Chapter 7: FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF record is treated
implicitly by the
VIBRATION AND SHOCK
Block Diagram of Basic Analyzer System
 Signal input
 Filter  discrete sampling of the spectrum in the
 Detector
 Recorder or display
Detector- used to measure the mean power in
the filter output and consists of a squaring
section to obtain instantaneous power.
Linear averaging- with uniform weighting
over given time periods of length TA , where the
result is only available at the end of each period,
and is usually held until something is done with
the result.
Running exponential averaging- where a
result is available at all times and represents
approximately the previous TA seconds, but
where the maximum weighting is on the most
recent input and there is an exponentially
decaying weighting backward in time.
Recursive digital filter- a calculation device that
receives a sequence of digital values at its input,
operates on each sample in a defined manner,
and outputs a sample for each input. 
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)- an extremely
efficient way of calculating
3 pitfalls introduced by the finite, discrete
nature of the DFT.
 Aliasing- caused by sampling of the
time signal, and meaning that high
frequencies after sampling can appear
as lower ones (as with a stroboscope).
 Time window effect- resulting from
the finite length of the record. the time
 
analyzer as one period of a periodic
signal of period T.
 Picket fence effect- resulting from the
frequency domain.
Stationary signal- a signal wave that is
generated by keeping the time period
and spectral content value constant. 
Choice of Averaging Time
 STATIONARY DETERMINISTIC SIGNAL-
the only requirement of the averaging is
that it reduces the ripple of the detector
output to an acceptable level.  
STATIONARY RANDOM SIGNAL -

averaging time should be chosen so as
to achieve an acceptable accuracy of
the result. 
CHOICE OF ANALYSIS SPEED
 Filter response time
Averaging time

 Recorder writing speed
Chapter 8:
VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS FOR
MACHINE HEALTH MONITORING 
Absolute vibration - refers to the
vibration of the rotor relative to the
ground, which can also be called tile
vibration. 
Relative vibration - refers to the
vibration of the rotor relative to the
vibration probe, so the relative vibration
can also be understood as the vibration
of the rotor relative to the bearing bush
or bearing seat, which is also called
shaft vibration.
 Force x Mobility = Vibration
Displacement transducer- a device used
to convert the motion of an object or
machine into
electromagnetic, magnetoelectric, or
electrostatic signals.  instruments are used until they indicate
Journal bearing- the simplest type of
bearing, comprising just a bearing
surface and no rolling elements.
Maintenance Systems
 Run-to-Break Maintenance- industries
running many inexpensive machines
and having all important processes
duplicated, machines are usually run
until they break down.
 Time-Based Preventive Maintenance-
where important machines are not
fully duplicated, or where the safety of
personnel is involved, maintenance
work is often performed at fixed time
intervals such as every 3000 operating
hours.
 On-Condition Maintenance- when
vibration measurements and analysis
are performed systematically and
intelligently.
Operator- who will perform the
actual measurements following a fixed
measurement procedure.
Maintenance engineer- responsible for
preparing the measurement procedure
and performs analysis and evaluation
himself, particularly during the
development period.  manufactured components identifying
Instruments for on-condition
maintenance
 Class 3: is a vibration meter making
a simple overall vibration reading in a
single frequency band.
 Class 2: uses two levels of
instrumentation. First, the Class 3
that levels have exceeded
the standardized maximum levels or
have changed drastically. Then an
analyzer is brought into action to
analyze the current spectrum.
 Class 1: means full analysis and
comparison with reference spectra each
time. This gives full information on the
condition of a machine together with
the best predictive capability. 
Permanent monitoring- a system
whereby a set of instruments is
continuously checking
machine condition at a limited number
of measuring points. 
Chapter 9: ACOUSTIC EMISSION
Non-destructive testing- a testing and
analysis technique used by industry to
evaluate the properties of a material,
component, structure, or system
for characteristic differences or welding
defects and discontinuities without
causing damage to the original part. 
Examples of NDT:
 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING (RT)-
uses either x-rays or gamma rays to
examine the internal structure of
any flaws or defects.
 DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION- used to
detect any surface-connected
discontinuities such as cracks from
fatigue, quenching, and grinding, as well
 as fractures, porosity, incomplete
fusion, and flaws in joints.
 EDDY CURRENTS- use of
electromagnetic induction to detect and
characterize surface and sub-surface
flaws in conductive materials.
Acoustic emission- elastic wave generated by
the release of energy internally stored in
a structure.
Dislocation movements - enables atoms in
metals to slide readily by one another,
facilitating the plastic deformation that blunts
the advance of cracks.
Phase Transformations- occurs when
one material changes its composition or
structure.
Friction Mechanisms- occurs in cracks, and the
sudden sliding mechanism releases burst-type
signals. Crack formation and friction burst
signals are very useful for detecting and
localizing cracks.
Crack formation and extension- occur at
surface notches or at points inside a material
where local stresses exceed the fracture stress.  Plastic deformation- Permanent deformation or
Crack formation results in the creation of new
surfaces, strain energy is released, and this is
partly transformed into AE signals.
Transducers- a device that converts one form of
energy to another form of various purposes
including measurement or information
transfer.  are formed due to the localized bands of
Oscilloscope – immediate impression of AE
activity.  tensile stresses.
RMS voltmeter – continuous emission
Ring down counting/ Pulse area measurements
-burst type signals; an indication of total/rate of
damage occurring.
High-Frequency Pulse Analyzer - measuring the
time a threshold is exceeded will give the
approximate pulse area of an AE signal. 
Tape Recorder- modified video recorder,
storing AE signals for later analysis, analysis of
multiple channels, dynamic range is often very
limited (~ 30 dB)
Transient Recorder- for single pulses to be
analyzed, dynamic range and memory size are
limited (e.g. 8 bits resolution ~ 48 dB and 1 - 2K
words).
Peak Detector- short rise time (0,5 ps) and a
comparatively slow decay time, permits
interconnection with level recorders and similar
equipment.
Statistical Processor - used to count the
number of events falling within different
amplitude windows, loudspeaker connected via
the peak detector converts the AE bursts to
audible “cracks”.
> Two transducers determine a source
location in one dimension.
> Three transducers determine a source
location in two dimensions.
> The time difference between the arrival
time of the signal at two transducers
determines a hyperbola in a plane if
the propagation velocity is known.
> Intersection of hyperbolas obtained from
other transducer pairs defines the
location of the source.  
change in the shape of a solid body without
fracture under the action of a sustained force.
Crack formation- A frequent result of residual
stress release from colloidal films made by the
evaporation of colloidal droplets containing
nanoparticles.
Lüders band- a type of slip band in metals which
plastic deformation in metals experiencing
Strain aging- Due to the diffusion of carbon
and/or nitrogen atoms in solution to
dislocations that have been generated by
plastic deformation.
Homogeneous deformation- two lines
remain straight in the deformed configuration,
remain parallel, and stretched at the same
amount.
Example of Application of AE Measurements
 Tensile Test on Brass Specimen
  Tensile Test on Carbon Fibre Braid
 Braided Rope Tensile Testing
Source Location in AE testing
 Detecting AE activity.  environment.
 Locating the source of the activity; and  Laboratory Testing- to ensure that the effects of
 Evaluating the material defects causing
the activity.
Source Location Techniques
 Linear Location- is most suited for
vessels where the length is much larger
than the diameter.
 2D Planar Location- If the diameter of
the vessel is significant relative to its
length.
 3D Location- is used for vessels that are
spherical in shape. 
Chapter 10: VIBRATION TESTING
Most Common Vibration Testing
 Sinusoidal Testing- fixed or sweeping
frequency.
 Random Testing- wideband or
narrowband characteristics.
 Force Testing- using mechanical
impedance or mobility concepts and
structural response measurements.
Electrodynamic vibration exciter- for
frequencies above 10 Hz, and to match
common vibration test specifications.
Electrohydraulic vibrator- for low-frequency
testing, typically in the range of 0 Hz to 20 Hz,
where a large displacement stroke is required.
Vibration exciter- a machine that produces
a mechanical vibratory motion.
Wideband Random Testing- drive signal has
characteristics that approximate closer to
the statistical characteristics of common
vibration environments in service.
Forced vibration- a type of vibration in which a
force is repeatedly applied to a mechanical
system.  The effects of unbalance in practice are found
Structural vibration- occurs when dynamic
forces generated by compressors, pumps, and
engines cause the deck beams to vibrate.
Shock testing- a method of qualification testing
to ensure that delicate equipment will operate
satisfactorily in the practical shock
the test shock upon the tested equipment
are similar to those of the shock(s) occurring in
practice and to ensure that these shock effects
are completely reproducible.
Service Testing- the transport medium
or packaging method has to be specified for a
piece of vulnerable equipment so that it will not
be damaged by shocks occurring during
shipping or handling. 
Chapter 11: BALANCING OF ROTATING
MACHINES
Balancing of Rotating Machine- happens when
the mass centerline and the geometric
centerline coincide.
Importance of Balancing in Rotating Machines
 Prevent fatigue failure
 Prevent excessive loading of support
bearings
 Prevent excessive loading of support
bearings
 Improve durability and usefulness of the
machine
Centripetal Acceleration- acceleration toward
the center of the circle
Centripetal Force- a force that acts on an object
to keep it moving along a circular path.
Centrifugal Force- has the same magnitude and
dimensions as the force that keeps the particle
on its circular path (the centripetal force)
but points in the opposite direction.
to be dependent upon the mass of the rotor
itself.
Unbalance is the most common source of
vibration in rotating equipment.
Statics balance- When a small mass is fixed
to the disc at a distance from that axis.
Couple unbalance- have two equal
uncompensated masses symmetrically placed
about the center of mass but positioned at 180°
to one another.
Dynamic unbalance- When both static and a
couple of unbalance are present.
Correction is made by mass addition or mass
removal using ancillary equipment. 
The rotor is supported by a bearing and
base assembly. This must restrain
the unbalanced-excited motion of the rotor
journal.
Cross effect- the existence of unbalance in one
plane will excite vibrations in both suspension
systems depending on the geometric location of
the unbalance, moment of inertia of the rotor,
and support characteristics.
Balancing Machines- are devices used to
balance rotating parts, such as wheels, rotors,
and fans, to ensure their smooth operation and
reduce wear and tear.
Field Balancing- is a process of dynamically
balancing a rotating machine while it is in
operation, in its intended operating
environment.
TWO MAIN TYPES OF FIELD BALANCING
 Single-plane balancing   Smoother Running Engine
 Two-plane balancing
Fine Balancing- refers to the process of
adjusting or optimizing a machine to
improve accuracy and performance.
Fine machining- is a kind of machining
that aims to achieve the final
desired tolerance or also known as
the radial run–out tolerance.
Radial runout- is when the axis of rotation
is off-center from the main axis, but
still parallel.
Flexible Rotors- refer to rotating machinery
components that are designed to have
some degree of flexibility or elasticity, in
contrast to rigid rotors which are solid and
do not deform under load.
Critical speed- is the speed where the
natural vibration (resonance) occurs.
Balancing is now a process to "dynamically
straighten "the rotor to re-align its
principal inertia axis with the axis of
rotation in order that the machine can be
run up safely to its operating speed.
Modal balancing- putting a correction mass
as compensation for higher modes.
Flexible Rotors can provide
several benefits:
 Vibration damping
 Torsional stiffness
 Torsional natural frequency
 Dynamic balancing
Crankshaft -the backbone of the
internal combustion engine (ICE)
Crankshaft Balancing- refers to the process of
evenly distributing the weight of the crankshaft
and its components so that it rotates smoothly
and without vibration.
This balancing can provide several benefits:
 More Powerful Engine
 Less Energy Wasted
 More Power Efficiency
 Reduces Vibration
Multiple Span Shafts- refer to a type of shaft
configuration that consists of multiple shafts
connected in series.
 Chapter 12: FUNDAMENTALS OF SHOCK AND Metal Rubber Vibration Isolator- this new type
VIBRATION CONTROL of vibration isolator is made of metal wire
through spiral forming, elongation, winding
Machinery is isolated to prevent the blank, die pressing, and other processes.
transmission of noise, shock, and vibration.
Vibration Isolation- used to minimize the
impact of the dynamic forces, created by a
machine’s moving components, into the
surrounding structure.

Mechanical vibration isolator

 Metal Spring Isolator
 Wire Rope Isolator
 Air Spring Isolator
 Rubber Vibration Isolator
 Metal Rubber Vibration Isolator
Shock- a transient condition in which an impulse
of energy is created. This energy is transmitted
to the surrounding structure in a short duration
with high speed.
Isolators- used to store shock energy, similar to
how capacitors store electrical energy, and then
release it over a longer duration.
Damping treatment- addresses the system
response at resonance and is only part of the
solution to most vibration issues.
Dynamic Vibration Absorber- completed and
use then preferably made of some sort of
general damping treatment.
Sandwich Structures- A third method of
applying damping to structural elements.
Non-linear Isolators- can cause extra response
effects at harmonic or sub-harmonic
frequencies.

Shock Pulse- may contain frequency

components ranging from 0 to ∞.

Decay-Rate (Reverberation)- this method is a

technique used to measure the reverberation
time of a room. It involves measuring the time it
takes for sound to decay by 60 dB after the
sound source is turned off.

Geiger Test/Geiger Thick-Plate Test- normally

decay measurements are made at one
frequency only.