C3 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY | SANTILLAN, KYLIE ANNE B. | PSY 227 | DEC. 12, 2022
period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies,
OUTLINE support systems for cells form, and organs
I. Introduction appear.
II. Prenatal Development  The fetal period, lasting about seven months, is
III. Birth the prenatal period between two months after
IV. The Postpartum Period conception and birth in typical pregnancies.
Chapter 4: Physical Development in Infancy Growth and development continue their
V. Physical Growth and Development in Infancy dramatic course during this time.
VI. Motor Development
VII. Sensory and Perceptual Development
VIII. Reference

I. INTRODUCTION
This chapter chronicles the truly remarkable
developments from conception through birth. Imagine at
one time you were an organism floating in a sea of fluid
in your mother’s womb. Let’s now explore what your
development was like from the time you were conceived
through the time you were born. We will explore normal
development in the prenatal period, as well as the
period’s hazards (such as high levels of mercury that
were mentioned in the preceding story). We also will
study the birth process and tests used to assess the
newborn; discuss parents’ adjustment during the
postpartum period; and evaluate parent-infant bonding.

II. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Typical prenatal development, which begins with
fertilization and ends with birth, takes between 266 and
280 days (38 to 40 weeks). It can be divided into three
periods: germinal, embryonic, and fetal.
THE THREE TRIMESTERS OF PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT. Both the germinal and embryonic
periods occur during the first trimester. The end of the
first trimester as well as the second and third trimesters
are part of the fetal period.

TERATOLOGY AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL

DEVELOPMENT
The danger of structural defects caused by teratogens is
greatest early in embryonic development. The period of
organogenesis (red color) lasts for about six weeks. Later
assaults by teratogens (blue-green color) mainly occur in
the fetal period and instead of causing structural damage
 The germinal period is the period of prenatal are more likely to stunt growth or cause problems
development that takes place during the first two
weeks after conception. It includes the creation
of the fertilized egg, called a zygote; cell
division; and the attachment of the zygote to the
uterine wall.
 The embryonic period is the period of prenatal
development that occurs from two to eight
weeks after conception. During the embryonic

1
involving organ function.
Teratogen is any agent that can potentially cause a birth
defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral
outcomes. (The word comes from the Greek word tera,
meaning “monster.”) So many teratogens exist that
practically every fetus is exposed to at least some
teratogens. For this reason, it is difficult to determine
which teratogen causes which problem. In addition, it
may take a long time for the effects of a teratogen to
show up. Only about half of all potential effects appear
at birth.
 The dose effect is rather obvious—the greater
the dose of an agent, such as a drug, the greater
the effect.
 Genetic Susceptibility. The type or severity of
abnormalities caused by a teratogen is linked to
the genotype of the pregnant woman and the
genotype of the embryo or fetus (Lin & others,
2017).
 Time of Exposure. Exposure to teratogens does
more damage when it occurs at some points in
development than at others (Feldkamp & others,
2017). Damage during the germinal period may
even prevent implantation. In general, the
embryonic period is more vulnerable than the
fetal period.
Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs
Prescription drugs that can function as teratogens include
antibiotics, such as streptomycin and tetracycline; some
antidepressants; certain hormones, such as progestin and
synthetic estrogen; and Accutane (the trade name for
isotretinoin, a form of Vitamin A that is often used to
treat acne) (Brown & others, 2018; Dathe & Schaefer,
2018). Among the birth defects caused by Accutane are
heart defects, eye and ear abnormalities, and brain
malformation. In a recent study, isotretinoin was the
fourth most common drug given to female adolescents
who were seeking contraception advice from a physician
(Stancil & others, 2017). However, physicians did not
give the adolescent girls adequate information about the
negative effects of isotretinoin on offspring if the girls
were to become pregnant. In a recent review of
teratogens that should never be taken during the first
trimester of pregnancy, isotretinoin was on the
prohibited list (Eltonsy & others, 2016). Nonprescription
drugs that can be harmful include diet pills and high
dosages of aspirin (Cadavid, 2017). Research indicates
that low doses of aspirin pose no harm for the fetus but
that high doses can contribute to maternal and fetal
bleeding (Osikoya & others, 2017).
PRENATAL CARE
An increasing number of studies are finding that exercise
either benefits the mother’s health and has positive
neonatal outcomes or that there are no differences in
outcomes (Barakat & others, 2017; Huang & others,
2017). Exercise during pregnancy helps prevent
constipation, conditions the body, reduces the likelihood
of excessive weight gain, lowers the risk of developing
hypertension, improves immune system functioning, and
is associated with a more positive mental state, including
reduced levels of stress and depression (Bacchi & others,
2017; Barakat & others, 2016; Magro-Malosso & others,
2017; Marques & others, 2015). For example, a recent
study found that two weekly 70-minute yoga sessions
reduced pregnant women’s stress and enhanced their
immune system functioning (Chen & others, 2017).
NORMAL PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Much of our discussion so far in this chapter has focused
on what can go wrong with prenatal development.
Prospective parents should take steps to avoid the
vulnerabilities to fetal development that we have
described. But it is important to keep in mind that most
of the time, prenatal development does not go awry, and
development occurs along the positive path that we
described at the beginning of the chapter.
III. BIRTH
Nature writes the basic script for how birth occurs, but
parents make important choices about conditions
surrounding birth. We look first at the sequence of
physical stages that occur when a child is born.
The Birth Process occurs in stages, takes place in
different contexts and in most cases involves one or
more attendants.
 The first stage the longest of the three. Uterine
contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart at the
beginning and last up to a minute. These
contractions cause the woman’s cervix to stretch
and open.
 The second stage begins when the baby’s head
starts to move through the cervix and the birth
canal. It terminates when the baby completely
emerges from the mother’s body. With each
contraction, the mother bears down hard to
push the baby out of her body. By the time the
baby’s head is out of the mother’s body, the
 contractions come almost every minute and last
for about a minute. This stage typically lasts
approximately 45 minutes to an hour.
 Afterbirth / The third stage the placenta,
umbilical cord, and other membranes are
detached and expelled. This final stage is the
shortest of the three birth stages, lasting only
minutes.
U.S. hospitals often allow the mother and her
obstetrician a range of options regarding the method of
delivery. Key choices involve the use of medication,
whether to use any of a number of nonmedicated
techniques to reduce pain, and when to have a cesarean
delivery.
 Natural Childbirth. This method of childbirth
attempts to reduce the mother’s pain by
decreasing her fear through information about
childbirth and instruction in relaxation
techniques to reduce pain during delivery.
 Prepared Childbirth. Developed by French
obstetrician Ferdinand Lamaze, this childbirth
strategy is similar to natural childbirth but
includes a special breathing technique to control
pushing in the final stages of labor and a more
detailed anatomy and physiology course.
ASSESSING THE NEWBORN
Almost immediately after birth, after the baby and its
parents have been introduced, a newborn is taken to be
weighed, cleaned up, and tested for signs of
developmental problems that might require urgent
attention.
 The Apgar Scale is widely used to assess the
health of newborns at one and five minutes after
birth.
 It evaluates an infant’s heart rate, respiratory
effort, muscle tone, body color, and reflex
irritability.
An obstetrician or a nurse does the evaluation and gives
the newborn a score, or reading, of 0, 1, or 2 on each of
these five health signs. A total score of 7 to 10 indicates
that the newborn’s condition is good. A score of 5
indicates there may be developmental difficulties. A
score of 3 or below signals an emergency and indicates
that the baby might not survive.
 Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment
Scale (NBAS) is a measure that is used in the
first month of life to assess the newborn’s
neurological development, reflexes, and
reactions to people and objects.
 The NBAS is especially designed to assess at-
risk infants.
PRETERM AND LOW BIRTH WEIGHT INFANTS
Various conditions that pose threats for newborns have
been given different labels. We will examine these
conditions and discuss interventions for improving
outcomes of preterm infants.
There are three related conditions pose threats to many
newborns: low weight, being born preterm and being
small for date:
 Low birth weight infants – an infant that
weighs less than 5 pounds 8 ounces at birth.
 Preterm infants – those born before the
completion of 37 weeks of gestation (the time
between fertilization and birth)
 Small date for infants – also called as
gestational age infants. These infants’ birth
weighs are below normal when the length of
pregnancy is considered. They can be preterm or
full term.
The number and severity of health problems increase
when infants are born very early and as their birth
weight decreases (Linsell & others, 2017; Pascal &
others, 2018). Survival rates for infants who are born
very early and very small have risen, but with this
improved survival rate have come an increased rate of
severe brain damage (Rogers & Hintz, 2018) and lower
level of executive function, especially in working
memory and planning (Burnett & others, 2018).
IV. THE POSTPARTUM PERIOD
The weeks after childbirth present challenges for many
new parents and their offspring. This is the postpartum
period, the period after childbirth or delivery that lasts
for about six weeks or until the mother’s body has
completed its adjustment and has returned to a nearly CHAPTER 4: PHYSICAL
pre-pregnant state. This is the time when a woman
adjusts, both physically and psychologically to the
DEVELOPMENT IN
process of birth. It also involves a great deal of
adjustments and adaptation (Doering & others, 2017).
INFANCY
It is very important for infants to get a healthy start.
The adjustments are physical, emotional and
When they do, their first two years of life are likely to be
psychological.
a time of amazing development. In this chapter, we
focus on the biological domain and the infant’s physical
PHYSICAL ADJUSTMENTS
development, exploring physical growth, motor
A woman’s body makes numerous physical adjustments
development, and sensory and perceptual development.
in the first days and weeks after childbirth (Neiterman &
Fox, 2018). She may have a great deal of energy or feel
V. PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
exhausted and let down. Though these changes are
IN INFANCY
normal, the fatigue can undermine the new mother’s
Infants’ physical development in the first two years of
sense of well-being and confidence in her ability to cope
life is extensive. Newborns’ heads are quite large in
with a new baby and a new family life (Doering, Sims,
comparison with the rest of their bodies. They have little
& Miller, 2017).
strength in their necks and cannot hold their heads up,
but they have some basic reflexes. In the span of 12
After delivery, a mother’s body undergoes sudden and
months, infants become capable of sitting anywhere,
dramatic changes in hormone production. When the
standing, stooping, climbing, and usually walking.
placenta is delivered, estrogen and progesterone levels
During the second year, growth decelerates, but rapid
drop steeply and remain low until the ovaries start
increases in such activities as running and climbing take
producing hormones again.
place. Let’s now examine in greater detail the sequence
of physical development in infancy.
EMOTIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
ADJUSTMENTS
PATTERNS OF GROWTH
Emotional fluctuations are common for mothers in the
The cephalocaudal pattern is the sequence in which the
postpartum period. For some women, emotional
earliest growth always occurs at the top—the head—
fluctuations decrease within several weeks after the
with physical growth and differentiation of features
delivery, but other women experience more long-lasting
gradually working their way down from top to bottom
emotional swings (O’Hara & Engeldinger, 2018;
(for example, shoulders, middle trunk, and so on). This
Pawluski, Lonstein, & Fleming, 2017).
same pattern occurs in the head area, because the top
parts of the head—the eyes and brain—grow faster than
However, some women develop and experience
the lower parts, such as the jaw.
postpartum depression that involves a major depressive
episode that typically occurs about four weeks after
delivery. Women with postpartum depression have such
strong feelings of sadness, anxiety or despair that for at
least a two-week period they have trouble coping with
their daily tasks.

BONDING
A special component of the parent-infant relationship is
bonding, the formation of a connection, especially a
physical bond between parents and the newborn in the
period shortly after birth.
Many hospitals now offer a rooming-in arrangement, in
which the baby remains in the mother’s room most of
the time during its hospital stay. However, if parents
choose not to use this rooming-in arrangement, the
weight of the research suggests that this decision will not
harm the infant emotionally (Lamb, 1994).
Growth also follows the proximodistal pattern, the
sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body
and moves toward the extremities. For example, infants
control the muscles of their trunk and arms before they
control their hands and fingers, and they use their whole
hands before they can control several fingers (Bindler &
others, 2017).
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT
In the first several days of life, most newborns lose 5 to
7 percent of their body weight before they adjust to
feeding by sucking, swallowing, and digesting. Then
they grow rapidly, gaining an average of 5 to 6 ounces
per week during the first month. They have doubled their
birth weight by the age of 4 months and have nearly
tripled it by their first birthday. Infants grow about 1
inch per month during the first year, approximately
doubling their birth length by their first birthday.
THE BRAIN
We have described the amazing growth of the brain from
conception to birth. By the time it is born, the infant that
began as a single cell is estimated to have a brain that
contains approximately 100 billion nerve cells, or
neurons.
 Extensive brain development continues after
birth, through infancy and later (Sullivan &
Wilson, 2018; Vasa & others, 2018). Because
the brain is still developing so rapidly in infancy,
the infant’s head should be protected from falls
or other injuries and the baby should never be
shaken.
 Shaken baby syndrome, which includes brain
swelling and hemorrhaging, affects hundreds of
babies in the United States each year (Hellgren
& others, 2017). One analysis found that fathers
were the most frequent perpetrators of shaken
baby syndrome, followed by child care providers
and boyfriends of the victim’s mother (National
Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome, 2012).
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT refers to the changes in the
prefrontal cortex in adolescents and older adults have
important implications for their cognitive development.
Connect to “Physical and Cognitive Development in
Adolescence” and “Physical Development in Late
Adulthood.”
At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its
adult weight. By the second birthday, the brain is about
75 percent of its adult weight. However, the brain’s areas
do not mature uniformly.
 The Brain’s Four Lobes are frontal, occipital,
temporal and parietal.
 Frontal lobes are involved in voluntary
movement, thinking, personality and
intentionality purpose.
 Occipital Lobes function in vision.
 Temporal Lobes have an active role in hearing,
language processing and memory.
 Parietal Lobes play important roles in
registering special location, attention and motor
controls.
THE NEURON (a) The dendrites of the cell body
receive information from other neurons, muscles, or
glands through the axon. (b) Axons transmit
information away from the cell body. (c) A myelin
sheath covers most axons and speeds information
transmission. (d) As the axon ends, it branches out
into terminal buttons.
 Neurons change in two very significant
ways during the first years of life. First,
myelination, the process of encasing axons
with fat cells, begins prenatally and
continues after birth, even into adolescence
and emerging adulthood (Juraska & Willing,
2017).
 Second, connectivity among neurons
increases, creating new neural pathways
(Eggebrecht & others, 2017; Zhou & others,
2018). New dendrites grow, connections
among dendrites increase, and synaptic
connections between axons and dendrites
proliferate. Whereas myelination speeds up
neural transmissions, the expansion of
dendritic connections facilitates the
spreading of neural pathways in infant
development.
SLEEP
When we were infants, sleep consumed more of our time
than it does now (Goh & others, 2017). The typical
newborn sleeps approximately 18 hours a day, but
newborns vary greatly in how much they sleep (Dias &
others, 2018; Sadeh, 2008). The range is from about 10
hours to about 21 hours a day.
 REM Sleep – the eyes flutter beneath close lids;
in non-REM sleep, this type of eye movement
does not occur, and sleep is more quiet (Bathory
& Tomopoulos, 2017).
 Shared Sleeping – sleeping arrangements for
newborns vary from culture to culture (Field,
2017). For instance, sharing a bed with a mother
is a common practice in many cultures like
Guatemala and China.
 Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) – is a
condition that occurs when infants stop
breathing, usually during the night and die
suddenly without any apparent reason.
The link between infant sleep and children’s cognitive
functioning likely occurs because of sleep’s role in brain
maturation and memory consolidation, which may
improve daytime alertness and learning.
NUTRITION
A number of developmental changes involving eating
characterize the infant’s first year (Leow & others,
2017). As infants’ motor skills improve, they change
from using suck-and-swallow movements with breast
milk or formula to chew-and-swallow movements with
semisolid and then more complex foods. As their fine
motor control improves in the first year, they transition
from being fed by others toward self-feeding. “By the
end of the first year of life, children can sit
independently, can chew and swallow a range of
textures, are learning to feed themselves, and are making
the transition to the family diet and meal patterns”
(Black & Hurley, 2007, p. 1). At this point, infants need
to have a diet that includes a variety of foods—
especially fruits and vegetables.
Malnutrition in Infancy any infants around the world
are malnourished (UNICEF, 2018). Early weaning of
infants from breast milk to inadequate sources of
nutrients, such as unsuitable and unsanitary cow’s milk
formula, can cause protein deficiency and malnutrition
in infants.
VI. MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
The Dynamic Systems View the perspective on motor
development that seeks to explain how motor behaviors
are assembled for perceiving and acting.
According to dynamic systems theory, motor
development is not a passive process in which genes
dictate the unfolding of a sequence of skills over time.
Rather, the infant actively puts together a skill to achieve
a goal within the constraints set by the infant’s body and
environment. Nature and nurture, the infant, and the
environment, are all working together as part of an ever-
changing system.
As we examine the course of motor development, we
will describe how dynamic systems theory applies to
some specific skills. First, though, let’s examine the
beginning of motor development: the infant’s reflexes.
REFLEXES
Reflexes are built-in reactions to stimuli; they govern the
newborn’s movements, which are automatic and beyond
the newborn’s control.
 It is genetically carried survival mechanism.
 The rooting reflex occurs when the infant’s
cheek is stroked, or the side of the mouth is
touched.
 The sucking reflex occurs when newborns
automatically suck an object placed in their
mouth.
 The moro reflex occurs in response to a sudden,
intense noise or movement.
 The grasping reflex occurs when something
touches the infant’s palm.
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS
Parents proudly announce such milestones as their
children transform themselves from babies unable to lift
their heads to toddlers who grab things off the grocery
store shelf, chase a cat, and participate actively in the
family’s social life (Thelen, 2000). These milestones are
examples of gross motor skills, which involve large-
muscle activities such as moving one’s arms and
walking.
 The First Year: Motor Development
Milestones and Variations includes twelve
developmental milestones were assessed,
including grasping, rolling, sitting, and crawling;
standing and walking; and overall mean of
milestones. A larger size at birth (such as birth
weight, birth length, and head circumference)
was the aspect of pregnancy and delivery that
showed the strongest link to reaching motor
milestones earlier.
 Development in the Second Year
In the second year of life, toddlers become more
motorically skilled and mobile. Motor activity
during the second year is vital to the child’s
competent development, and few restrictions,
except for safety, should be placed on their
adventures.
FINE MOTOR SKILLS
Involve finely tuned movements. Grasping a toy, using
a spoon, buttoning a shirt, or any activity that requires
finger dexterity demonstrates fine motor skills. Infants
have hardly any control over fine motor skills at birth,
but newborns do have many components of what will
become finely coordinated arm, hand, and finger
movements (McCormack, Hoerl, & Butterfill, 2012).
Infants refine their ability to grasp objects by developing
two types of grasps.
 Initially, infants grip with the whole hand,
which is called the palmar grasp.
 Later, toward the end of the first year, infants
also grasp small objects with their thumb and
forefinger, which is called the pincer grip.
VII. SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL
DEVELOPMENT
Sensation occurs when information interacts with
sensory receptors—the eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and
skin. The sensation of hearing occurs when waves of
pulsating air are collected by the outer ear and
transmitted through the bones of the inner ear to the
auditory nerve. The sensation of vision occurs as rays of
light contact the eyes, become focused on the retina, and
are transmitted by the optic nerve to the visual centers of
the brain.
Perception is the interpretation of what is sensed. The
air waves that contact the ears might be interpreted as
noise or as musical sounds, for example. The physical
energy transmitted to the retina of the eye might be
interpreted as a particular color, pattern, or shape,
depending on how it is perceived.
THE ECOLOGICAL VIEW
According to the Gibson’s’ ecological view, we directly
perceive information that exists in the world around us.
This view is called ecological “because it connects
perceptual capabilities to information available in the
world of the perceiver” (Kellman & Arterberry, 2006, p.
112). Thus, perception brings us into contact with the
environment so we can interact with and adapt to it
(Kretch & Adolph, 2017). Perception is designed for
action. Perception gives people information such as
when to duck, when to turn their bodies as they move
through a narrow passageway, and when to put their
hands up to catch something.
 The Ecological View – the view that perception
functions to bring organism in contact with the
environment and to increase adaptation.
 Affordances – Opportunities for interaction
offered by objects that fit within our capabilities
to perform functional activities.
VISUAL PERCEPTION
Visual Acuity and Human Faces at birth, the nerves
and muscles and lens of the eye are still developing. As
a result, newborns cannot see small things that are far
away. The newborn’s vision is estimated to be 20/240
on the well-known Snellen chart used for eye
examinations, which means that a newborn can see at 20
feet what an adult with normal vision can see at 240 feet
(Aslin & Lathrop, 2008).
Infants show an interest in human faces soon after birth
(Johnson& Hannon, 2015). Research shows that within
hours after infants are born, they prefer to look at faces
rather than other objects and to look at attractive faces
more than at unattractive ones (Lee & others, 2013).
 Color Vision The infant’s color vision also
improves (Yang & others, 2015). By 8 weeks,
and possibly as early as 4 weeks, infants can
discriminate between some colors (Kelly,
Borchert, & Teller. 1997)
 Perception of Occluded Objects Infants
develop the ability to track briefly occluded
moving objects at about 3 to 5 months of age
(Bertenthal, 2008)
 Depth Perception They placed infants on the
edge of this visual cliff and had their mothers
coax them to crawl onto the glass.
 Perceptual Constancy allows infants to
perceive their world as stable. There are 2 types
of perceptual constancy
 Size Constancy is the recognition that an
object remains the same even though the
retinal image of the object changes as you
move toward or away from the objects.
 Shape Constancy is the recognition that an
object remains the same shape even though
its orientation to us changes.
OTHER SENSES
Other sensory systems besides vision also develop
during infancy. We will explore development in hearing,
touch and pain, smell, and taste.
 Hearing a) Pregnant mothers read The Cat in
the Hat to their fetuses during the last few
months of pregnancy. (b) When they were born,
the babies preferred listening to a recording of
their mothers reading The Cat in the Hat, as
evidenced by their sucking on a nipple that
produced this recording, rather than another
story, The King, the Mice and the Cheese.
 Touch and Pain Newborns do respond to touch.
A touch to the cheek produces a turning of the
head; a touch to the lips produces sucking
movements. Newborns can also feel pain.
 Smell Newborns can differentiate odors (Doty &
Shah, 2008). The expression on their faces seem
to indicate that they like the way vanilla and
strawberries smell but do not like the way rotten
eggs and fish smell (Steiner, 1979).
 Taste Sensitivity to taste is present even before
birth (Doty & Shah, 2008). Human newborns
learn taste prenatally through the amniotic fluid
and in breast milk after birth (Beauchamp &
Mennella, 2009)
INTERMODAL PERCEPTION
When you see the ball bounce, you hear a bouncing
sound; when a player stretches to hit a ball, you hear a
groan. When you look at and listen to what is going on,
you do not experience just the sounds or just the sights—
you put all these things together. You experience a
unitary episode. This is intermodal perception, which
involves integrating information from two or more
sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing (Bremner
& Spence, 2017; Hannon, Schachner, & Nave-Blodgett,
2017; Nomikou, Koke, & Rohlfing, 2017). Most
perception is intermodal (Bahrick, 2010).
NATURE, NURTURE AND PERCEPTUAL
DEVELOPMENT
The Gibson’s argued that a key question in infant
perception is what information is available in the
environment and how infants learn to generate,
differentiate, and discriminate the information—
certainly not a nativist view. The Gibson’s’ ecological
view also is quite different from Piaget’s constructivist
view. According to Piaget, much of perceptual develop-
ment in infancy must await the development of a
sequence of cognitive stages for infants to construct
more complex perceptual tasks. Thus, in Piaget’s view
the ability to perceive size and shape constancy, a three-
dimensional world, intermodal perception, and so on,
develops later in infancy than the Gibson’s envision.

PERCEPTUAL MOTOR COUPLING

Perception and action are often not isolated but rather are
coupled. Individuals perceive to move and move to
perceive.

VIII. REFERENCES
Karen AdolphMartha Ann BellRobert FantzEleanor
GibsonJames J. GibsonWilliam JamesMark
JohnsonScott JohnsonRachel KeenPatricia KuhlDaphne
MaurerCharles NelsonJohn RichardsEsther
ThelenRichard Walk