Lecture 12

Geometric Representation

Delivered by:

Dr. B. R. Karthikeyan
karthikeyan.ec.et@msruas.ac.in

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 Objectives

At the end of this session, student will be able to

• Discuss signal space for digital signaling
• Discuss geometric representation of signal vectors

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 Topics
• Signal Space
• Orthogonal signal space
• Orthonormal bases

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 Signal space: Overview
• What is a signal space?
– Vector representations of signals in an N-dimensional orthogonal space

• Why do we need a signal space?

– It is a means to convert signals to vectors and vice versa.
– It is a means to calculate signals energy and Euclidean distances between
signals.

• Why are we interested in Euclidean distances between signals?

– For detection purposes: The received signal is transformed to a received
vectors.
– The signal which has the minimum distance to the received signal is
estimated as the transmitted signal.
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 Signal space
• To form a signal space, first we need to know the inner
product between two signals (functions):
– Inner (scalar) product:

 x(t ), y(t )   x(t ) y* (t )dt

= cross-correlation between x(t) and y(t)
– Properties of inner product:

 ax(t ), y(t )  a  x(t ), y(t ) 

 x(t ), ay (t )  a*  x(t ), y (t ) 
 x(t )  y(t ), z(t )  x(t ), z(t )    y(t ), z(t ) 
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 Orthogonal signal space
• N-dimensional orthogonal signal space is characterized by N
linearly independent functions  j (t )Nj1 called basis functions.
The basis functions must satisfy the orthogonality condition

T
0t T
  i (t ), j (t )   i (t ) (t )dt  Ki ji
*
j
0
j, i  1,...,N
where
1  i  j
 ij  
0  i  j

• If all K i  1 , the signal space is orthonormal.

–
Constructing Orthonormal basis from non-orthonormal set of vectors:
• Gram-Schmidt procedure
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 Example of an orthonormal bases
• Example: 2-dimensional orthonormal signal space
 2

 1 (t )  cos(2t / T ) 0t T  2 (t )
 T

 (t )  2 sin( 2t / T ) 0t T
 2 T
T
 1 (t )
0
  1 (t ), 2 (t )   1 (t ) 2 (t )dt  0
0

 1 (t )   2 (t )  1

• Example: 1-dimensional orthonornal signal space

 1 (t )
1  1 (t )  1
T  1 (t )
0
0 T t
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 Example of projecting signals to an orthonormal
signal space
 2 (t )
s1  (a11 , a12 )

 1 (t )

s 3  (a31 , a32 )

s 2  (a21 , a22 )

s1 (t )  a11 1 (t )  a12 2 (t )  s1  (a11 , a12 )

Transmitted signal
alternatives s2 (t )  a21 1 (t )  a22 2 (t )  s 2  (a21 , a22 )
s3 (t )  a31 1 (t )  a32 2 (t )  s3  (a31 , a32 )
T
aij   si (t ) j (t )dt j  1,...,N i  1,...,M 0t T
0
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 Schematic example of a signal space
 2 (t )
s1  (a11 , a12 )

 1 (t )
z  ( z1 , z2 )

s 3  (a31 , a32 )

s 2  (a21 , a22 )
s1 (t )  a11 1 (t )  a12 2 (t )  s1  (a11 , a12 )
Transmitted signal
s2 (t )  a21 1 (t )  a22 2 (t )  s 2  (a21 , a22 )
alternatives
s3 (t )  a31 1 (t )  a32 2 (t )  s 3  (a31 , a32 )
Received signal at
z (t )  z1 1 (t )  z2 2 (t )  z  ( z1 , z2 )
matched filter output
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 Signal space …
• Any arbitrary finite set of waveforms si (t )iM1
where each member of the set is of duration T, can be
expressed as a linear combination of N orthogonal waveforms
where  .(t )N NM
j j 1

N
si (t )   aij j (t ) i  1,...,M
j 1 NM
where
T
1 1 j  1,...,N
K j 0
aij   si (t ), j (t )  s (t ) *
j (t )dt 0t T
Kj
i
i  1,...,M
N
Ei   K j aij
2
si  (ai1 , ai 2 ,...,aiN )
j 1
Vector representation of waveform Waveform energy
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 Signal space …
• The distance in signal space is measure by calculating the norm.
• What is norm?
– Norm of a signal:


2
x(t )   x(t ), x(t )   x(t ) dt  Ex

= “length” of x(t)
ax(t )  a x(t )

– Norm between two signals:

d x, y  x(t )  y(t )

• We refer to the norm between two signals as the Euclidean distance between
two signals.
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 Example of distances in signal space
 2 (t )
s1  (a11 , a12 )

E1 d s1 , z
 1 (t )
E3 z  ( z1 , z2 )
d s3 , z E2 d s2 , z
s 3  (a31 , a32 )

s 2  (a21 , a22 )

The Euclidean distance between signals z(t) and s(t):

d si , z  si (t )  z (t )  (ai1  z1 ) 2  (ai 2  z2 ) 2
i  1,2,3
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 Signal space …
N
si (t )   aij j (t ) si  (ai1 , ai 2 ,...,aiN )
j 1
Waveform to vector conversion Vector to waveform conversion

 1 (t )  1 (t )
T a i1 a i1
0
 ai1  sm
 ai1 
si (t )     sm  si (t )
 N (t )      N (t )
T aiN  aiN 
0 aiN aiN

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 Matched filter receiver (revisited)
(note: we match to the basis directions)
Bank of N matched filters

z1
 (T  t )
 Observation
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 z1  vector
r (t )
  z z
 
  N (T  t )  z N 
zN
N
si (t )   aij j (t ) i  1,...,M
j 1
z  ( z1 , z 2 ,..., z N ) NM
z j  r (t )  j (T  t ) j  1,...,N
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 Correlator receiver (revisited)

Bank of N correlators

 1 (t )
T z1
0
 r1 
r (t )  z
z Observation
 N (t )   vector

T rN 
0 zN
N
si (t )   aij j (t ) i  1,...,M
j 1
z  ( z1 , z 2 ,..., z N ) NM
T
z j   r (t ) j (t )dt j  1,...,N
0
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 Summary
• For orthogonal signal the inner product between two
signals (functions) should be zero
• N-dimensional orthogonal signal space is characterized by
N linearly independent functions called basis
functions
• The distance in signal space is measure by calculating the
norm

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