Metal Casting

1. Fundamentals: Melting - Pouring - Fluidity

and Fluid Flow - Gating system -
Solidification.
2. Processes (Expendable Mould Casting
and Permanent Mold Casting ): Examples
3. Cleaning, Finishing and Tolerances
4. Continuous Casting
5. Defects
6. Inspection and Tests
7. Heat Treatment
8. Design of Casting
9. Cost Evaluation
 Part 3
Fluidity and Fluid Flow

Solidification of metals
References:
[1] Serope Kalpakjian & Steven R. Schmid, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”,
Any edition (2001 to 2008), Prentice Hall.

[2] Prof. Karl B. Rundman: Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, Michigan Tech.
University, “Metal Casting”

[3] U.K.Singh. Manish Dwivedi, “Manufacturing Processes”, New Age International

Publishers, 2009.

[4] Jaromir Roučka et al., “Casting Alloy Filtration”, Brono, 2000.

[5] John Campbell and Richard A. Harding, “The Fluidity of Molten Metals”, IRC in
Materials, The University of Birmingham,
[6] B. Borowiecki*, O. Borowiecka, E. Szkodzińka, “Casting defects analysis by the Pareto
method”, A R C H I V ES o f F O U N D R Y ENG IN EER I NG V o l u me 1 1 , S p e c i a l I s s u
e3/2011,33-36
[7] Rajesh Rajkolhe, J. G. Khan, “Defects, Causes and Their Remedies in Casting Process:
A Review”, International Journal of Research in Advent Technology, Vol.2, No.3, March
2014 E-ISSN: 2321-9637, pp.375-383

[8] Castings – System of dimensional tolerances and machining allowance, International

Standard – ISO 8062
 Fluidity and Fluid Flow

- The fluidity can be defined by the capability of molten metal to flow into the mold cavity
and to fill it before freezing.
-The fluidity can be tested using a spiral mold, see the Fig. It is a standard test. The fluidity
is specified by the fluidity index. The index is the length of the solidified metal in the
spiral passage [1]. The high fluidity is indicated by The long length of the solidified metal.

Misrun in a turbine blade is an example of

a defect caused by insufficient fluidity
Empirical fluidity spiral data from many experiments
on gray cast iron gives the expression

Fluidity (in.) = 14.9 x CF + 0.05T - 155

where T is the pouring temperature in oF, and CF is the composion of the iron and is
equal to

CF = %C + 1/4 x % Si + 1/2 x % P.

Thus, for an iron of composition 3.5 % C, 2.4 % Si, 0.04 %P, the fluidity is given by

Fluidity = 14.9 x 4.12 + 0.05 (2600) - 155 = 36.39 in.

As the pouring temperature increases the fluidity increases (at 2700 the fluidity is
41.39 in.) and as the composition decreases (increasing the temperature range over
which solidification occurs) to a hypoeutectic value (say 3.2% C, 2.1% Si, 0.04 %P)
the fluidity decreases to ~ 30.8 in. Clearly the fluidity needed to fill a mold cavity
will depend upon the section size of the casting being produced. Thin
sections
will naturally require higher fluidities to successfully be filled
before solidification, and therefore higher superheat temperatures.
Effect of Impurities
The fluidity of pure elements is greatly reduced by the presence of slight
impurities .

Fluidity of Al-Sn alloys

Figure Influence of aluminum purity on fluidity
measured by a fluidity spiral test method
Fluidity of Al-Cu alloys

Fig. The aluminum-rich side of the aluminum–copper phase diagram

 Solidification of metals

- The solidification of metals occurs in two stages: nucleation (homogeneous

or heterogeneous) and crystal growth. These processes are mainly controlled
by the cooling rates. With high cooling rates, many nuclei are formed, and the
solidification process is accelerated. As a result, refined structure can be
obtained (the grains, the dendrite arms and the spaces between them are
refined). Furthermore, the grain refinement can be obtained by adding
inoculants to the melt. The grain refinement improves properties such as
strength, toughness, and others. Three zones of grains macrostructure are
formed in the ingots and castings of solid – solution alloys. These zones are
the chill, columnar, and equiaxed zone. See the figure. The cooling curves,
heat transfer, and the phase diagrams are important considerations in
controlling the quality of the casting.

- By reducing the driving force of the heat transfer, equiaxed and coarse
grains are formed [1].
 Microstructure - Dendrites

Finer structure at walls

Grains / dendrites grow to center

Grain structure during

solidification
 Cast Structure of Aluminum
‐ Effect of mould materials (cooling rate)

Cast in Sand Mould Cast in water‐cooled Cu mould

 Solidification time
- Solidification time
- Chvorinov’s rule can be applied [1]:
Solidification time = C (volume/surface area)2
Where, C is a constant. It reflects the mold material, metal properties and
temperature [1]

The solidification time, t, can be estimated as follows:

ρ = density
k = thermal conductivity
c = specific heat
• Subscripts
– c = casting
– m = mold
• ΔHf = latent heat of solidification

• Tm = metal melting temperature

• T0 = initial mold temperature

Example:
• It is required to produce a cast part of magnesium with dimensions of 10
cm by 10 cm by 2.5 cm. For this purpose, a sand casting can be selected.
The environment temperature is 25 oC.
• Determine the time for the part to solidify if the metal is poured at its
melting point.
• Determine the time for the part to solidify if the metal is poured at 50 oC
above its melting point, to alleviate the potential problem of short shots.
Solidification is a phase change that occurs at the melting point

Insulating mold:
– kmold = 0.6 << kcasting = 154 W/m-K

Solidification time:

ΔHf = 384 kJ/kg

ρc = 1700 kg/m3
Tm = 650 oC
To = 25 oC
km = 0.6 x 10-3 kW/m-K
ρm = 1500 kg/m3
cm = 1.16 kJ/kg-K
V = 0.1 x 0.1 X 0.025 = 2.5 x 10-4 m3
A = 2 x (0.1 x 0.1) + 4 X (0.1 x 0.025) = 0.03 m2
(V/A)2 = 6.94 x 10-5 m2

So

t = 57 s
Now, we have to take into account
cooling the liquid from (650 + 50) oC to 650oC

So, the latent heat of solidification (ΔHf) will be increased by cpΔT.

cp specific heat

For liquid magnesium

cp = 1.38 kJ/kg-K
ΔT = 50oC
So
ΔHf = Δ Hf + cpΔT
= 384 + 1.38 x 50 = 453 kJ/kg
So

t = 79 s (a bit slower)
Example: Solidification times for various shapes

Three pieces being cast have the same volume but different shapes. One
is a sphere, one a cube, and the other a cylinder with a height equal to its
diameter. Which piece will solidify the fastest and which one the slowest?

SOLUTION:
Solidification time = C (volume/surface area)2
The volume is unity, so we have from the above Eq. :
Solidification time α 1/ (surface area)2
The respective surface areas are
Sphere: V = (4/3) πr3, r = (3/4 π)1/3, and A = 4 π r2 = 4 π (3/4 π)2/3 = 4.84;
Cube: V = a3, a = 1, and A = 6a2 = 6;
Cylinder: V = π r2h = 2 π r3, r = (1/2 π)1/3 and
A = 2 π r2 + 2 π rh = 6 π r2 = 6 π (1/2 π)2/3 = 5.54.
Thus, the respective solidification times t are tsphere = 0.043 C, tcube= 0.028
C, and tcylinder = 0.033 C.
Hence the cube-shaped casting will solidify the fastest and the sphere-
shaped casting will solidify
the slowest.