Results in Optics 5 (2021) 100130

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Results in Optics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rio

Recent advancements in fiber Bragg gratings based temperature and strain

measurement
Chaluvadi V Naga Bhaskar, Subhradeep Pal, Prasant Kumar Pattnaik ∗
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad 500078, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Fiber Bragg Gratings or FBGs have achieved significant attention towards sensing and communication
Fiber Bragg gratings applications due to their outstanding advantages. Due to its high sensitivity towards various design parameters,
FBG based sensor it is now widely used to measure different physical and chemical parameters in various industrial sectors,
Non-uniform strain
including harsh environment applications. This review presents a comparative study of different FBG-based
Transfer matrix
temperature and strain sensors reported in recent years. The analytical formulation for such sensors is also
Coupled mode,
Secondary gratings
presented in brief. Necessary numerical simulation results are incorporated. For FBG based temperature sensors,
both low and high range are considered. Similarly, for FBG-based strain sensors, both uniform and non-uniform
strain are considered and discussed in brief. Apart from the sensing applications, new variants of FBG like
secondary gratings and Random Optical Grating by Ultraviolet or ultrafast laser Exposure (ROGUE) gratings
are also discussed.

1. Introduction
The fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), a passive optical device, contain
a periodic refractive index (r.i.) modulations in the core of an optical
fiber (single mode or multi-mode fiber) over some finite length (Kaplan
et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2020; Koo et al., 2020). These periodic r.i.
variations are usually a perturbation in the photosensitivity property
of the core of the fiber. These periodic variations can be formed by
utilizing a number of techniques including holographic (Meltz et al.,
1989), phase mask (Hill and Meltz, 1997), and point-by-point tech-
niques (Marshall et al., 2010). FBGs owing to their primary advantages
like high sensitivity and resolution, lightweight, and wide dynamic
range, finds tremendous applications as sensors in various fields of
measurement, as dispersion compensating elements in optical fiber
transmission systems. Also, FBGs are currently deployed in different
sectors such as oil and gas (Wang et al., 2016, 2020b; Liu et al., 2019b;
Leal-Junior et al., 2018; Samsudin et al., 2016), civil (Zhou et al., 2020;
Barrias et al., 2016; Manzo et al., 2019; Zhou and Ou, 2005), indus-
trial (Dewynter-Marty et al., 1998; Dante et al., 2016; Mishra et al.,
2016; De Oliveira et al., 2011), energy (Krebber et al., 2005; Bang et al.,
2012; Bremer et al., 2010; Yu et al., 2018), biomedical (Tosi et al.,
2018; Palumbo et al., 2018; Abd Raziff et al., 2020; D’Acquisto et al.,
2020), aerospace (Goossens et al., 2019; Nicolas et al., 2016; Di Sante,
2015; Bednarska et al., 2020), transport (Nan et al., 2019; Wang
et al., 2020a; He et al., 2020b), and optical communications (Sayed
et al., 2020; Mahiuddin, 2020; Goh et al., 2002) etc. In the oil and
gas sector, FBGs are used for monitoring pipeline related problems,
temperature and gas pressure measurement, oil density measurement,
and detection of gases in oils, etc. In civil, FBGs are mainly used for
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) of structures. In industry apart
from sensing and SHM, FBGs are also used to measure AC current or
voltage signals (Dante et al., 2016), and physical parameters like strain
and stress (Huang et al., 2019b). In the energy sector, FBGs can be
used for monitoring the mechanical behavior of wind turbine blades,
bending deflection of wind turbine towers, pressure measurement in
geothermal wells (Krebber et al., 2005; Bang et al., 2012; Bremer et al.,
2010; Yu et al., 2018). In biomedical sector, FBGs are primarily used
for cardiovascular diagnostics, gastroenterology, urology, neurologic
diagnostics, blood pressure monitoring, and endoscopic purposes (Tosi
et al., 2018). Similarly, SHM of aircraft structures (Di Sante, 2015;
Bednarska et al., 2020) and in-flight load measurement (Nicolas et al.,
2016) are two important applications of FBGs in aerospace sector.
Furthermore, FBGs can be utilized to track trains, detect subway incur-
sions, defect identification of train wheels, and to monitor health of the
tracks which extends the applications in the transportation sector (Nan
et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020a; He et al., 2020b). In optical fiber
transmission systems, FBGs are mainly used for dispersion compen-
sation (Sayed et al., 2020; Ghosh and Priye, 2018), filtering (Goh

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: p20190058@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in (C.V.N. Bhaskar), subhradeep@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in (S. Pal),
pkpattnaik@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in (P.K. Pattnaik).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rio.2021.100130
Received 18 April 2021; Received in revised form 29 July 2021; Accepted 11 August 2021
Available online 22 August 2021
2666-9501/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
C.V.N. Bhaskar et al. Results in Optics 5 (2021) 100130

et al., 2002), gain equalizing (Talam et al., 2020), and optical add-drop at half maximum (FWHM) of the power reflectivity spectra is given by,
multiplexing (OADM) in WDM systems (Mahiuddin, 2020).
In these applications, SHM requires accurate measurement of strain 𝜆2 √
(Zhou et al., 2020; Barrias et al., 2016; Manzo et al., 2019; Bang et al., 𝛥𝜆 = 𝜋 2 + 𝜅 2 𝐿2 (9)
2𝜋𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 𝐿
2012; Goossens et al., 2019; Campanella et al., 2018) which can be
Similarly, the nearest notch (𝜆𝑛 ) of the peak reflectivity can be written
easily achieved by FBGs. Also, temperature measurement for safety
as,
and stability purposes in various industrial sectors is necessary (Mishra [ ]
et al., 2016; De Oliveira et al., 2011; Palumbo et al., 2018; Liao and 𝜆 𝛥𝛽
𝜆𝑛 = 𝜆𝐵 1 + 𝐵 (10)
Wang, 2013). In this paper, our objective is to review the various tech- 2𝜋𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓
niques to measure the temperature and strain using FBGs in different For the non-uniform coupling coefficient (𝜅(𝑧)) and or grating period
industrial sectors. An In-depth analysis of FBG is also incorporated in (𝛬(𝑧)), a similar kind of analysis can be made to calculate the various
relevant sections to fully analyze the performance of the FBGs in such a parameters of FBG. Such FBGs can be modeled using a large number
measurement scheme. We have also done a comparative analysis of the of short sections considering 𝜅 and 𝛬 constant within each section. The
various FBG based temperature measurement and strain measurements. transfer-matrix relations for such FBG can be written as,
The organization of the paper is as follows. Section 2 contains a brief [ ] (𝑁 [ 𝑚 )
𝑚] [ ]
𝐴(𝐿) ∏ 𝑆 𝑆12 𝐴(0)
mathematical background on FBG, while the classifications of FBG are = 11 (11)
𝐵(𝐿) 𝑚
𝑆21 𝑚
𝑆22 𝐵(0)
discussed in Section 3. Measurement of temperature and strain with 𝑚=1
generalized analysis is presented in Section 4 and Section 5, respec- A similar kind of formulation analyzing the performance of FBG subject
tively. A comparative study between the various recently reported FBG to external non-uniform strain will be discussed later in this paper.
based temperature and strain sensors is compared within the respective
sections. Finally, the paper ends with the conclusions in Section 6. 3. Classification of FBGs

2. Mathematical foundation of FBG Generally, the FBGs can be inscribed in both single-mode fibers
(SMF) and multi-mode fibers (MMF), while the r.i. profile of such fiber
Refer to Fig. 1 which depicts a simple FBG with a grating period may be either step-index (SI) or graded-index (GI). Depending on the
𝛬 and grating length 𝐿. Assume the r.i. profile along the longitudinal inscription in the core of the fiber, FBGs can be categorized into single-
direction (𝑧) can be modeled using the following relation (Hui and mode FBGs (SM-FBGs), and multi-mode FBGs (MM-FBGs) (Koo et al.,
O’Sullivan, 2009), 2020). Single-mode FBGs can be further classified into primary FBGs
[ ( )] (type-I FBGs or standard gratings) and secondary FBGs (secondary-type-
2𝜋𝑧
𝑛(𝑧) = 𝑛𝑐 + 𝛿𝑛 1 + cos (1)
𝛬 In gratings). In this section, we have classified and briefly discussed the
where 𝛿𝑛 denotes the strength of r.i. perturbation while 𝑛𝑐 is r.i. of the various SM-FBGs.
fiber core. As mentioned in Section 1, the frequency selectivity of the
device originates from the multiple Fresnel’s reflections from the index 3.1. Primary gratings
perturbations and their coherent interference. For simple coupled-mode
analysis, let us consider the forward and backward propagating wave Primary FBGs or type-I FBGs, can generally be sub-categorized
to be denoted as 𝐴(𝑧) and 𝐵(𝑧), and they can be represented as, into uniform, apodized, chirped, super-structure, phase-shifted, tilted
FBGs, and ROGUE gratings (Erdogan, 1997; Sahota et al., 2020; Monet
𝑑𝐴(𝑧)
= −𝑗𝛥𝛽𝐴(𝑧) − 𝑗𝜅𝐵(𝑧) (2) et al., 2019) and typically they can operate up to 350 ◦ C (Guan
𝑑𝑧 et al., 2017). Fig. 2 represents the schematic of r.i. profile and its
𝑑𝐵(𝑧)
= 𝑗𝛥𝛽𝐵(𝑧) + 𝑗𝜅𝐴(𝑧) (3) reflectivity as a function of wavelength for some commonly used FBGs.
𝑑𝑧
Another couple of variants of such primary FBG is Type-Ia and Type-
Here 𝜅 ≃ 𝜋(1 − 𝑉 −2 )𝛿𝑛𝜆−1 is the coupling coefficient between forward II. Type-Ia FBGs are typically formed in hydrogen-loaded fibers, and
and backward waves, 𝑉 is the V-number of the fiber, 𝛥𝛽 = 𝛽−𝜋∕𝛬 is the it supports operating temperature up to 500 ◦ C while type-II FBGs
difference between the propagation constants along the longitudinal find application up to 1000 ◦ C. It is interesting to note that type-II
direction (𝑧-direction). Solving the coupled mode equation we get, FBGs offer better thermal performance as a result of physical damage-
[ ] [ ][ ] based periodical design (Guan et al., 2017). Type-I gratings result
𝐴(𝐿) 𝑆 𝑆12 𝐴(0)
= 11 (4) from the color variation center and the related modification of the
𝐵(𝐿) 𝑆21 𝑆22 𝐵(0)
absorption spectrum. Despite the better thermal performance,type-II
where the S-parameters for the FBG are, suffers from a bad spectral response of the reflected light which limits
𝑒𝛾𝐿 − 𝜌2 𝑒−𝛾𝐿 the sensor’s performance. Additionally, type-II FBG offers high loss
𝑆11 = (5) in the lower wavelength range, making it unsuitable for multiplexed
1 − 𝜌2
𝜌(𝑒−𝛾𝐿 −𝑒 )𝛾𝐿 sensor arrays. However, type-IIa FBGs, a new variant, offer thermal
𝑆12 = = −𝑆21 (6) performance in between type-I and type-II with respect to temperature
1 − 𝜌2
stability (Lindner et al., 2009). Generally, primary FBGs are used for
𝑒−𝛾𝐿 − 𝜌2 𝑒𝛾𝐿
𝑆22 = (7) both communication and sensing applications, whereas secondary FBGs
1 − 𝜌2 find applications in sensing and fiber lasers. However, it is interesting
√
Here, 𝛾 = 𝜅 2 − 𝛥𝛽 2 and 𝜌 = 𝑗(𝛥𝛽 + 𝛾)∕𝜅. Similar analysis as to note that multi-mode copper-coated FBGs offer better sensitivity
mentioned in Hui and O’Sullivan (2009), the reflectivity of the FBG compared to its single-mode counterpart in the case of temperature
can be represented as, measurements (Koo et al., 2020).
[ −2𝛾𝐿−1 ] In the uniform gratings, the grating pitch or period remains un-
𝑆 𝑒
𝑅 = − 21 = 𝜌 (8) changed throughout the device length. In the case of apodized gratings,
𝑆22 𝑒−2𝛾𝐿 − 𝜌2 the grating period remains constant while the r.i. profile varies along
The power reflectivity and phase shift introduced by the FBG has the grating length. Such r.i. profile may modeled as Gaussian or raised
band-pass characteristics and quasi-linear response near the Bragg- cosine function (Erdogan, 1997). These gratings exhibit lower index
wavelength 𝜆𝐵 = 2𝛬𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 . Where 𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 is the effective refractive index of modulation strength towards the edges than compared with the cen-
the mode traveling through the grating. The corresponding full width tral region. As a result, a lower Fresnel’s reflection will occur at the

2
C.V.N. Bhaskar et al. Results in Optics 5 (2021) 100130

Fig. 1. Schematic of an fiber Bragg grating sensor: (a) structure of a conventional FBG with different notations used for analytical formulation; (b) r.i. profile of the core region
of the FBG; (c) ideal spectrum of the incident, transmitted, and reflected signal into a ideal FBG; (d) simulated transmitted (in gray) and reflected signal (in red) spectrum from
a realistic FBG. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 2. Some commonly used primary FBGs in single mode fiber: (a) the r.i. profile as a function of length of the fiber gratings with its expected wavelength dependent reflectivity;
(b) schematic of the core region of the single mode fiber subjected to different index perturbation in some common FBGs.

edges of the Bragg wavelength (𝜆𝐵 ) compared to the uniform gratings.
Thus, apodized gratings are useful in suppressing the side lobes of the
reflected signal (Khan and Islam, 2012). In chirped FBGs (CFBG), a
linear variation in the grating pitch is achieved by varying the r.i.
profile of the grating or varying the effective r.i. along the direction
of propagation. The non-uniform pitch could be considered as several
FBGs cascaded with variations in the grating pitches in each sub-
FBGs. If the grating pitch varies linearly, then the reflected signal
from the CFBG also varies linearly, which results in the broadening
of the reflected spectrum. Generally, these kinds of gratings are used
for compensating dispersion in optical transmission systems (Palumbo
et al., 2018; Tosi, 2018).
Super-structured FBGs can be modeled as several FBGs with pe-
riodic r.i. variation is connected to one another in close vicinity.
Because of the comb-like filter response of such FBGs, they can be
used as optical filters in transmission networks and in optical sensor
systems (Leng et al., 2004). Such FBGs also enable multichannel ap-
plications like multichannel multiplexers-demultiplexers, multichannel
dispersion compensation, and so on in DWDM systems (Nasu and
Yamashita, 2001). In a 𝜋-phase shifted FBG, 180◦ phase shift is intro-
duced at the center of the periodic gratings, which enables practical
realization of narrowband transmission filters at the desired operating
wavelength. Depending on the location and the amount of phase shift
introduced by the r.i. perturbation in the FBG, the narrowband notch
characteristics can be changed using these gratings (Deepa and Das,
2020).
For the tilted FBGs, the index perturbation makes a finite and
predetermined angle with respect to the fiber axis. By doing so, we
gain control over the and 𝜆𝐵 . Furthermore, mode coupling can also be
improved to some degree of extent by using these types of FBGs (Li
et al., 2019). Another new variant of FBG is Random Optical Grating
by Ultraviolet or ultrafast laser Exposure (ROGUE). From Eq. (9), it
is evident that 𝛥𝜆 is inversely related to 𝐿. Interestingly in the case of
ROGUE FBGs, 𝛥𝜆 is independent of 𝐿. Such type of FBGs can be utilized
to improve the accuracy and precision of strain, and temperature sens-
ing (Monet et al., 2019). This new type of structure offers a backscatter
cross-section, usually several orders of magnitude higher than SMF-28
optical fiber, turning it ideal for sensing applications. The technology
that achieves those new sensing properties consists of adding noise
when writing FBG in the core, thereby creating a ROGUE, a grating
with a very broadband, very short FBG-like spectrum that can spread
an indefinite length. In particular, the amplitude and frequency of the

3
C.V.N. Bhaskar et al.
noise added during the writing process are usually generated from
the function generator, much greater than the environmental noise,
which will affect the amount of backscatter but has no impact on the
bandwidth of the backscattered spectrum. This results in broadband
reflected spectrum whose bandwidth is independent of grating length.
The resulted spectrum can be modeled as a series of very small, ran-
domly out-of-phase FBGs. This structure will give us a weak reflective
grating whose reflectivity is more than typical Rayleigh backscatter but
maintains a large bandwidth, unlike a typical long weak FBG. This kind
of gratings can be used for distributed sensing using optical frequency
domain reflectometry (OFDR), which allows a significant increase in
signal-to-noise ratio for temperature and strain measurement (Monet
et al., 2019).
3.2. Secondary gratings
As discussed in the previous section, a new variant of type-IIa FBG
offers thermal performance in between type-I and type-II FBGs (Lindner
et al., 2009; Guan et al., 2017). Grating stabilities higher than 500
◦ C is very common in such FBGs. It is important to note that such
FBGs are generally associated with a negative refractive index change.
Such a negative index variation introduces two important changes.
As the temperature increases, the grating reflectivity starts reducing.
Secondly, the reference Bragg wavelength observed during the writing
process also starts to reduce as the temperature increases. Thus, type-
IIa FBGs are also known to be the negative index gratings. However, as
the further temperature increases, a secondary grating growth can be
observed. Such type-IIa FBGs offer a stable performance typically up to
1100 ◦ C. As secondary Bragg grating growths are common in type-IIa
FBGs, it is also known to be regenerated gratings. Regenerated FBG
is usually fabricated by post-annealing on over-saturated type-I FBG
written in a heavily hydrogen loaded fiber (Guan et al., 2017; Lindner
et al., 2009). However in recent years, this type-IIa FBGs are formed
in different fibers including B/Ge or Sn/Ge co-doped fibers (Violakis
et al., 2006; Dong and Liu, 1997), highly Ge-doped fibers (Lindner
et al., 2009), photonic crystal fibers (Cook et al., 2008), or in mi-
crofibers (Ran et al., 2015b). Even rare-earth-doped fibers can be used
for type-IIa FBGs (Trpkovski et al., 2005). Such FBGs can be utilized in
high-temperature resistant fiber lasers (Ran et al., 2015a), thermally
triggered lasers (Feng et al., 2016b), and even in higher harmonic
grating fiber lasers (Feng et al., 2016a). The further fabrication process
can be well studied from Guan et al. (2017).
4. Measurement of temperature using with FBGs
Measurement of temperature, a crucial parameter in various sectors
of industries, can be done with the help of FBGs. Theoretically, both
low and high temperatures can be measured using FBGs with equal
accuracy. However, measurement of low temperature with FBGs poses
some additional challenges compared to others. In this section, we shall
discuss the FBG-based temperature sensors subjected to no variation in
other physical parameters of the FBG.
4.1. Analytical formulation for temperature measurement
As discussed in Section 2, the Bragg wavelength (𝜆𝐵 ) of an FBG can
be expressed as (Hill and Meltz, 1997; Kashyap, 2009),
𝜆𝐵 (𝑇 ) = 2𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 (𝑇 )𝛬(𝑇 ) (12)
Hence, a small change in operating temperature 𝑇 will result a change
in the peak wavelength which can be represented as (Kashyap, 2009),
( )
d𝜆 d𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 d𝛬
𝛿𝜆𝐵 = 𝐵 𝛿𝑇 = 2 𝛬 + 𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 𝛿𝑇
d𝑇 d𝑇 d𝑇
( )
1 d𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 1 d𝛬
= 𝜆𝐵 + 𝛿𝑇 (13)
𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 d𝑇 𝛬 d𝑇
4
Results in Optics 5 (2021) 100130
Fig. 3. Effect of operating temperature variation in Bragg wavelength in a normal
FBG. Consider 27 ◦ C is the reference temperature. 𝜆𝐵 shifted to 1551.78 nm from
1550.01 nm due to a change in temperature of 130 ◦ C. Other simulation parameters
are: 𝐿 = 10 mm, 𝜆𝐵 = 1550.01 nm, reflectivity at room temperature = 0.991, and 𝜅𝐿 = 3.
In the absence of any variation related to other physical parameters of
the FBG, 𝛿𝜆𝐵 can be extended to (Mishra et al., 2016; Kashyap, 2009;
Samiappan et al., 2020),
𝛿𝜆𝐵 = 𝜆𝐵 (𝛼𝑛,𝑇 + 𝛼𝛬,𝑇 )𝛿𝑇 = 𝜆𝐵 (𝜁 + 𝛽𝑇 )𝛿𝑇 ≃ 𝜆𝐵 𝜉 𝛿𝑇 (14)
where 𝛽𝑇 or 𝛼𝛬,𝑇 is the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), 𝜁 or 𝛼𝑛,𝑇
is the thermo-optic coefficient, and 𝜉 is the Bragg wavelength thermal
coefficient which can be expressed as the sum of thermo-optic and
thermal expansion coefficients. Therefore, 𝛿𝜆𝐵 in terms of wavelength
temperature sensitivity 𝜓𝑇 can be determined to be,
𝛿𝜆𝐵 = 𝜓𝑇 𝛿𝑇 (15)
where 𝜓𝑇 = 𝜆𝐵 𝜉. At room temperature, the typical value of 𝜓𝑇 for
a bare FBG (inscribed in Ge-doped silica core) of Bragg wavelength
1.5 μm is approximately 13.7 pm/◦ C . In temperature measurements,
𝜓𝑇 is weakly dependent on the temperature (above the ice temperature
and up to the FBG upper-temperature limit of ∼ 103 K). So, the change
in the temperature can be retrieved directly from 𝛥𝜆𝐵 (de Lima Filho
et al., 2014),
1 𝛥𝜆𝐵
𝛥𝑇 = 𝑑𝜆 ≅ (16)
∫ 𝜓𝑇 (𝑇 ) 𝐵 𝜓𝑇 |𝑎𝑣𝑔
where 𝛥𝜆𝐵 is the total Bragg wavelength change. This approximation
works well for the temperatures above room temperature. For temper-
atures below the ice point, one cannot use a single value of wavelength
temperature sensitivity as 𝜁, and 𝜉 are changing with the temperature.
Below the ice point temperature (273 K), the sensitivity of the sensor
becomes poor. In such operating conditions, the sensor provides a
non-linear response. FBG-based low temperature sensor response for
different low temperatures are indicated in Mahakud et al. (2013),
Flockhart et al. (2004), Adamovsky et al. (2012), Pal et al. (2004),
Mizunami et al. (2001), Parne et al. (2011), Wu et al. (2008) and Reid
and Ozcan (1998). The FBGs are generally used for temperature sensing
at room and high temperature (Mahakud et al., 2013; Adamovsky
et al., 2012; Ahlawat et al., 2012). The effect of temperature on a
standard FBG is simulated with the help of in-house MATLAB script
and presented in Fig. 3.
4.2. Measurement procedure
Theoretically, the FBGs can also be used for low temperature (below
the ice point) measurements. But, at low temperatures bare FBG sen-
sitivity decreases as the temperature decreases (de Lima Filho et al.,
2014; Mahakud et al., 2013; Mizunami et al., 2001; Reid and Ozcan,
1998). Due to this phenomenon, these sensors are not extensively used
C.V.N. Bhaskar et al.
for low temperatures. However, the sensitivity of the bare FBGs for low-
temperature measurements can be improved by coating the FBGs with
different chemical materials, or polymers or even metals with different
thermal expansion coefficients. This improvement in the sensitivity at
the cost of enhanced non-linear responses and hysteresis of the mea-
surement system (de Lima Filho et al., 2014; Yamada et al., 2011). The
non-linearities primarily originate due to the temperature dependency
of the thermal expansion coefficients of the coating material. A way
around to these non-linearities, is to use the coated FBGs in a packaged
form. However, this solution fails where the FBG is free to move. It is
better to understand and model the thermo-opto-elastic properties of
the fiber materials used in the FBGs and choose the suitable sensors as
per the temperature. Such a solution will offer better performance, and
the used FBG(s) can be bare, coated, embedded, or even etched.
In the case of FBG-based temperature sensors, one has to consider
the material of the fiber since the property of the FBG will be strongly
dependent on the chemical and thermal properties of the fiber core.
Generally, the core of SSMF is made of Ge-doped silica, which offers
almost 0.19 dB/km of attenuation in the C-band (1530–1565 nm). Such
a fiber can be used to inscribe FBG for low-temperature measurement,
while for measuring higher temperatures, the core material should be
changed as per the requirement (Kashyap, 2009; de Lima Filho et al.,
2014). Pure silica in low temperature offers a wide range of inertness to
most of the other materials, making it suitable for measurement of the
temperature of gases (de Lima Filho et al., 2014). In such a case, FBGs
can be either coated or bare. Together with cryogenic compatibility,
bare FBGs can be used to achieve optical refrigeration of solids (de
Lima Filho et al., 2014). However, as mentioned earlier, the sensitivity
to temperature of the wavelength of a conventional FBG reduces by
five-fold at 77 K compared to the same at 295 K. This reduction in
sensitivity is also accompanied by a non-linear sensor response around
that temperature (de Lima Filho et al., 2014; Mizunami et al., 2001; Wu
et al., 2008). It is worthwhile to mention that the sensitivity parameter
as reported in de Lima Filho et al. (2014), Mizunami et al. (2001), Parne
et al. (2011), Wu et al. (2008) and Reid and Ozcan (1998) varies widely
due to different coatings, and materials of core of the fiber. On the other
hand, measurement of room and high temperatures are more suitable
with the standard silica fiber based FBGs (Guan et al., 2017; Feng et al.,
2016b) which are readily available due to the recent developments in
optical fiber based telecommunication devices.
A typical system for measuring the temperature of a process or
substance using an FBG-based sensor is depicted in Fig. 4 (de Lima
Filho et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2019). A laser light source of C and/
L-band is connected to an optical circulator which is then connected
to an FBG placed in a chamber whose temperature is required to be
monitored. The other terminal of the circulator can be connected to an
optical spectrum analyzer or OSA. Any change in the temperature in the
chamber will impose a perturbation in the property of the FBG resulting
in a change in the peak wavelength shift. Eq. (12) can be utilized to
understand the perturbation caused by the temperature change. Now
this variation of the peak wavelength of the reflected signal can be
identified using the OSA as described in Zhang et al. (2019). Generally,
this shift in the peak wavelength and change in operating temperature
has a linear relationship between 313 K to 673 K as mentioned in Zhang
et al. (2019). However, other papers have even achieved a higher range
by altering the core material or incorporating some foreign material
coatings as described in Zhu et al. (2020) and Hsiao et al. (2016).
4.3. Comparative study of various FBG based temperature sensors
A comparative study of different FBG-based temperature sensors has
been presented in Table 1. In Table 1, both low and high temperature
measuring FBG-based sensors have been compared in terms of max-
imum and minimum temperature range, sensitivity, and resolutions.
For measuring temperature ranging up to 1273 K, a linear cavity
fiber-laser coupled FBG-based temperature sensor has been reported
5
Results in Optics 5 (2021) 100130
in Huang et al. (2019a). In this reported sensor, a quadratic relationship
between 𝜆𝐵 and 𝑇 has been observed over the temperature range
between 273 K to 1273 K. However, the quadratic relationship can be
approximated by a linear one without introducing significant error in
the measurand over the range 573 K to 1273 K. The recorded sensitivity
is found to be 15.9 pm/◦ C from the linear fitting. A novel FBG coated
with molybdenum(Mo)-copper(Cu) functional gradient layer, and Ni
protective layer can measure up to 800 ◦ C (He et al., 2019). Such Ni-
coating also ensures excellent thermal stability and thus improves the
overall reliability of the sensor. In Zhang et al. (2020), a 3rd and 4th
order FBGs are inscribed in SMF-28 fiber, which offers a sensitivity
of 15 pm/◦ C and 13 pm/◦ C, respectively. Such a sensor can operate
in the range 298 K to 1173 K. Distributed FBGs based temperature
sensor can measure the temperature in the range of 473 K to 773
K under a challenging operating environment consisting of high-EMI,
and high voltage (Kumar et al., 2016). Furthermore, sapphire fiber-
based FBGs can be used for temperature measurements higher than
1273 K in harsh environments (Zhu et al., 2020). Due to sapphire’s
high melting point, optical transparency, and chemical stability, single-
crystal optical fibers made with materials crystalline Al2 O3 , ZrO2 ,
Ta2 O5 , and graphite have been very attractive for the construction of
FBG based temperature sensors for harsh environments (Zhu et al.,
2020; Yang et al., 2019; Merberg and Harrington, 1993; Chen et al.,
2018). An FBG inscribed in sapphire fiber using line-by-line scanning
method by a femtosecond (fs) laser can be used for the measurement
of high temperature and strain sensing in harsh environment structural
health monitoring (Guo et al., 2019). The introduced sapphire FBG
temperature sensing characteristics are observed up to 1873 K and
have a given temperature and strain sensitivities of 34.96 pm/◦ C and
1.45 pm/𝜇𝜖 respectively. Alternatively, FBGs in a multimode single-
crystalline air clad sapphire fiber used for the temperature sensing up
to 2173 K shown in Habisreuther et al. (2015). Such an FBG based
sensor will give us a resolution of ±1 K for temperatures greater than
1773 K with the introduced sapphire. And, due to the high refractive
index of step (0.745 for the sapphire/air interface) and the large core
diameter, the optical spectra of sapphire FBG differ from conventional
single-mode FBG is emphasized and claim that the reflected spectrum
of a sapphire FBG is broadband in nature. Further, it reports that due
to the high refractive index of the sapphires, FBGs inscribed in sapphire
fibers are suitable to various environments to measure the temperature
and strain. However, sapphire FBGs can also be used for distributed
sensing to measure temperature in boilers at the commercial power
plant is presented in Yang et al. (2019).
Measuring moderate temperatures in the range of 298 K to 343 K
using FBG-based sensor is reported in Du et al. (2019). Such sensor
offers a sensitivity of 11 pm/◦ C. For low temperatures, the temperature
dependence of 𝜆𝐵 of the fiber Bragg gratings in the range of 4.2 K to
350 K for different fibers used in space applications is reported (Reid
and Ozcan, 1998). The authors also emphasized that gratings embedded
in composite materials show the same Bragg wavelength dependence
on temperature as their non-embedded counterparts. An FBG fixed on
Teflon substrate can be used for low temperature sensing in the range
of 77 K to 300 K and has given a sensitivity of 150 pm/K at room
temperature (Mizunami et al., 2001). A non-linearity response of an
FBG based sensor for different temperatures in the range of 243 K to
353 K has been used in Flockhart et al. (2004). The sensitivity given
by a regular FBG can be enhanced to three times with a polymer-
coated FBG used for cryogenic temperature sensing in the range of 77
K to 300 K. The sensitivity given by the sensor was found to be 12.85
pm/K (Parne et al., 2011). The thermal sensitivity of an FBG based
sensor can be modeled as non-linear due to the non-linearity of both
thermal expansion and thermo-optic coefficients of fiber materials (de
Lima Filho et al., 2014).
As discussed in the earlier sections, coating on the FBG can improve
sensitivity and/or measurement range of temperature. In Hsiao et al.
(2016), a chromium nitride(CrN)-coated FBG sensor is compared with
C.V.N. Bhaskar et al. Results in Optics 5 (2021) 100130

Fig. 4. Schematic of temperature measurement using FBG based temperature sensor.

bare FBG in the temperature range of 373 K to 923 K and found that thermal compensation for such measurement is also discussed here.
CrN coated FBG has given 14 pm/◦ C greater sensitivity compared to the Finally, comparative studies on the recent trends in FBG based strain
bare FBG. An FBG coated with different metals (Ni, Al, Cu, Zn, Pb), and measurement are also incorporated.
In with different thickness has been studied extensively in Vendittozzi
et al. (2018). The optimized thickness of various materials for achieving 5.1. Analytical formulation for uniform strain measurement
maximum sensitivity at different fixed temperatures has also been
reported in Vendittozzi et al. (2018). A high resolution FBG sensor When a finite amount of strain is applied on the FBG, which is kept
operating in the range of 300 K to 700 K , has achieved a sensitivity of at a constant temperature (𝑇 ), the grating pitch and or effective r.i.
14.42 pm/◦ C (Fu et al., 2020). Twisted FBG can also be employed for (𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 ) in the grating region varies. This results in a shift in the reference
temperature measurement up to 533 K (Zhang and Yang, 2016). Such Bragg wavelength (𝛥𝜆𝐵 ) which can be measured easily. Depending on
a sensor can also be modeled using a Bayesian linear model. However, the number of wavelength shifts, one can easily measure the applied
to increase the temperature-induced strain effect of FBG at cryogenic strain and even determine its tensile or compressive nature. Now con-
temperatures, a secondary material that has a higher thermal expansion sidering a variation in both applied uni-axial strain (𝜖) and operating
coefficient than silica must be coated on FBG. So, the coated materials temperature (𝛥𝑇 ), 𝛥𝜆𝐵 can be estimated as (Othonos, 1997),
must have a higher thermal expansion coefficient to gain good thermal [ ] [ ]
𝜕𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 𝜕𝛬 𝜕𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 𝜕𝛬
strain from the grating even at low temperatures. And, the coated mate- 𝛥𝜆𝐵 = 2 𝛬 + 𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 𝛥𝐿 + 2 𝛬 + 𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 𝛥𝑇 (17)
𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
rials must have higher Young’s modulus and good adhesion to the bare
FBG. Good adhesion generally indicates the good strain transfer to the Assuming 𝛥𝑇 = 0, and the linear elastic region of operation Eq. (17)
FBG. Materials satisfying the above requirements are the polymers. Two reduces to,
polymer coatings that can be used to increase the thermal sensitivity 𝛥𝜆𝐵 = 𝜆𝐵 (1 − 𝜌𝑒 )𝜖 (18)
are epoxy coating and acrylate recoating. A polymer resin was used
as a coating material on FBG to improve the temperature sensitivity where 𝜌𝑒 is the effective elastic-optic constant and is given by (Hill and
at cryogenic temperatures reported in Sampath et al. (2018). Such a Meltz, 1997; Othonos, 1997):
polymer coating on bare FBG improves thermal sensitivity by ten-fold. 𝑛2𝑒𝑓 𝑓
It also has a fair measurement range between 298 K to 453 K with 𝜌𝑒 = (𝜌12 − 𝜎(𝜌11 + 𝜌12 )) (19)
2
improved sensitivity of 48 pm/◦ C, and the problem of cross-sensitivity
Here 𝜌11 , 𝜌12 are the coefficients of elastic-optic tensor and 𝜎 is the
was solved by encapsulating the FBG sensor in an aluminum capillary
Poisson’s ratio, respectively. For a typical SiO2 -based SMF, 𝜌12 = 0.252,
tube is presented. An etched FBG coated with reduced graphene oxide
𝜌11 = 0.113, 𝜎 = 0.16 and 𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 = 1.482. Plugging the values in the
offers a temperature sensitivity of 33 pm/◦ C, which is almost three
relevant equations, 𝛥𝜆𝐵 for an applied strain of 1 𝜇𝜖 is 1.2 pm. It is
times higher compared to the bare FBG (Vasu et al., 2016). An FBG
important to note that 𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 , and the period of the grating planes, varies
coated with titanium nitride (TiN) using sputtering technology for
with temperature, which in return, alters 𝜆𝐵 . The fractional change
cryogenic temperature sensing has developed. The developed sensor
in the wavelength shift to a temperature change 𝛥𝑇 can be written
reflection spectrum is compared with the bare FBGs within a range of
as (Othonos, 1997):
78 to 298 K. Based on the results obtained, it emphasizes that TiN-
coated FBG has given a sensitivity of 10.71 pm/◦ C has reported in Hsu 𝛥𝜆𝐵 = 𝜆𝐵 (𝛽𝑇 + 𝜁)𝛥𝑇 (20)
et al. (2021). However, a quasi distributed FBG sensing technique for
thermal monitoring at various blind spots (critical non-monitored re- For silica based fiber, 𝛽𝑇 ≃ 0.55 × 10−6 ,
denotes the thermal expansion
gions) of the data center environment has been presented in dos Santos coefficient and 𝜁 is the thermo-optic coefficient which ranges near
et al. (2021). Such a technique can be used to sense the temperature 8.6 × 10−6 . For a generalized definition of 𝛽𝑇 and 𝜁 one can use the
variations during GPU and CPU stressing tests have been reported up following relations.
to 329 K. The sensor has given a thermal sensitivity of 8.75 pm/◦ C 𝛽𝑇 =
1 𝜕𝛬
⋅ (21)
with a resolution smaller than 1 ◦ C. Furthermore, the deployment of a 𝛬 𝜕𝑇
thermally regenerated packaged FBG to measure temperature in highly 1 𝜕𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓
𝜁= ⋅ (22)
radiated and hazardous chemical environment applications like in a 𝑛𝑒𝑓 𝑓 𝜕𝑇
nuclear fuel cycle facility has been developed and presented in Kumar Utilizing the Eqs. (21), and (22), thermal sensitivity of 𝜆𝐵 is determined
et al. (2020). The sensor has given a Bragg wavelength shift of ∼35 pm to be approximately 13.7 pm/◦ C. Finally, the sensitivity of the FBG
for 1 MGy accumulated gamma radiation dose. The average sensitivity sensor due to both strain and temperature can be written as (Tosi, 2017;
and the operating lifetime of the grating were checked up to 1173 K. Zheng et al., 2020),
𝛥𝜆𝐵
5. Measurement of strain using with the FBGs = (1 − 𝜌𝑒 )𝜖 + (𝛽𝑇 + 𝜁)𝛥𝑇 (23)
𝜆𝐵
In this section, we discuss briefly both the measurement of uniform From Eq. (23), it is clear that (𝛥𝜆𝐵 ) is interrelated between 𝜖 and 𝛥𝑇 .
and non-uniform strain using the uniform FBGs. The requirement of Thus, thermal compensation is required for measurement of strain.

6
C.V.N. Bhaskar et al. Results in Optics 5 (2021) 100130

Table 1
Performance comparison of various recently reported FBG-based temperature sensors in chronological order.
Year Ref. Measuring temperature [K] Sensitivity Resolution
Minimum Maximum
1998 Reid and Ozcan (1998) 4.2 350 – –
2001 Mizunami et al. (2001) 77 300 150 pm/K –
2004 Flockhart et al. (2004) 243 353 – –
2011 Parne et al. (2011) 77 300 12.85 pm/K –
2014 de Lima Filho et al. (2014) 77 – – 0.25 K
2016 Zhang and Yang (2016) – 533 – 0.5 ◦ C
2016 Kumar et al. (2016) 473 773 13.2 pm/◦ C –
2016 Hsiao et al. (2016) 373 923 14 pm/◦ C –
2018 Sampath et al. (2018) 298 453 48 pm/◦ C –
2019 Du et al. (2019) 298 343 11 pm/◦ C –
2019 Huang et al. (2019a) 573 1273 15.9 pm/◦ C –
2020 Fu et al. (2020) 300 700 14.42 pm/◦ C 6.3 × 10−7 ◦ C
2020 Zhang et al. (2020) 298 1173 15 pm/◦ C –
2020 Zhu et al. (2020) – 1773 30 pm/◦ C -
2021 Hsu et al. (2021) 78 298 10.71 pm/◦ C –
2021 dos Santos et al. (2021) 273 329 8.75 pm/◦ C Smaller than 1 ◦ C

5.2. Analytical formulation for non-uniform strain measurement In the case of ATMM model as described in Rajabzadeh et al. (2018),
𝐹𝑖 for sufficiently small 𝛥𝑧 can be rewritten as,
So far, we have considered a uniform strain distribution on the FBG, [ ]
𝑒−𝑗𝛥𝛽𝑖 𝛥𝑧 −𝑗𝜅𝑖 𝛥𝑧 sinc(𝛥𝛽𝑖 𝛥𝑧)
and thus, mathematical analysis becomes relatively easy. However, in 𝐹𝑖 ≃ 𝑗𝛥𝛽 𝛥𝑧 (27)
𝑗𝜅𝑖 𝛥𝑧 sinc(𝛥𝛽𝑖 𝛥𝑧) 𝑒 𝑖
a practical scenario, FBG based strain sensor suffers from two signif-
icant problems. The first problem is that the strain and temperature Further analysis for 𝑅(𝜆) using a suitable new algorithm is presented
collectively contribute to the peak wavelength shift. This problem is in Rajabzadeh et al. (2018). This ATMM also produces side lobes very
relatively easy to solve and will be discussed elaborately in the next closely matched with the practical results. This type of approximated
subsection. The second problem with the FBG-based strain sensor is model is also partially discussed in Section 2.
its response under non-uniform strain distribution on the FBG. We
shall consider it in this section. Under uniform strain distribution, the 5.3. Thermal compensation and other performance metrics
peak wavelength shift in the reflected spectrum and applied strain is
linear, which may not be true for the non-uniform strain distribution. Direct measurement of strain or temperature requires protection
An example of such a case is FBG in SHM, where FBG is embedded for the device from the perturbation of the other variable. When
inside the composite material. Near to the crack or deformation in FBG requires protection from strain, it can be easily achieved using
the material will results in non-uniform strain distribution resulting certain methods. However, if one tries to measure strain, the operating
in a complicated strain measurement using the previous model. When temperature is required to be constant, which is not easy to achieve.
subject to non-uniform strain fields, each segment of the FBG will This is due to the fact, as the measuring FBG (FBG1) generally not
experience a different strain and each segment will result in a different be placed inside a thermal encapsulation to protect it from varying
peak wavelength shift along the length of the sensor. As a result, the net operating temperature. An alternative way to achieve this is to employ
shift of the peak wavelength subject to the linearized model will lead another compensating FBG inside an encapsulation. This compensating
to a significant estimation error in the mean strain value (Rajabzadeh FBG (FBG2) is connected in cascade with FBG1 and saved from any
et al., 2018). This problem is also well addressed in Kharshiduzzaman external strain. Any variation in strain and temperature for FBG1 will
et al. (2019) and Ling et al. (2005) for composite materials. alter the value of 𝜆𝐵 of the same from its reference value, while in the
To tackle this problem, researchers have employed an approximated case of FBG2 the same will be caused only due to a change in operating
transfer matrix model (ATMM) of the conventional FBG and proposed temperature. This can be well understood by using the following mathe-
a new algorithm to minimize the estimation error (Rajabzadeh et al., matical model (Othonos, 1997; Kersey et al., 1997; Pevec and Donlagić,
2018). In the case of ATMM, it is assumed that traditional TMM can 2019). The combined effect of strain and temperature on FBG1 can be
be employed if a sufficiently small segment of the FBG is considered. written from Eq. (23) as
In case of TMM, the relation between the forward and backward
𝛥𝜆𝐵1 = 𝐾𝜖1 𝛥𝜖 + 𝐾𝑇 1 𝛥𝑇 (28)
propagating waves over the complete FBG is given by (Rajabzadeh
et al., 2018), where 𝐾𝜖1 = (1 − 𝜌𝑒 )𝜆𝐵1 , and 𝐾𝑇 1 = (𝛽𝑇 + 𝜁)𝜆𝐵1 . As there is no
[ ] [ ] strain effect in FBG2, the shift in Bragg wavelength for the same can
𝐴𝑚 ∏𝑚
𝐴
= 𝐹𝑖 0 (24) be expressed as,
𝐵𝑚 𝑖=1
𝐵0
𝛥𝜆𝐵2 = 𝐾𝑇 2 𝛥𝑇 (29)
where 𝐹𝑖 for each segment can be estimated as,
[ ] where 𝐾𝑇 2 = (𝛽𝑇 +𝜁)𝜆𝐵2 . However, the inherent assumption is that both
cosh(𝛾𝑖 𝛥𝑧) − 𝑗𝛥𝛽𝑖 𝛾𝑖−1 sinh(𝛾𝑖 𝛥𝑧) −𝑗𝜅𝑖 𝛾𝑖−1 sinh(𝛾𝑖 𝛥𝑧) FBG1 and FBG2 are made of same material and have similar design
𝐹𝑖 =
𝑗𝜅𝑖 𝛾𝑖−1 sinh(𝛾𝑖 𝛥𝑧) −1
cosh(𝛾𝑖 𝛥𝑧) + 𝑗𝛥𝛽𝑖 𝛾𝑖 sinh(𝛾𝑖 𝛥𝑧) parameters. Rearranging Eqs. (28) and (29) we have,
(25) [ ] [ ]−1 [ ] [ ]
√ 𝛥𝜖 𝐾𝜖1 𝐾𝑇 1 𝛥𝜆𝐵1 1 𝐾𝑇 2 𝛥𝜆𝐵1 − 𝐾𝑇 1 𝛥𝜆𝐵2
= = (30)
In the above Eq. (25), 𝛾𝑖 = 𝜅𝑖2 − 𝛥𝛽𝑖2 ,
𝜅𝑖 denotes coupling coefficient 𝛥𝑇 0 𝐾𝑇 2 𝛥𝜆𝐵2 𝐾𝜖1 𝐾𝑇 2 𝐾𝜖1 𝛥𝜆𝐵2
between forward and backward waves and 𝛥𝛽𝑖 is difference between Solving for 𝛥𝜖, and 𝛥𝑇 results
the propagation constant along the longitudinal direction. The reflected
1
spectrum can be determined as, 𝛥𝜖 = (𝐾 𝛥𝜆𝐵1 − 𝐾𝑇 1 𝛥𝜆𝐵2 ) (31)
𝐾𝜖1 𝐾𝑇 2 𝑇 2
| 𝐹 |2 1
𝑅(𝜆) = || 21 || (26) 𝛥𝑇 = (𝐾 𝛥𝜆 ) (32)
| 𝐹11 | 𝐾𝜖1 𝐾𝑇 2 𝜖1 𝐵2

7
C.V.N. Bhaskar et al.
Fig. 5. Variation in Bragg wavelength (𝜆𝐵 ) of a uniform FBG due to presence of tensile
and compressive strain. Other simulation parameters are: grating length = 10 mm;
𝜆𝐵 = 1550.0 nm, reflectivity at zero strain = 0.991, 𝜅𝐿 = 3. Note + and − sign denotes
tensile and compressive strain, respectively.
From the Eq. (31) the real strain applied over FBG1 can be estimated.
Simulations using MATLAB is carried out to observe the effect of strain
on an uniform FBG. For simulations, we have assumed the utilized
single mode fiber is SMF-28. Clearly from Fig. 5, a shift of 1.2 nm in
𝜆𝐵 is observed with the application of ±1000 𝜇𝜖 strain. Note that, the
side lobes presented in the results are originating due to the periodic
r.i. variations along the grating length as discussed in Section 2.
The performance of an FBG based sensor in most applications is
usually expressed in terms of sensitivity and resolution. A good FBG
based sensor should offer both high sensitivity and high resolution.
High sensitivity provides a significant change or a large shift in 𝛥𝜆𝐵
even for small variations in the measurand. Mathematically it can be
as a ‘scale factor’ when the sensor output varies linearly with the
measurand. On the other hand, the resolution of a sensor is defined to
be the smallest detectable change in the measurand. Apart from these
parameters, the bandwidth and the accuracy of a measurement are the
two other key factors of characterizing an FBG based sensor. With this
basic concept, we now discuss two different classes of FBG-based strain
sensors.
5.4. FBG embedded fiber ring resonator for strain measurement
In the FBG based all-fiber ring resonators (FBGRR), the FBGs are
embedded in an optical fiber which is coupled to the other fibers
using two different fiber-based couplers Fig. 6. Since a ring resonator
structure itself is highly wavelength-dependent, their slight perturba-
tion due to the applied strain will result in a high change in 𝜆𝐵 . For
their excellent sensitivity and resolution, these types of FBG based
strain sensors are widely used for SHM in civil infrastructures, energy,
aerospace, and maritime operation fields (Campanella et al., 2018).
Compared to the traditional FBG based strain sensor, FBGRRs are insen-
sitive to environmental disturbances resulting in reliable and accurate
measurements (Campanella et al., 2018; Campanella, 2016; Malara
et al., 2016; Campanella et al., 2014b; Malara et al., 2014). In this struc-
ture, the resonance lines are formed by the two counter-propagating
modes (Campanella et al., 2018). These resonance lines which are
asymmetric in nature are also represented by improved cavity enhanced
resolution. However, further improvement in the performance can be
made by introducing 𝜋-phase shift in the middle position of the grating
region Fig. 6(b). Similar other structures can be possible by extending
the grating length throughout the entire ring region as depicted in
Fig. 6(c), and they are called extended FBGRR. Similarly, the design
𝜋-shifted FBGRR can be modified by extending the grating region as
mentioned in extended FBGRR, shown in Fig. 6(d). These new struc-
tures improve the sensitivity and resolution immensely, as reported
8
Results in Optics 5 (2021) 100130
in Malara et al. (2015) and Campanella et al. (2014a). Mathematically,
the transfer function of FBGRR can be expressed as (Campanella et al.,
2013),
[ ]2
1 𝜅 2 𝑒−0.5𝑗𝛽𝐿 𝑎(𝑡 + 𝑟) 𝜅 2 𝑒−0.5𝑗𝛽𝐿 𝑎(𝑡 − 𝑟)
𝑇 = + (33)
4 1 − 𝜏 2 𝑒−𝑗𝛽𝐿 𝑎2 (𝑡 + 𝑟) 1 − 𝜏 2 𝑒−𝑗𝛽𝐿 𝑎2 (𝑡 − 𝑟)
where 𝐿 represents the total resonator length, and 𝑎 denotes the overall
attenuation in the 𝐿∕2 due to the attenuation of 𝛼 per unit length.
𝜏 and 𝜅 are the coupling coefficient of the lossless coupler present
in the structure. Similarly, 𝑡 and 𝑟 are the fractions of the optical
field amplitudes transmitted and reflected via the FBG, respectively.
Rigorous analysis for the sensitivity of this FBGRR in terms of strain
can be expressed as (Campanella et al., 2013),
√
𝜕𝑆𝜆 𝜆2 𝑅𝜆
=− (34)
𝜕𝜖 𝜋𝑛𝐿 1 − 𝑅𝜆
where 𝑛 is the effective fiber r.i. Similar analysis for 𝜋-shifted FBGRR
yields the transfer function to be,
[ ]
1 𝜅 2 𝑒−0.5𝑗𝛽𝐿 (𝑡 + 𝑟) 𝜅 2 𝑒−0.5𝑗𝛽𝐿 (𝑟 − 𝑡)
𝑇 = − + (35)
2 1 − 𝜏 2 𝑒−𝑗𝛽𝐿 (𝑡 + 𝑟) 1 + 𝜏 2 𝑒−𝑗𝛽𝐿 (𝑟 − 𝑡)
5.5. FBG embedded cantilever for strain measurement
Another technique of FBG based strain measurement employs a can-
tilever structure. In this technique, multiple 𝜋-phase shifted (PS) FBG
are embedded in a cantilever as depicted in Fig. 7. A broadband source
is connected to an optical circulator whose direct output is connected to
the cantilever, and the return path is connected to an optical spectrum
analyzer (OSA) (Ghosh and Mandal, 2020). The cantilever is being
made of epoxy resin will bend subjected to external strain. This bending
will also result in a change in strain on the bonded PS-FBGs and will
result in a shift in the 𝜆𝐵 . Such change in 𝜆𝐵 can be easily detected
with the connected OSA. Due to the usage of PS-FBGs, it is expected
that the sensitivity and resolution of the complete setup will be good.
In Ghosh and Mandal (2020), the authors have reported a sensitivity of
approximately 0.00124 nm/𝜇𝜖.
5.6. Comparative study of various FBG based strain sensor
The extraction of the measurand in terms of sensitivity and resolu-
tion from the measured reflected spectra obtained from the FBG-based
strain sensor is another important aspect (Campanella et al., 2018;
Tosi, 2017; Lamberti et al., 2014; Tosi, 2015; Cui et al., 2015; Cheng
et al., 2015). A comparative study of recently reported FBG-based strain
sensor are listed in Table 2.
An SMF-based 3 mm long FBG offering a sensitivity, and resolution
of 61.6 pm∕𝜇𝜖, 700 n𝜖, respectively, is reported in Ferreira et al.
(2014). However, in Bhowmik et al. (2016) FBG based strain sensor
offers approximately 1.65 pm∕𝜇𝜖 of sensitivity for an etched region,
and 1.24 pm∕𝜇𝜖 for an un-etched region. A better sensitive strain sensor
(with sensitivity 4.5 pm∕𝜇𝜖) compared to Bhowmik et al. (2016) is
reported in Wang et al. (2014). A dual-FBG based strain sensor in
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) microstructured in a polymer optical
fiber (POF) is presented in Yuan et al. (2011). The measured sensitivity
of such sensor is 0.73 pm∕𝜇𝜖. Another variant of strain sensor as
reported in Zhang et al. (2010) provided a sensitivity of 1.4 pm∕𝜇𝜖.
Alternatively, a resolution of 10 n𝜖 can be achieved with the design
mentioned in He et al. (2013). In Tian et al. (2020), a fiber ring
laser cavity has been proposed to measure the strain with respect
to the beat frequencies. The strain monitoring sensitivities are found
to be 0.511 kHz∕𝜇𝜖, −0.853 kHz∕𝜇𝜖 and −1.606 kHz∕𝜇𝜖 for beat
frequencies of 0.429 GHz, 1.008 GHz, and 1.459 GHz, respectively.
The proposed sensor in Ding et al. (2020) has reported the maximum
strain sensitivity of 37.5 pm∕𝜇𝜖 while the same reported in Liu et al.
C.V.N. Bhaskar et al. Results in Optics 5 (2021) 100130

Fig. 6. Schematic of different FBGs embedded fiber based ring resonator for strain measurement: (a) FBGRR; (b) 𝜋-FBGRR; (c) Extended FBGRR; (d) Extended 𝜋-FBGRR.

Fig. 7. Schematic of 𝜋-PSFBG embedded cantilever based strain sensor.

Table 2
Performance comparison of various recently reported FBG-based strain sensors in chronological order.
Year Ref. Sensitivity Resolution
2010 Zhang et al. (2010) 1.4 pm/𝜇𝜖 –
2011 Yuan et al. (2011) 0.73 pm/𝜇𝜖 –
2013 He et al. (2013) – 10 n𝜖
104.1 pm∕𝜇𝜖–Wavelength
2014 Ferreira et al. (2014) 700 n𝜖
61.6pm/𝜇𝜖-FWHM
2014 Wang et al. (2014) 4.5 pm/𝜇𝜖 –
√
2014 Malara et al. (2014) – 320 p𝜖∕ Hz at 0 Hz
2015 Cheng et al. (2015) 2.8 to 10.4 dB/nm –
1.65 pm/𝜇𝜖- etched region
2016 Bhowmik et al. (2016) –
1.24 pm/𝜇𝜖- un etched region
2016 Campanella (2016) 2.86 pm/𝜇𝜖 –
2017 Zhang et al. (2017) 0.0762 pm/𝜇𝜖 13.13 𝜇𝜖
2017 Yang et al. (2017) 5.24 pm/𝜇𝜖 –
2018 Xiang and Jiang (2018) 1.2 pm/𝜇𝜖 –
2020 Liu et al. (2020) 0.627 pm/𝜇𝜖 27.95 𝜇𝜖
2020 Ding et al. (2020) 37.5 pm/𝜇𝜖 –
2021 Sridhar et al. (2021) ∼6.65 pm/𝜇𝜖 ∼150 n𝜖

9
C.V.N. Bhaskar et al.
(2020) has achieved the sensitivity of 0.627 pm∕𝜇𝜖 with the resolution
of 27.95∕𝜇𝜖. Similarly, in Guo et al. (2020b), the proposed sensor
with a 3D printed spring is expected to measure an enormous strain
ranging to 1.5 × 107 𝜇𝜖. Other designs employing a multi-core fiber
inscribed with FBGs can be used as strain sensors to measure a multi-
segment catheter’s pose (Khan et al., 2020). An FBG based stress
sensor presented in Huang et al. (2019) provides a way of online
monitoring for the foundation deformation of transmission lines. A
sensor reported in Malara et al. (2014) is used to find out the high
sensitivity strain in the low-frequency regime using 𝜋-phase-shifted
√ FBG
based on fiber ring cavity has a given a resolution of 320 p𝜖∕ 𝐻𝑧 at
0 Hz. The splitting variations due to the mechanical deformations of
the grating can be tracked in real-time by interrogating a cavity reso-
nance with a locked-carrier scanning-sideband technique demonstrated
experimentally. However, a simple concept based on shifted optical
Gaussian filters is used to interrogate a broad spectrum of ultra FBGs
for distributed measurements, giving a wide strain sensitivity tuning
range from 2.8 to 10.4 dB/nm is presented in Cheng et al. (2015). Sim-
ilar to the sensor (Malara et al., 2014), coupled 𝜋-FBGRR introduced
in Campanella (2016) provides better performance than 𝜋-FBGRR for
strain sensing. The splitting sensitivity of the sensor was found as 2.86
pm∕𝜇𝜖. However, a short FBG inscribed in an MMF fiber has improved
sensitivity to 5.24 pm∕𝜇𝜖, to measure the strain experimentally with
a single core resonance mode at high temperature (600–900 ◦ C) is
presented in Yang et al. (2017). A polymer-coated silica FBG sensor
has been designed to detect the immense strain of composite material
on a solid rocket motor (SRM). The strain sensitivity and resolution
of the sensor are 0.0762 pm∕𝜇𝜖 and 13.13 ∕𝜇𝜖, respectively (Zhang
et al., 2017). In Xiang and Jiang (2018), type-II FBGs inscribed and
demonstrated experimentally in multicore photonic crystal fiber made
up of pure silica used for optical fiber sensing at high temperatures has
given the strain sensitivity of 1.2 pm∕𝜇𝜖. Alternatively, an etched FBG
coated with nanolayer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2 ) using physical
vapor decomposition (PVD) is highly sensitive and consistent to be used
in the applications like detection of seismic vibrations and underwater
acoustic signals. With the help of this sensor, an intrinsic strain sensi-
tivity of ∼6.65 pm∕𝜇𝜖 with a resolution of ∼150 n𝜖 can be achieved
with optimized MoS2 coating is reported in Sridhar et al. (2021).
Generally, to calibrate the FBG strain, bending deformation of the
beam or strain gauge strain methods is in use. For example, calibration
utilizing strain gauge strain requires the design of a strain calibration
electrical circuit is an indirect method that leads to poor calibration
will give us problems like low sensitivity and stress transfer. So, in Tan
et al. (2021), a direct and high-precision new calibration method based
on optical amplification is proposed to calibrate the strain of an FBG.
In particular, a strain calibration method based on the optical lever has
been presented. An optical lever contains an instrument for calculating
Young’s elastic modulus, a meter ruler, some weight, a narrow line, and
a micrometer. With the help of an optical lever, strain calibration of an
FBG has performed both theoretically and experimentally shown. The
experimental results give a strain calibration sensitivity of 1.13 pm/𝜇𝜖
using an optical lever at room temperature demonstrated. Alternatively,
an FBG based strain sensor to measure the little amplitude micro-strain
in harsh industrial conditions is reported (Li et al., 2018). Such a sensor
can amplify the strain in the FBG area mechanically using an elastic
substrate with a lever structure. The strain sensing principle of the
reported sensor is analyzed using material mechanics theory. Experi-
mental tests and the finite element method (FEM) are used to validate
the strain sensing model of the sensor. Such a sensor has given a better
experimental strain sensitivity than the sensor developed in Tan et al.
(2021). The value of the strain sensitivity offered by the sensor is found
as 6.2 pm/𝜇𝜖. However, a novel FBG based sensor reported in Liu et al.
(2019a) has given an experimental strain sensitivity of 10.84 pm/𝜇𝜖.
Such a sensor is designed with the help of a flexible hinge bridge
structure to measure the strain of a mechanical surface. The sensor’s
strain sensitization factor was determined theoretically using strain
10
Results in Optics 5 (2021) 100130
energy theory and the flexible matrix method. The sensor reported
is best suited to accurate dynamic strain monitoring of mechanical
structures in a temperature environment up to 338 K. In Peng et al.
(2019), a sensor has been proposed to monitor the strain in lithium-ion
batteries for state estimation purposes in energy storage applications.
The proposed sensor has given a strain sensitivity of 11.55 pm/𝜇𝜖,
which is 11.55 times greater than a bare FBG sensor. Such a sensor
has given better strain sensitivity than compared to the sensor reported
in Liu et al. (2019a).
In addition to the literature mentioned above, an FWHM used as
a cross-sensitivity indicator for simultaneous measurement of tempera-
ture and strain using a single FBG on tilted cantilever beam has been
proposed recently in Mansoursamaei and Malakzadeh (2021). Such a
proposed sensor has given a temperature sensitivity of 14.2 pm/◦ C
with no change in FWHM and strain sensitivity of 0.453 pm/𝜇𝜖 with
a change in FWHM given by a quadratic equation presented. How-
ever, to discriminate the cross-sensitivity problem for the simultaneous
measurement of temperature and strain, a tilted FBG sensor with a tilt
angle of 5◦ has been designed using optigrating software (Kipriksiz and
Yücel, 2021). The developed sensor has given a strain sensitivity of
1.25 pm/𝜇𝜖 within a range 0 to 500 𝜇𝜖 for different modes. And, the
temperature sensitivity of 75 pm/◦ C for the core mode in a temperature
range 298 K to 348 K. In Pevec and Donlagić (2019), measurement of
multiple physical parameters like temperature and strain with a single
FBG based sensing technology has been reported. A new combined
FBG based sensor designed to measure the temperature, strain, and
the vibration is analyzed and simulated using the FEM (Yao et al.,
2021). Such a sensor has given a strain sensitivity, linearity, and the
measurement error in a fixed temperature environment as 5.44 pm/𝜇𝜖,
99.94%, and 2.05% F.S. in the range 0 to 580 𝜇𝜖, respectively. Simi-
larly, the sensor’s temperature sensitivity, linearity, and measurement
error were recorded and shown as 16.12 pm/◦ C, 99.93%, and 2.15%
F.S. respectively in the measurement range 273 K to 1373 K.
A sensing system developed can measure the temperature con-
sistently up to 873 K and able to detect the cracks on the metal
pipes shown in He et al. (2020a). In Hu et al. (2020), a hybrid FBG
based sensor for simultaneous measurement of temperature and strain
using double cladding fiber has been demonstrated. Such a sensor has
given the maximum strain and temperature sensitivities as 0.76 pm/𝜇𝜖
and 13.2 pm/◦ C. However, a novel sawtooth stressor-assisted highly
birefringent FBG or Hi-Bi FBG has been proposed for simultaneous
strain and temperature measurement (Guo et al., 2020a). The proposed
sawtooth stressor developed near the core of the fiber using femtosec-
ond laser direct inscription. Such a proposed stressor can produce
the strain and high birefringence in the FBG and create a maximum
birefringence of 2.96×10−4 . The strain sensitivity of the stressor-assisted
Hi-Bi FBG found to be as 1.24 pm/𝜇𝜖 in 𝜆𝐵 and 2.14 × 10−2 pm/𝜇𝜖 in
birefringence induced wavelength difference (𝜆𝐷 ) whereas temperature
sensitivity as 9.52 pm/◦ C in 𝜆𝐵 and 0.13 pm/◦ C in 𝜆𝐷 . Also, the
strain and temperature sensitivity in 𝜆𝐷 given by the sawtooth stressor
were higher in the magnitude of several orders than a straight-stressor
assisted Hi-Bi FBG emphasized. This kind of sawtooth stressor-assisted
Hi-Bi FBG will find applications in innovative structures and intelligent
robotics. In addition to the applications mentioned in this paper, FBG
technology can also be used for explosive detections, and the internet
of things (IoT) applications (Shree et al., 2019; Khlaifi et al., 2021).
6. Conclusions
A brief review of FBG based strain and temperature measurement
has been presented with a suitable analytical formulation. The stan-
dard FBGs are classified under primary FBG, while a new variant
of secondary gratings has been introduced in the classifications. The
operating principle of the FBG-based temperature sensor has been
discussed, and the problem of measuring low temperatures is also
covered. Improvement of sensitivities of such sensors can be achieved
C.V.N. Bhaskar et al.
by introducing coating layer(s) or etching the cladding layer of the FBG.
Comparative study of temperature sensors for both low and high range
in terms of operating range, sensitivity, and resolutions is presented. A
similar kind of approach is also considered for FBG-based strain sensors.
Both uniform and non-uniform strain measurement is covered with
suitable mathematical analysis. Measurement systems using FBGRR and
FBG embedded cantilever systems are discussed in-depth, and their
performance is compared in terms of sensitivity and resolution.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
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