Fault Analysis of Smart Grid Power System

Employing Simultaneous Faults Method

Jakub Ehrenbenberger
Department of Electrical Power Engineering.
Czech Technical University in Prague
Technická 2, 166 27 Prague, Czech Republic
ehrenjak@fel.cvut.cz

Abstract— This paper describes using a Simultaneous Faults II. DERIVATION OF THE NECESSARY RELATIONS
Method for Smart Grid Power System research. One of the
characteristics of Smart Grid Power System is high grade Three general phasors , , can be decomposed into
interconnection of grid nodes known from the internet network. three symmetrical phasors , and where is positive-
That means that connection of power sources is very variable and sequence set, is negative-sequence set, and is zero-
time to time can be changed. Connection changes also change short sequence set. Using the decomposition almost all types of faults
circuit conditions so that grid protection settings have also to be can be described.
very variable.
In most cases we only need to know only single-phase-to-
For research into Smart Grid Power System protection, a ground, phase-to-phase, phase-to-phase-to-ground, and three-
program has been developed allowing for a quick and well- phase-to-ground short circuit currents. For each of these can be
arranged output of short circuit conditions in every node of Power described by single-phase-to-ground fault shown in Fig. 1. That
Grid. Program also allows for simulation of basic power grid means we only need to compute this type of fault.
protections elements like overcurrent, differential, and direction
overcurrent protection elements. To determine the fault From scheme of single-phase-to-ground fault shown in
conditions first needs to be found in the Power Grid steady state Fig. 1 it is obvious that.
of power flow. After that a Simultaneous Faults Method is used for
fault conditions solving. (1)

Keywords— Simultaneous Faults Method, Smart Grid, load flow ∗
∙ ∙  (2)
analysis, Newton-Raphson Method, fault analysis
∗
I. INTRODUCTION OF SIMULTANEOUS FAULTS METHOD ∙ ∙  (3)
Simultaneous Faults Method is a comprehensive method for
solving the fault conditions in power system. Short review of the
method can be found in [3]. Simple algorithm suitable for
computing processing enables achieving the voltage and current
conditions in every node of power grid.
Method is based on the premise that every fault condition
can be differentiated into two conditions. Pre-fault conditions
are labelled ⊗, and additional conditions are labelled ∆. The
condition before fault can be calculated by Newton-Raphson
load flow analysis and the additional condition is equal to
inverse pre-fault condition in fault gate. By summing the pre-
fault and additional conditions, after-fault conditions can be
calculated.
Fault gate is a general term denoting two places in which the
fault is placed. The pair can consist of two nodes or node and
earth. Inverse pre-fault voltage in the fault gate placed into blank
power grid (all voltage sources are shorted and current sources
are disconnected) makes additional voltages in every node of
power grid. By the superposition of the pre-fault and additional
voltages after-fault conditions. That means voltage in fault gate
Fig. 1. Scheme of single-phase-to-phase-to-ground fault with fault impedance
will be zero and voltages in other nodes will be changed. with reference phase A
The financial support of the Grant Agency of the Czech Technical
University in Prague (grant No. SGS14/188/OHK3/3T/13) is highly
acknowledged.

978-1-4799-3807-0/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE

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 Equations (1), (2), and (3) can be rewritten like: Equation (12) can be labelled by new variables consisting of
pre-fault and additional zero-sequence variables.
n ∙I n ∙I I  (4)  Resulting fault impedance matrix:
⋱ ⋱

Where ⋱ and ⋱ are matrices including transfer complex

 (13)
⋱ ⋱ ⋱ ⋱
numbers and ∗ . , , and are fault currents. With use of
pre-fault and additional currents it can be rewritten:
 Resulting excitation voltage:

n ∙ ̅
⊗ ̅
∆
n ⋱∙
̅
⊗ ̅
∆
⊗ ⊗
⋱ (5) ⋱ ⋱
̅
⊗ ̅
∆
 ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ (14)
⋱ ⋱
⊗
Equation (5) can be rewritten to (6) and (7). Equations (6) ⋱ ⋱ ⋱ ⋱ 
and (7) show that additional values of negative and positive
sequences can be expressed using pre-fault values and additional (12) can be modified to:
values of zero-sequence.
∆
 (15)
∆ ⊗ ̅
⊗ ∆ (6)
⋱ ∙ ⋱ ∙
By modifying (15) using (11) we obtain:
∆ ⊗ ⊗ ∆
⋱ ∙ ⋱ ∙  (7)
Z⋱ n ⋱ I⊗ I∆ n ⋱ I ⊗ I ∆ I ⊗ I∆
Now we need to find additional value of zero-sequence ⊗ (16)
∆
current ∆ and compute after-fault conditions. Additional
voltages can be found from pre-fault currents using fault I ∆ U 
impedance matrices , , and .
This equation is also obvious in Fig. 1 and can be modified
to find additional zero-sequence of current (19).
∆ ⊗ ∆
⋱ ⋱ ⋱ (8)
⊗ ⊗ ∆ (17)
⋱ ⋱ ⋱ 3 ⊗ ∆ ∆

⋱
∆ ⊗ ∆
⋱ ⋱ ⋱ (9) 3 ⊗
3 ∆
 (18)
⊗ ⊗ ∆ ⋱ ⋱
⋱ ⋱ ⋱ 

∆ ⊗ ∆
∆
3 ⋱ 3 ⋱
̅
⊗
 (19)
∙  (10)
We found expression for additional zero-sequence by using
Fig. 1 shows that for single-phase-to-phase fault, following
equation must be met: pre-fault variables and diagonal matrix ⋱ . This equation can be
placed into (6) and (7) for finding additional positive and
negative sequences current ∆ and ∆ . Finally all after fault
⋱ ∙ ⋱ ∙ values can be found like:
(11)
⋱ ∙ ⋱ ∙ ⋱ ∙ 
⊗ (20)

In (11) ⋱ is a diagonal matrix containing inserted fault ⊗
 (21)
impedances. From (11) it is obvious that sum of voltage
elements is equal to zero assuming zero inserted impedance. ⊗
 (22)
This impedance equals in all elements and in sum makes fault
voltages.
⊗
∙  (23)

Equations (8), (9), and (10) can be inserted into (11) ⊗

∙  (24)

⊗
⊗ ⊗ ∆
∙  (25)
⋱ ⋱ ⋱
⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ∆
(12)
⋱ ⋱ ⋱ ⋱
⊗ ∆ ⊗
⋱ 

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A. Failure impedance matrix and are β gate voltages for nodes k and l. Similarly,
Failure impedance matrix describes voltage and current and are gate voltages for nodes k and l. is current
relations between failure gates. The matrix can be derived from flowing to k node of β gate, is current flowing to l node of β
basic impedance matrix . Basic impedance matrix of gate, is current flowing to k node of gate, and is current
dimension NU x NU, where NU is number of nodes of power grid, flowing to l node of gate. is element of basic impedance
is reduced to matrix of dimension NF x NF, where NF is number matrix corresponding with k and l nodes of β gate.
of failure gates. For derivation of failure impedance matrix a
case shown in Fig. 2 is used. This is a simplified case with only Voltage of β gate can be derived from (27).
two fault gates β and χ. For all nodes currents and voltages can
be written:

∙ ̂ ∙ ̂ ∙ ̂ ∙ ̂
U Z ∙ I (26)

If we put all non-gate currents equal to zero, can be (26) ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙

labelled: (29)
∙

0 ∙ 
⋮ ⋮
→
⋮ (27) For we have β a χ gates, our dimension of matrix is 2 x 2.
U , I ,
⋮ →

⋮ ⋮ ∙  (30)
0
If we want to get a general mathematical expression, (30) can
Z be rewritten to:

⋱ ⋰ , ⋯ ,
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ∙ ⋮  (31)
(28) , ⋯ ,

Elements of failure impedance matrix can be expressed from
impedance matrix like:
⋰ ⋱

, , , , (32)
,

,χ , , ,
,  (33)

Where , is element of failure impedance matrix

corresponding with β and χ gates. If the node is earthed, the
calculation is simplified to:

, , (34)

,χ , ,  (35)
Fig. 2. System with failure gates β and χ [4, pp. 21].

If node is also earthed:

,χ , (36)

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B. Replacement of π section with the ratio by general π
section
For correct composition of admittance matrix, one general π
section needs to be created. The π section has to allow for
simulating all basic elements of power system. For our purpose,
Π section in [1], can be modified. Π section shown in Fig. 3
allows, with , for transformer simulation and with B1 and B2
also line simulation.
Fig. 4. General π section
For easy programmable manipulation, general π section
shown in Fig. 4 needs to be met. Similar equations can be also written for general π section
like:

̂ (37)
∙ ∙ (43)
∙ ∙
∗ ∗
∙ ∙  (38)
∙ ∙
Where is ratio of π section, and are voltages of k ∙ ∙  (44)
and l nodes, ∗ is complex conjugated current flowing into node
k, and voltage and current corresponds with Fig. 3. By comparison of (41) and (42) with (43) and (44), final
For apparent power on both sides of π section has to be expressions (45), (46), (47), (48), (49), and (50) useful for
the same, it is possible to get current ratio of section from (37) computer processing can be found.
like:

(45)
∗ (39) ̂∗
∗
∙

 (46)
∙ ̂∗  ̂∗ ∙ ̂
(40)
For currents entering the π section, it can be written:
̂∗ ∙ ̂ (47)
1 ̂
∙ 
∙ ∙ ̂∗ ∙ ̂ ̂∗ | ̂ | | ̂ |

̂∗ ̂∗ ̂∗ (41)
 (48)
∙ ∙ ̂
̂∗ ̂∗ ∙ ̂
 (49)
∙ ∙

∙ ∙  (42) j
̂ 1 (50)
j ∙ 1 
̂ ̂

Where all variables corresponds with Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.

III. ANALYSIS OF PROTECTION OF SMART GRID POWER
SYSTEM
This paper describes two ways of Smart Grid Power System
protection. A conventional way using directional overcurrent
protections, and another way based on using differential
protections. For all simulations, the program based on
Fig. 3. π section with the ratio Simultaneous Faults Method described in sections I and II was
used.

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A. Conventional way using directional overcurrent
protections
Directional overcurrent protection, described in [7], needs,
for tripping, not only overloading of the set current but also
meeting the desired direction. Correct tripping of the protection
is shown in Fig. 5. There is single-phase-to-ground short circuit
in node 2. The protections O1 and O2 react in the right way and
failure section is disconnected.
For short circuit failures in this paper, time-inverse
characteristics are used allowing for quicker reaction to higher
values of current, and slower reaction to lower current. A typical
example of time-inverse characteristic, namely characteristic
according to IEC standards, is described by (51). M multiplier,
K and E constants, and pickup current Ipc are used to set the
Fig. 6. Difference between tripping time of related protections.
required tripping time of the protection. Other types of
characteristics can be found for example in [6]. For verification of these premises a research of part into large
Smart Grid Power System was carried out. The power system
∙ consisting of 63 nodes (Fig. 8) was set to the program and every
 (51) section was equipped with overcurrent directional protection.
1 At first difference was checked between tripping times for
power grid including only synchronous machines. Fig. 7 shows
According to [2] difference in tripping time between related connected power dependence on pairs of protections with
protections should not be less than 200 ms, and according to [5], insufficient difference between tripping times in percentage of
duration of short circuit should be longer than 1,000 ms. all tested protections.
That means tripping of the protection should be between 200 Another test was checked for solar power plant. Short circuit
and 1,000 ms. From (51) it is obvious that higher current causes reactance of solar power plant is about 0.9 of nominal reactance
quicker tripping of the protection and also shorter difference in that means short circuit current is almost the same as nominal
tripping time as you can see in Fig. 6. current. On the other hand it is very difficult to recognize short
circuit in failure section.
Trip level of protections should be set according to short
circuit conditions in failure section. In Smart Grid Power System A compromise between these cases can be found. We can
connection of power sources is very variable, that means we use some fixed synchronous machines with higher short circuit
cannot exactly know the short circuit level for setting the contribution for making higher levels of short circuit current and
protection. It is possible to set it for smaller power grid but for some solar power plant between them.
large power grid it is almost impossible to achieve the right
disconnection of failure section. 100
80
60
40
20
0
0 6 15 24 35 50 65 79 100
connected power [%]
Fig. 7. Connected power dependence on pairs of protections with insufficient
difference between tripping times for synchronous machines.

Fig. 5. Example of using directional overcurrent protection (output of

program)

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Fig. 8. Tested power system (output of program)
B. Using differential protections
Differential protections are very easy and effective solution
of problems described in previous section. Differential
protection check the current flowing to the protected area and
current effluent from it. Situation is shown in Fig. 9. Problem is
that node 1 can be far away from node 3 and connection of this
failure section can be very expensive.
Fig. 9. Example of using differential protection (output of program)
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper has presented the use of Simultaneous Faults
Method for doing of program allowing for variable faults
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analysis of arbitrary power system. The program making in Java
programming language also allows for graphical user interface
for easy entering the input data. Program offers good potential
for future expansion and also allows for finding the best
protection concept of Smart Grid Power Systems.
For the protection concept, design two variants of protecting
were used: First, concept based on directional overcurrent
protections and, second, on differential protections. First
concept was rejected because of bad tripping evaluation during
changing short circuit conditions. Second concept, in this view
is possible but there are other disadvantages.
REFERENCES
[1] P. Anderson, “Sequence Impedance of Transformers” in Analysis of
faulted power systems, New York: IEEE Press, 1995, pp. 262-264
[2] Power System Protection: Protection Coordation, 4rd ed., Siemens Power
Engineering
[3] J. Špetlík, (2014, February 5). Poruchy v trojfázové soustavě: Metoda
simultánních poruch [Online] Available: http://www.powerwiki.cz
[4] J. Špetlík, (2014, February 5). Ustálený chod sítě, Z-matice, matice
prouch [Online] Available: http://www.powerwiki.cz
[5] Ochrana před úrazem elektrickým proudem v distribučních soustavách a
přenosové soustavě, PNE 33 0000 – 1, 2011
[6] 489 Generator Management Relay: Instruction Manual, Rev. AF, GE
Digital Energy, Markham, Ontario, 2011, pp. 139-141
[7] J. Blackburn, “Phasors and Polarity” in Protective relaying: principles and
applications, 2nd ed. New York: M. Dekker, 1998