to 350 K. The power input to the compressor is
50 kW. Determine the heat transfer rate in the aftercooler.

Solution _______________________________ Compressor air intake

Control volume: Compressor, single flow
Process: Steady state, adiabatic q = 0.
Table A.8: h1 = 198 kJ/kg; V1 = 0
h2 = 401.52 kJ/kg; h3 = 257.9 kJ/kg
2 2
Energy Eq.: 0 = h1 + ½ V1 – ( h2 + ½ V2 ) – w
2
– w = h 2 – h1 + ½ V 2
= 401.52 – 198 + 0.5 × (25)2 /1000
= 203.5 + 0.3 = 203.8 kJ/kg
. . –50 kW
m = W / w = –203.8 kJ/kg = 0.245 kg/s
13
 The Energy Equation, Compressor, Aftercooler

Example 4.5 continued

Solution _______________________________

Control volume: Aftercooler, single flow

Process: Steady state, w = 0.
Table A.8: h2 = 401.52 kJ/kg; h3 = 257.9 kJ/kg
2 2
Energy Eq.: 0 = q + h2 + ½ V2 – ( h3 + ½ V3 )
Assume the kinetic energies have insignificant changes
q = h3 – h2 = 257.9 – 401.5 = –143.6 kJ/kg
. .
Q = m q = 0.245 kg/s × (–143.6) kJ/kg
= – 35.2 kW

Notice from figure how this heat transfer is removed by a

fan blowing room air over the heat exchanger into the duct
so the hot air is exhausted.
Fan Exhaust duct

14
 The Energy Equation, Complete Refrigerator

Example 4.8
A refrigerator uses R-134a as the working fluid. The mass
flow rate through each component is 0.1 kg/s and the
compressor power input is 5 kW. The states and their
properties are noted below the figure. Determine:
a. The quality at state 4
b. The heat transfer to the evaporator
c. The heat transfer from the compressor.
Solution _______________________________
Control volumes: Valve (throttle), Evaporator, Compressor
Processes: All steady state, single flow, no changes in
kinetic or potential energies.
Table B.5
a. Throttle (valve), q = w = 0 1: P1 = 100 kPa, T1 = –20oC  h1 = 387.2 kJ/kg
Energy eq.: 0 = h3 – h4  h4 = h3 = 241.79 kJ/kg 2: P2 = 800 kPa, T2 = 50oC  h2 = 435.1 kJ/kg
Table B.5.1: hf = 167.38 kJ/kg, hg = 382.95 kJ/kg 3: T3 = 30oC, x3 = 0.0  h3 = hf = 435.1 kJ/kg
4: T4 = –25oC, second property ?
h4 – hf 241.79 - 167.38
h 4 < hg  x4 = = = 0.345
hfg 215.57

15
 The Energy Equation, Complete Refrigerator

Example 4.8 continued

b. Evaporator, w = 0
. .
Energy eq.: 0 = Qevap + m (h4 – h1) 
. .
Qevap = m (h1 – h4)
= 0.1 kg/s × (387.22 – 241.79) kJ/kg
= 14.54 kW

c. Compressor
. . .
Energy eq.: 0 = Qcomp + m (h1 – h2) – W 
Table B.5
. . . 1: P1 = 100 kPa, T1 = –20oC  h1 = 387.2 kJ/kg
Qcomp = m (h2 – h1) + W
2: P2 = 800 kPa, T2 = 50oC  h2 = 435.1 kJ/kg
= 0.1 kg/s × (435.11 – 387.22) kJ/kg – 5.0 kW 3: T3 = 30oC, x3 = 0.0  h3 = hf = 435.1 kJ/kg
= –0.21 kW 4: T4 = –25oC, second property ?

16
The Energy Equation, Single Flows

17
 The Energy Equation, Multiple Flows
To illustrate multiple flows look at the mixing chamber.
The continuity and energy equations for this case become
. . .
Continuity Eq. 4.9: 0 = m1 + m2 − m3
. . . .
Energy Eq. 4.10: 0 = m 1 h1 + m 2 h2 − m 3 h3 + Q

Scale the equations with the exit mass flow rate

• •
m 1 m2
Continuity Eq. 1= • + •
m3 m3
•
m 1 m• 2
Flow fractions y= • ; =1–y
m3 m• 3
and energy equation becomes
. .
0 = y h1 + (1 − y) h2 − h3 + Q / m3
The exit flow h3 is
. .
h3 = y h1 + (1 − y) h2 + Q / m3

This is a mass flow rate average plus the heat transfer influence.
18
 The Energy Equation, Multiple Flows

Example 4.9
A flow of 3 kg/s superheated steam at 300 kPa, 300oC is desuperheated by mixing it with
liquid water at 300 kPa, 90oC to give an exit flow of saturated steam at 300 kPa. Assume
the mixing chamber is insulated and find the needed flow rate of liquid water.
Control volume: Mixing chamber, see Fig.
Process: Steady state adiabatic mixing,
no heat transfer, no work
Inlet, exit states: States 1, 2, and 3 all known
Solution _________________________________________________
Table B.1.3: h1 = 3069.28 kJ/kg ; h2 = 376.9 kJ/kg ; h3 = 2725.3 kJ/kg
Flow rate at 2 is unknown so the continuity equation gives the output flow rate as
. . .
m3 = m 1 + m2
which we substitute into the energy equation as
. . . .
0 = m1h1 + m2h2 − (m1 + m2) h3
.
Use the energy equation to solve for m2
. .
m2 = m1 (h3 – h1)/(h2 − h3)
2725.3 − 3069.28
= 3 kg/s = 0.439 kg/s 19
376.9 − 2725.3
 The Transient Flow Process – Emptying/Filling

Time integrate the rate equations

dmCV . .
dt
= ∑ m i − ∑ m e

dECV . . . .
dt = ∑ mi htot i − ∑ me htot e + QCV − W CV Filling a tank
To give
(m2 – m1)C.V. =  mi –  me
E2 – E1 = ∑ mi htot i − ∑ me htot e + QCV − WCV

Notice the storage terms:

E2 – E1 = m2e2 – m1e1
1 2 1 2
= m2(u2 + 2V2 + gZ2) – m1(u1 + 2V1 + gZ1)
and the flow terms
Σ mi htot i = Σ 1 2
mi (hi + 2 Vi + gZi)
Storage terms have “u” and flow terms have “h”. Flow out of tank, like steam
locomotive.
20
 The Transient Flow Process – Emptying/Filling
Example 4.10
Steam is flowing in a pipe with a tank connected by a valve, see
Fig. The valve is opened and the tanks fills until the pressure
reaches the line pressure and the valve is closed. The process is
fast so nearly adiabatic and we neglect kinetic and potential
energies. Determine the final temperature of the steam in the tank.
Control volume: Tank, see Fig.
Process: Adiabatic transient, Q = 0 and W = 0
Inlet, beginning and end states: Line state, m1 = 0, P2 = Pline
Solution ______________________________________ Filling an empty tank
The storage term becomes
1 2 1 2
E2 – E1 = m2(u2 + 2V2 + gZ2) – m1(u1 + 2V1 + gZ1) = m2 u2
The flow terms reduces
Σ mi htot i = mi (hi + 12 V2i + gZi) = mi hi
Final continuity and energy equations
m2 – 0 = mi ; m2 u2 = mi hi
giving (constant h through valve)
u2 = hi = hline = 3040.35 kJ/kg
3040.35 - 2952.5
State 2 (P2, u2): T2 = 400 + 100 × 3121.1 - 2952.5 = 452oC 21
 The Transient Flow Process – Emptying/Filling
Example 4.10
Steam is flowing in a pipe with a tank connected by a valve, see
Fig. The valve is opened and the tanks fills until the pressure
reaches the line pressure and the valve is closed. The process is
fast so nearly adiabatic and we neglect kinetic and potential
energies. Determine the final temperature of the steam in the tank.
Control volume: Tank, see Fig.
Process: Adiabatic transient, Q = 0 and W = 0
Inlet, beginning and end states: Line state, m1 = 0, P2 = Pline
Filling a tank
Solution ______________________________________
The continuity and energy equations
0 0
(m2 – m1)C.V. =  mi –  me
0 0 0
0
E2 – E1 = ∑ mi htot i − ∑ me htot e + QCV − WCV
Final continuity and energy equations
m2 – 0 = mi ; m2 u2 = mi hi
giving (constant h through valve)
u2 = hi = hline = 3040.35 kJ/kg
3040.35 - 2952.5
State 2 (P2, u2): T2 = 400 + 100 × 3121.1 - 2952.5 = 452oC 22
 The Transient Flow Process – Emptying/Filling
Example 4.11
A tank of 2 m3 contains 1 m3 liquid and 1 m3 vapor ammonia in
equilibrium at 40oC. Vapor is withdrawn from the top in an
adiabatic process until T2 = 10oC. Find the mass taken out.
Analysis ______________________________________
Control volume: Tank, see Fig.
Process: Adiabatic transient, Q = 0 and W = 0
Flow out of a tank
Exit, beginning and end states: Sat. vapor, (T1, V1f, V1g), (T2, ?)
The continuity and energy equations
0
(m2 – m1)C.V. =  mi –  me
0 0 0
E2 – E1 = ∑ mi htot i − ∑ me htot e + QCV − WCV
Final continuity and energy equations
m2 – m1 = – me ; m2 u2 – m1 u1 = – me he
rearranged as:
m2 (he – u2) = m1( he – u1) Exit state changes e1 to e2
as process proceeds.

State 2: (T2, ?) Assume still 2-phase then ? = x2 from energy Eq. 23

 The Transient Flow Process – Flow out
Solution ______________________________________
State 1: mf1 = V/vf1 = 1/0.001725 = 579.71 kg,
mg1 = V/vg1 = 1/0.08313 = 12.03 kg
m1 = mf1 + mg1 = 591.71 kg,
m1 u1 = mf1 uf1 + mg1 ug1
= 579.71 × 368.74 + 12.03 × 1341.0 = 229 894 kJ
Exit state changes e1 to e2
State 2 (T2, x2): v2 = (0.00160 + x2 × 0.20381) m3/kg, m2 = V2/ v2 as process proceeds.
u2 = (226.0 + x2 × 1099.7) kJ/kg
Exit state: saturated vapor between T1 and T2
he = havg ≈ 0.5(he 1 + he 2) = 0.5(1470.2 + 1452) = 1461.1 kJ/kg
m1he – m1u1 = 591.71 × 1461.1 – 229 894 = 634 653 kJ
Substitute m2, u2 (functions of x2) and m1he – m1u1 into energy equation as
V2 2.0 [1461.1 – 226.0 – x2 × 1099.7]
(h
v2 e – u 2 ) = 0.0016 + x2 × 0.20381 kJ = 634 653 kJ Flow out of a tank

x2 = 0.011059, v2 = 0.00160 + x2 × 0.20381 = 0.003854 m3/kg

m2 = V2/ v2 = 518.96 kg
24
me = m2 – m1 = 591.71 – 518.96 = 72.75 kg
Nozzles, Diffusers

25
Valves, Pumps

26
Heat Exchangers

27
 Heat Exchangers

© C. Borgnakke
A counter-flow heat exchanger

A nitrogen compressor with an intercooler driven by a hydraulic

motor. The intercooler sketch is on the left and the real thing is
the pipe shown on the right in the red box.

28
 Turbines

Turbines: Wind Steam Water Turbo-charger automotive

Steam turbine blades
Jet eng. Compressor Turbine Nozzle

29