1
Power Quality of Smart Grids with Plug-in Electric
Vehicles Considering Battery Charging Profile
Paul S. Moses, Student Member, IEEE, Sara Deilami, Student Member, IEEE, Amir S. Masoum,
Student Member, IEEE, and Mohammad A. S. Masoum, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract— The impact of different battery charging rates of
Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) on the power quality of smart
grid distribution systems is studied in this paper. PEV battery
chargers are high power nonlinear devices that can generate
significant amount of current harmonics. PEVs will be an
integral component to the operation of smart grids and therefore
their power quality impacts must be thoroughly analyzed. Based
on decoupled harmonic load flow analysis, different PEV
charging scenarios (e.g., time zone scheduling, charging rate and
penetration level) are tested for a typical large distribution
network topology. The impacts of PEV charge rate on voltage
profile, fundamental and harmonic losses, transformer loading
and total harmonic distortions are demonstrated.
Index Terms— Battery charger, harmonics, power quality,
plug-in electric vehicles and smart grids
I. INTRODUCTION
P OWER QUALITY is an important consideration in the
reliability and security of smart grids which is likely to be
heavily impacted by the growth of Plug-in Electric Vehicles
(PEVs) over the coming years [1]. In order to design and
prepare smart grids for the adoption of PEVs, it is necessary to
analyze the impacts that simultaneous PEV units charging
including their charging schemes, durations and rates will
have on performance and the power quality of smart grids.
Specifically, the stresses imposed on local neighborhood
circuits including distribution transformers, which are the
weakest link in smart grids, needs to be ascertained.
The battery chargers for PEVs have high ratings and
employ nonlinear switching devices which may result in
significant harmonic currents injected into the distribution
system [2]. Many papers have already studied the harmonic
distortions generated by individual ac-dc converters of battery
charging circuitry [3-7]; however there are limited studies
performed at the system level to gauge the power quality
impact of different charging patterns of multiple PEV users.
Depending on the charging pattern of multiple PEV users
(e.g., off-peak and on-peak, slow/fast charging, etc), the
harmonic levels may rise to drastic levels that can increase
P.S. Moses, S. Deilami and M.A.S. Masoum are with the Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Curtin University of Technology, Perth,
Australia (paul.s.moses@gmail.com;s.deilami@postgrad.curtin.edu.au,
m.masoum@curtin.edu.au). A.S. Masoum is with Transmission Maintenance
Delivery, Western Power, WA
(amir.sherkatmasoum@westernpower.com.au).
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stresses on smart grids. In addition to harmonic distortions,
PEV charging may lead to unacceptable voltage deviations,
suboptimal generation dispatch to service new PEV loading
patterns and additional fundamental and harmonic power
losses. PEV charging is likely to take place in either public or
corporate car parks, electric charging stations, or at a
customer’s premises [8].
This paper focuses on PEV charging at customer’s premises
in a smart grid. Therefore, to better understand the impacts of
multiple PEV charging from domestic usage on the
performance of a smart grid, extensive simulation studies have
been performed for a realistic and detailed smart grid
configuration. The studied system consists of a 23 kV
distribution system with industrial feeders and several attached
low voltage 415 V residential networks (total of 145 nodes)
with high penetration of PEVs. Both high voltage (HV) and
low voltage (LV) networks are integrated and analyzed
simultaneously unlike existing studies which usually focus on
one voltage level (usually HV). Comparisons are made for
different charging regimes, rates and time zones for multiple
PEV chargers operating in residential networks. Based on
decoupled harmonic power flow (DHPF), the nonlinearity of
PEVs and large industrial loads are incorporated into the
analysis. Residential and industrial linear and nonlinear load
variations over a 24 hour period have been taken into account.
The impacts on smart grid power quality in terms of voltage
profile, power losses (fundamental and harmonics), peak
demand, and transformer loading, as well as, total harmonic
distortions are investigated.
II. NEWTON BASED HARMONIC POWER FLOW
The analysis presented in this paper is entirely based on
harmonic power flow solutions. A special algorithm has been
developed in MATLAB for this study in which the harmonic
power-flow calculation uses a decoupled approach. Decoupled
harmonic power flow (DHPF) is justified due to its acceptable
accuracy and the fact that distribution systems consist of a
large number of linear and nonlinear loads (e.g., PEVs) that
cause convergence and memory storage problems if the
harmonic couplings are considered [9].
At harmonic frequencies, the power system is modeled as a
combination of passive elements and harmonic current
sources. The general model of linear loads as resistances in
parallel with reactances is utilized [10]. The ac-dc converters
of PEV chargers and industrial motor drives considered in the
analysis consist of nonlinear switching devices which inject
 2

harmonic currents into the smart grid. With knowledge of the
current harmonic spectra, these nonlinear loads can be
modeled as parallel current sources each injecting harmonic
currents at different frequencies into the system.
The related admittance matrix is modified according to the
harmonic frequency [11-13]. The fundamental and the hth
harmonic current of the nonlinear load installed at bus i with
real power P and reactive power Q are modeled as
I i1 = [( Pi + jQi ) / Vi1 ] *
I ih = C (h) I i1
III. SMART GRID DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM WITH HIGH
PENETRATION OF PLUG-IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES
In order to study the impacts of different charging rates for
multiple PEVs in a smart grid, a suitable network topology
must be assumed. This section describes the detailed smart
grid distribution system topology, load configuration and PEV
charging scenarios assumed for the analysis. The developed
system includes the harmonic current injections from
(1) nonlinear PEV loads and is solved through the modified
decoupled harmonic load flow algorithm described in Section
II.
(2)

PE V
Vs
ith 15
where C(h) is the ratio of the hth harmonic current to its

w l4
ks tia
or n
fundamental. The harmonic voltages are computed by solving

tw ide
Ne Res
the following load-flow equation:

Y h V h = I h. (3)

The voltage at bus i is defined as

1/ 2
⎛ H 2⎞
Vi = ⎜⎜ ∑ Vih ⎟⎟ (4)
⎝ h=1 ⎠

and the related total harmonic distortions of voltage (THDv)

and current (THDi) are Fig. 1. Smart grid distribution system: 23 kV distribution feeder with 415 V
residential networks and high penetration of PEVs.

⎡⎛ H 1/ 2 ⎤
h ⎞
2
THDv = ⎜⎜ ∑ Vi ⎟⎟ / Vi1 ⎥ × 100%
⎢
⎢⎝ h ≠1 ⎠ ⎥ Daily
⎣ ⎦ residential load
(5) curve
⎡⎛ H 2⎞
1 / 2 ⎤
THDi = ⎢⎜⎜ ∑ I ih ⎟⎟ / I i1 ⎥ × 100%
⎢⎝ h≠1 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

where H is the highest harmonic order considered (H = 49 for

this paper). At the hth harmonic frequency, power loss in the
line section between buses i and i+1 is

2
h ⎛ h h h ⎞
Ploss (i ,i +1) = Ri,i +1 ⎜ Vi ,i +1 − Vi yi ,i +1 ⎟ (6)
⎝ ⎠
Fig. 2. Daily residential load curve
and the total power loss, including losses at harmonic A. Smart Grid Distribution System
frequencies, for an m bus system is
Fig. 1 illustrates the smart grid distribution system topology
investigated in this paper. Unlike existing analyses which
h H ⎛ m −1 h ⎞
= ∑ ⎜ ∑ Ploss focus on one voltage level, a hybrid system consisting of high
Ploss (i ,i +1) ⎟ (7)
h =1 ⎝ i =0 ⎠ voltage and low voltage network topologies is developed to
study the impacts of multiple PEV charging on a smart grid.
Based on this approach, a detailed network populated with The HV distribution feeder and LV residential networks are
linear and nonlinear loads, including PEVs, is analyzed to considered by expanding the IEEE 30 bus system [14] to
understand the power quality issues facing smart grid include several LV 415 (240) V sections. The LV networks
development. Voltage profiles, harmonic levels, system represent different residential zones and are based on realistic
loading and system losses (fundamental and harmonic) are data for a local neighborhood (see Appendix). Each LV
computed and compared for different charging approaches. network consists of 19 nodes representing customer
households, and potentially high penetrations of PEV charging
have been included. Six LV sections of this type, each with 19

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nodes, are implemented and are supplied from main buses 23
through 28 via 23kV/415V 100 kVA distribution transformers.
The remaining 23 kV buses have active and reactive power
loads based on the IEEE 30 bus system data which represents
the lumped loads from other residential, commercial and
industrial load centers. The total number of nodes of this
system is 145.
B. Linear loads
A typical daily load curve based on true recordings of a
distribution transformer will be used to model the linear load
variations (Fig. 3) over a 24 hour period. In addition to this,
different PEV charging load profiles at various households
will be added at different time periods (e.g., on-peak, off-
peak) to investigate the new loading patterns, system stresses
and power quality issues.
C. Battery Chargers for Plug-in Electric Vehicles
PEV battery chargers have large ratings and employ highly
nonlinear ac-dc converters which will distort the line current.
Many studies have investigated the generated current
harmonics but the combined impact of multiple PEVs and
their nonlinearities at the system level is uncertain. The
harmonic current content of PEV chargers is difficult to arrive
at because it varies with many factors such as initial battery
state of charge and charging profile. However, detailed Monte
Carlo simulation analysis performed by [2] has justified and
developed a typical mean current harmonic spectra which can
be used for computations. Based on this, the PEV charger
nonlinearities are modeled with the harmonic spectra shown in
Table I obtained from [2].
D. PEV Batteries and Charging Profiles
For modeling PEV charging loads realistically, the battery
capacities are of importance to determine reasonable charging
rates. A survey was performed of the most recent PEV
productions to date and their stated battery capacities (Table
II). A 16 kWh battery capacity per PEV is selected for this
study because it is expected that the lower end battery sizes
will be more affordable and therefore dominate the PEV
market initially.
TABLE I
TYPICAL LINE CURRENT HARMONIC CONTENT OF
A PLUG-IN ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGER [2]
Harmonic order h mag deg
1 100 -26
5 25 -94
7 17 -67
11 9 -67
13 5 -46
THDi 31.9 %
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3
Fig. 3. Current waveform distortion for nonlinear PEV charger load
TABLE II
RECENTLY INTRODUCED PEVS ON THE
MARKET AND THEIR BATTERY CAPACITIES
Recent PEV Models Battery Capacity [kWh]
Tesla Roadster[15] 54
Nissan Leaf[16] 24
GM Chevrolet Volt
[17] 16
Mitsubishi i-MiEV[18] 16
For optimal battery life, a small portion of the battery rating
is unusable. For a deep cycle PEV battery, it is reasonable to
assume 80% of the rated battery life can be used resulting in
an available capacity of 12.8 kWh that the charger must
deliver. Due to losses in the battery charger, the energy
requirement from the grid is actually greater than the stated
battery capacity. Therefore, a battery charger efficiency of
approximately 90% is assumed requiring 14.2 kWh of energy
from the grid to charge a single PEV.
The PEV battery chargers have high ratings compared to
normal residential loads in order to charge the large batteries
in reasonable time periods. The charging power will be limited
by the ratings of typical 240V ac household wiring and
electrical outlets. A standard single-phase 240V outlet
(Australia) is rated to about 2.4 kW. Higher ratings are
possible if 15A and 20A outlets are installed for residential
customers which can supply approximately 4 kW and 14.4 kW
(single-phase and three-phase), respectively. Therefore, for
this analysis, PHEV charging rates (normal, medium and
quick charging) within these outlet power limitations will be
tested in residential areas for different charging time periods
sufficient to charge a 16 kWh battery. Furthermore, two PEV
penetration levels are assumed. For low penetration, 20% of
each 19 node residential system is populated with PEVs (i.e., 4
PEVs per LV section totaling 24 PEVs). For high penetration
of PEVs, 80% of the residential house nodes are populated
with PEVs (total of 90 PEVs).
 4

TABLE III
IMPACTS OF PEV CHARGING RATE, PENETRATION AND CHARGING PERIOD ON THE POWER QUALITY OF SMART GRIDS
Low PEV Penetration (20%) High PEV Penetration (80%)
Max. Max.
Charging Rates
MAX
PLOSS Trans. MAX
PLOSS Trans.
voltage THDv voltage THDv
Charging Periods PEAK
PTOTAL Imax PEAK
PTOTAL Imax
deviation** [%] deviation* [%]
[pu] [pu]
[%] * [%]
5pm-8am 2.146 12.700 0.812 3.385 2.304 17.246 0.946 13.704
Normal Charge
6 Hr @ Pchg,max ≈ 5pm-2am 2.232 12.945 0.861 2.875 2.760 18.249 1.102 15.830
2.4 kW
5pm-11pm (peak) 2.275 12.986 0.884 2.837 3.239 18.826 1.181 15.830

5pm-8am 2.217 12.936 0.896 3.800 2.464 18.736 0.987 15.919

Medium Charge
5pm-2am 2.188 12.875 0.893 4.089 2.769 19.627 1.179 22.446
4 Hr @ Pchg,max ≈
3.6 kW 5pm-11pm (peak) 2.305 13.132 0.933 4.073 3.712 21.422 1.343 24.430
5pm-9pm (peak) 2.357 13.139 0.933 4.073 4.057 21.518 1.395 24.430
5pm-8am 2.185 12.665 0.912 8.627 3.672 35.524 1.343 45.935
Quick Charge
(to 80% Capacity) 5pm-2am 2.411 13.879 1.031 10.371 3.270 35.452 1.343 45.935
1 Hr @ Pchg,max ≈
11.4 kW 5pm-11pm (peak) 2.337 13.579 1.063 10.491 3.495 33.022 1.696 52.584
5pm-6pm (peak) 3.126 13.920 1.267 13.266 ---- ---- ---- ----

IV. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on extensive simulations with decoupled harmonic
load flow analysis, results indicate that PEV charging rate and
time scheduling can have a profound impact on the power
quality of a smart grid. The results of this analysis are
summarized in Table III.
The low PEV penetration (20%) scenario is representative
of early low PEV adoption case in the near future as PEV
prices remain too high for most families to afford PEVs
initially. For this scenario using a normal low power PEV
charging rate, the voltage harmonics and power losses remain
acceptably low regardless of the charging time zone. The
voltage deviations are minimum in this scenario, however it is
still a cause for concern as it falls outside most regulatory Figure 4. System load curve with low penetration of PEVs using quick
charge rate at different charging time periods
limits (e.g., +/- 10%). Figs. 4-7 illustrate system
performances for low penetration and quick charging rate at
different charging periods. If quick charging rate is used, the
system load peak is raised and broadened, but may still
tolerable from a standpoint of generation capacity (Fig.4).
The impact on losses is shown in Fig. 5. Power quality does
begin to noticeable deteriorate noting that THDv rises above
10% and voltage deviation increases during peak time (Fig. 6-
7). Furthermore, the transformer loading starts to become an
issue with overloads of 127% observed for quick charging
during peak time.
The high penetration scenario is intended to look at regions
with high PEV growth rates (e.g., affluent neighborhoods), or,
the foreseeable long term situation when PEVs gain higher
market acceptance over conventional fuel-base vehicles. In
this scenario, the smart grid system performance and power
quality is significantly affected. Figs. 8-11 illustrate the
system performances for high penetration of PEVs at medium Fig. 5. System power losses with low penetration of PEVs using quick
charging rate and different time zones. charge rate at different time period

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 5

Fig. 6. Total harmonic distortion of voltage at the worst performing bus. Figure 9. System power losses with high penetration of PEVs using
Quick charge rate and low penetration of PEV at different time zones medium charge rate at different time period

Fig. 7. Voltage profile of worst performing bus for low penetration of PEVs Fig. 10. Total harmonic distortion of voltage at the worst performing bus.
with quick charge rate and different charging periods Medium charge rate and high penetration of PEV at different time zones

Fig. 8. System load curve with high penetration of PEVs using medium Fig. 11. Voltage profile of worst performing bus for high penetration of
charge rate at different charging time periods PEVs with medium charge rate and different charging periods

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 6

If PEV charging is constrained to peak hours between 5pm TABLE D2

and 11pm or 5pm to 2am, the system peak is significantly LINE PARAMETERS OF THE TYPICAL LOW VOLTAGE
raised and broadened (Fig. 8) Such operation may lead to RESIDENTIAL SYSTEM (FIG. 1)

suboptimal generation dispatch to serve the large PEV Line

From To Line resistance Line reactance
charging loads. Furthermore, system losses increase R [Ω] X [Ω]
bus bus
substantially during this period (Fig. 9). If the PEV charging 1 2 0.041451 0.014461
is encouraged to off-peak times, the system peak impacts are 2 3 0.042407 0.018924
not so severe. Power quality deteriorates substantially even for 3 4 0.044360 0.019795
the best case of normal charging mostly off-peak. THD levels 4 5 0.036915 0.016473
5 6 0.052031 0.023218
and voltage deviations (Figs. 10-11) have risen to 6 7 0.052356 0.023364
unacceptable levels and transformer loading issues become 7 8 0.000513 0.000195
serious for medium and quick charging regimes. 7 9 0.200244 0.019970
7 10 1.734005 0.172931
6 11 0.260702 0.025999
V. CONCLUSION 6 12 1.360527 0.135684
This paper highlights and demonstrates potential power 4 13 0.14023 0.013985
3 14 0.776297 0.077419
quality problems that can occur in a smart grid operating with 2 15 0.597698 0.059608
Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs). A detailed hybrid 1 16 0.142289 0.049642
distribution system topology integrating high voltage and 16 17 0.083711 0.029205
several low voltage residential networks is analyzed. The 17 18 0.312354 0.031150
1 19 0.016300 0.006200
nonlinearity of multiple PEV battery chargers with their
current harmonic injections has been included. The main
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Paul S. Moses (S'09) received his B.Eng. (1st Class Hons.) and B.Sc. degrees
in Electrical Engineering and Physics in 2006 from Curtin University of
Technology, Perth, Australia. He received the W J Smith Memorial Prize for
Best Electrical Engineering Honors Thesis and the Don Watts Prize from the
Faculty of Engineering for the most innovative research project. He was
awarded an Australian Postgraduate Award scholarship in 2009 and is
presently working towards a PhD degree in Electrical Engineering at Curtin
University of Technology. Since 2007, he has also been working as a research
scientist for the Defence Science and Technology Organisation (DSTO) in the
Department of Defence, Australia, and is presently part of their Maritime
Platforms Division, Propulsion and Energy Systems Group. His research
interests include nonlinear electromagnetic phenomena, power quality, smart
grids and protection.
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7
Sara Deilami (S’09) received her B.S. degree in Electrical Engineering-
Electronics in 2000 from Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. She was
awarded a Curtin University Postgraduate Scholarship (CUPS) in 2010 is
presently working towards a Master degree in Electrical Engineering at Curtin
University of Technology, Perth, Australia. Her interests include optimal
dispatch of shunt capacitors and LTC, harmonics, power quality and
protection and renewable energy systems. She has eight years of industry
experience as an engineer working in consultant companies.
Amir S. Masoum received his B.Eng. degree in Electrical Engineering in
2009 from the University of Western Australia (UWA), Perth, Australia. He
is currently a Contract Networks Engineer at the Transmission Maintenance
Delivery, Western Power, Kewdale, WA, 6105. Amir also has two years of
industry experience as a testing technician at Magellan Power, O’Connor,
WA, Australia. His main interests are control and energy management of
renewable energy resources and power system.
Mohammad A. S. Masoum (SM’05) received his B.S., M.S. and Ph.D.
degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1983, 1985, and 1991,
respectively, from the University of Colorado at Boulder, USA. Dr.
Masoum’s research interests include optimization, power quality and stability
of power systems/electric machines and distributed generation. Currently, he
is an Associate Professor and the discipline leader for Power System
Engineering at the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Curtin
University of Technology, Perth, Australia. He is a senior member of IEEE.