Pyramid of Djoser

Coordinates: 29°52′16.56″N 31°12′59.02″E

The pyramid of Djoser (or Djeser and Zoser),

sometimes called the Step Pyramid of Djoser, is an
Pyramid of Djoser
archaeological site in the Saqqara necropolis, Egypt,
northwest of the ruins of Memphis. The 6-tier, 4-sided
structure is the earliest colossal stone building in Egypt.[4]
It was built in the 27th century BC during the Third
Dynasty for the burial of Pharaoh Djoser. The pyramid is
the central feature of a vast mortuary complex in an
enormous courtyard surrounded by ceremonial structures
and decoration. Its architect was Imhotep, chancellor of
the pharaoh and high priest of the god Ra.

The pyramid went through several revisions and Djoser's step pyramid at Saqqara
redevelopments of the original plan. The pyramid
originally stood 62.5 m (205 ft) tall, with a base of 109 m Djoser
× 121 m (358 ft × 397 ft) and was clad in polished white Coordinates 29°52′16.56″N 31°12′59.02″E
limestone.[5] The step pyramid (or proto-pyramid) was
Architect Imhotep
considered to be the earliest large-scale cut stone
construction made by man as of 1997,[6] although the Constructed c. 2670–2650 BC[1] (3rd
nearby enclosure wall "Gisr el-Mudir" is suggested by dynasty)
some Egyptologists to predate the complex, and the Type Step pyramid
South American pyramids at Caral are contemporary.
Material Limestone
In March 2020, the pyramid was reopened for visitors Height 62.5 m (205 ft; 119 cu)[2]
after a 14-year restoration.[7] Base 121 m (397 ft; 231 cu) by
109 m (358 ft; 208 cu)[2][3]
Djoser Volume 330,400 m3 (11,667,966 cu ft)[3]

Djoser was the first or second king of the 3rd Dynasty UNESCO World Heritage Site
(c. 2670–2650 BC) of the Egyptian Old Kingdom
Part of Memphis and its Necropolis –
(c. 2686  – c. 2125 BC).[1] He is believed to have ruled
the Pyramid Fields from Giza to
for 19 years or, if the 19 years were biennial taxation
Dahshur
years, 38 years.[8] He reigned long enough to allow the
grandiose plan for his pyramid to be realized in his Criteria Cultural: i, iii, vi
lifetime.[9] Reference 86-002 (https://whc.unesco.org/
en/list/86-002)
Djoser is best known for his innovative tomb, which
dominates the Saqqara landscape.[8] In this tomb he is Inscription 1979 (3rd Session)
referred to by his Horus name Netjerikhet; Djoser is a
name given by New Kingdom visitors thousands of years
later. Djoser's step pyramid is astounding in its departure
from previous architecture. It sets several important Location within Lower Egypt
precedents, perhaps the most important of which is its
status as the first monumental structure made of stone.

The social implications of such a large and carefully sculpted stone

structure are staggering.[10] The process of building such a structure
would be far more labor-intensive than previous monuments of mud-
brick. This suggests that the state, and therefore the royal
government, had a new level of control of resources, both material
and human. Also, from this point on, kings of the Old Kingdom are
buried in the North, rather than at Abydos.

Although the plan of Djoser's pyramid complex is different from later

complexes, many elements persist and the step pyramid sets the stage
for later pyramids of the 4th, 5th, and 6th Dynasties, including the
great pyramids of Giza. Though the Dynastic Egyptians themselves
did not credit him as such,[11] most Egyptologists credit Djoser's
vizier Imhotep with the design and construction of the complex.[9]

Precedents
Perspective view, plan and elevation
Djoser's Pyramid draws ideas from several precedents. The most images Djoser's Pyramid Complex
relevant precedent is found at Saqqara mastaba 3038 (c. 2700 BC). taken from a 3d model
The substructure lay in a 4  m (13  ft) deep rectangular pit, and had
mudbrick walls rising to 6 m (20 ft). Three sides were extended and
built out to create eight shallow steps rising at an angle of 49°. This would have been an elongated step
pyramid if the remaining side had not been left uncovered. In another parallel to Djoser's complex, to
complete this mastaba complex a niched enclosure wall was erected.[10]

Layout
Djoser's mortuary complex comprises the great trench,
enclosure wall, colonnaded entrance, 'T' temple, Sed festival
complex, north and south pavilions, south tomb and court,
western mounds, mortuary temple, and the crowning feature
of it all, the step pyramid with its substructure.[12][13] The
complex was a landmark achievement for Egyptian
architecture.[14] It was the advent of the pyramidal form of
the royal tomb and the first instance of the mass use of Comparison of approximate profiles of the
limestone in construction, [15] replacing mudbrick which had Pyramid of Djoser with some notable pyramidal
or near-pyramidal buildings. Dotted lines
been the staple building material prior.[16] This shift to
indicate original heights, where data is
limestone – a hard, dense material compared to mudbrick –
available. In its SVG file (https://upload.wikime
presented novel challenges to the architects, though they
dia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Comparison_o
kept to earlier tradition, copying architectonic elements and
f_pyramids_SMIL.svg), hover over a pyramid to
carving them into the stone.[15] For example, the Egyptians highlight and click for its article.
hand-carved 1,680 9 m (30 ft; 17 cu)-tall niches out of the
limestone enclosure wall.[16] In earlier projects, this element
was built with wooden planks, ropes, and poles hung with reed mats.[15] In a modern context, the same
element would be built by laying out the blocks to form the recesses.[16]
 Complex layout: 1) step pyramid, 2) south tomb and chapel, 3) Sed festival complex, 4)
'T' temple, 5) south court, 6) south pavilion, 7) north pavilion, 8) mortuary temple, 9)
western mounds, 10) colonnaded entrance, 11) north court, 12) north galleries, 13) step
tombs, 14) serdab, and 15) north altar

Step pyramid
The crowning feature of the complex is the Step Pyramid which rises from the Saqqara plateau in six
steps[16][17] to a height between 60 m (200 ft; 110 cu)[18] and 62.5 m (205 ft; 119.3 cu).[2] This element was
revised repeatedly in construction, going through a series of developmental phases that culminated in its step
pyramidal form.[16][19] These phases are traditionally labelled, following Jean-Philippe Lauer's excavations:
M1, M2, M3, P1, P1', and P2.[16][20][a]

In the early stages (M1 to M3) the structure had the form of a mastaba before alterations (P1 to P2) were
made to create its step pyramidal form.[22] In the first stage (M1), the mastaba had a square plan 63 m (207 ft;
120 cu) in length that rose to a height of 8.4 m (28 ft; 16 cu).[2][23] This was built from a core of limestone
blocks arranged in horizontal beds and bound with yellow or red clay. A 2.6 m (9 ft; 5 cu) thick casing of fine
white Tura limestone was applied to the core arranged in the same horizontal manner. The outer blocks were
inclined to ~82° and the top of the mastaba likely had a slightly convex shape.[23] A second casing of fine
white limestone was applied to this which increased the mastaba's base length to 71.5  m (235  ft; 136  cu)
square (M2). The casing was 4.2 m (14 ft; 8 cu) thick at the base and 3.4 m (11 ft; 6.5 cu) thick at the peak,
which was 0.65 m (2 ft; 1 cu) lower than the initial mastaba height. The outer blocks of this second coat also
had a steeper incline at ~76°.[24][25] The mastaba was then extended 8.4 m (28 ft; 16 cu) east to cover a series
of eleven shafts 33  m (108  ft; 63  cu) deep that ended in passages that led west to the burial chambers of
members of Djoser's family.[26][27] This extension was built from locally sourced limestone rubble and cased
by 1.5 m (5 ft; 3 cu) thick limestone coating that formed an extension of M2.[28] The mastaba had a new,
rectangular ground plan 71.5 m (235 ft; 136 cu) by 79.5 m (261 ft; 152 cu). At this stage the mastaba still
peaked at 8.4  m (28  ft; 16  cu) in height, too short to be seen from outside the 10.5  m (34  ft; 20  cu) high
enclosure wall.[29]
Egyptologists are split on the motivations behind the conception of the pyramidal form that the mastaba was
converted into.[30] Lauer believed that the alteration was made to have the tomb visible from
Memphis.[29][31] The fact of the mastaba's square plan led Rainer Stadelmann, however, to suggest that it
was never the intended final form and that it was planned to be a pyramid from the outset.[32] The conversion
(P1) encased the mastaba (M3) extending its length by 5.76  m (19  ft; 11  cu) on each axis giving it a base
length of 85.5 m (281 ft; 163 cu) by 77 m (253 ft; 147 cu).[18][33] The alteration from mastaba to pyramid
came with a shift in construction.[18] The builders used larger and better quality, roughly dressed limestone
blocks – but instead of horizontal beds, they built successive inclined accretion layers 2–3  m (6.6–9.8  ft)
thick.[16][34] These leaned on each other from opposite ends providing greater stability preventing a
collapse.[34] The whole was then cased in fine white limestone with a layer of packing in between.[16] This
phase of the pyramid had four steps that rose to a height of 42 m (138 ft; 80 cu).[18] The decision was then
made to expand the pyramid north and west from four to six steps (P1') which was then finished with a final
layer of limestone casing (P2) that gave the pyramid its final form. On completion the step pyramid had a
base length of 109 m (358 ft; 208 cu) by 121 m (397 ft; 231 cu) that rose to a height of 60–62.5 m (197–
205 ft; 115–119 cu) and occupied a volume of 330,400 m3 (11,670,000 cu ft).[2][18][35]

Much of the rock for the pyramid was likely quarried from the construction of the great trench.[36] It is widely
accepted that ramps would have been used to raise heavy stone to construct the pyramid, and many plausible
models have been suggested.[37] For transport, apparatuses like rollers were used in which the heavy stone
could be placed and then rolled.[38]

Developmental phases of Djoser's step pyramid[39]

Mastaba M1 Mastaba M2 Mastaba M3 Pyramid P1 Pyramid P1' Pyramid P2

71.5 m 108 m
77 m (253 ft;
(235 ft; (354 ft; 109 m (358 ft;
71.5 m 147 cu)
Base 63 m (207 ft; 136 cu) 206 cu) 208 cu)
(235 ft; 85.5 m
dimensions 120 cu) 79.5 m 120 m 121 m (397 ft;
136 cu) (281 ft;
(261 ft; (394 ft; 231 cu)
163 cu)
152 cu) 229 cu)
8.4 m (28 ft; 60 m (197 ft;
60 m (197 ft;
8.4 m (28 ft; 16 cu) 115 cu)
115 cu)
8.4 m (28 ft; 16 cu) ~7.75 m 42 m (138 ft; to
Height to
16 cu) ~7.75 m (25 ft; 15 cu) 80 cu) 62.5 m
62.5 m (205 ft;
(25 ft; 15 cu) ~6.25 m (205 ft;
119 cu)
(21 ft; 12 cu) 119 cu)

0.5 m (1.6 ft)
Masonry 0.3 m 0.3 m 0.3 m 0.38 m 0.38 m
to
blocks (0.98 ft) (0.98 ft) (0.98 ft) (1.2 ft) (1.2 ft)
0.52 m (1.7 ft)

Volume 330,400 m3
(11,670,000 cu ft)

Method of Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Inclined Inclined

Inclined layers
construction beds beds beds layers layers
Number of
– – – 4 6 6
steps

Pyramid substructure
Under the step pyramid is a labyrinth of tunneled chambers and galleries that total nearly 6 km in length and
connect to a central shaft 7 m square and 28 m deep.[40] These spaces provide room for the king's burial, the
burial of family members, and the storage of goods and offerings. The entrance to the 28 m shaft was built on
the north side of the pyramid, a trend that would remain throughout the Old Kingdom. The sides of the
underground passages are limestone inlaid with blue faience tile to replicate reed matting. These "palace
façade" walls are further decorated by panels decorated in low relief that show the king participating in the
Heb-sed.[36] Together these chambers constitute the funerary apartment that mimicked the palace and would
serve as the living place of the royal ka. On the east side of the pyramid, eleven shafts 32  m deep were
constructed and annexed to horizontal tunnels for royal family members. These were incorporated into the
pre-existing substructure as it expanded eastward. In the storerooms along here over 40,000 stone vessels
were found, many of which predate Djoser.[9] These would have served Djoser's visceral needs in the
afterlife. An extensive network of underground galleries was located to the north, west and south of the
central burial chamber and crude horizontal magazines were carved into these.[10]

Burial chamber

The burial chamber was a vault constructed of four courses of well-dressed granite. It had one opening,
which was sealed with a 3.5 ton block after the burial.[8] No body was recovered as the tomb had been
extensively robbed. Lauer believes that a burial chamber of alabaster existed before the one of granite. He
found interesting evidence of limestone blocks with five pointed stars in low relief that were likely on the
ceiling, indicating the first occurrence of what would become a tradition.[10] The king sought to associate
himself with the eternal North Stars that never set so as to ensure his rebirth and eternity.[41]

Pyramid complex
Djoser's Step Pyramid complex included several structures pivotal to
its function in both life and the afterlife. A pyramid was not simply a
grave in ancient Egypt. Its purpose was to facilitate a successful
afterlife for the king so that he could be eternally reborn. The
symbolism of the step pyramid form, which did not survive beyond
the 3rd Dynasty, is unknown, but it has been suggested that it may be
a monumental symbol of the crown, especially the royal mortuary
cult, since seven small step pyramids (that were not tombs) were built
in the provinces.[9] Another well accepted theory is that it facilitated
the king's ascension to join the eternal North Star.[38]

The main modern excavator of the Step Pyramid was Jean-Philippe

Lauer, a French architect who reconstructed key portions of the
complex. The complex covers 15 ha (37 acres) and is about 2.5 times
as large as the Old Kingdom town of Hierakonpolis.[9] Several Entry hall. Step Pyramid Complex,
features of the complex differ from those of later Old Kingdom Saqqara.
pyramids. The pyramid temple is situated at the north side of the
pyramid, whereas in later pyramids it is on the east side. Also, the
Djoser complex is built on a north–south axis, whereas later complexes utilize an east–west axis.
Furthermore, the Djoser complex has one niched enclosure wall, whereas later pyramids have two enclosure
walls with the outside one being smooth and the inside one sometimes niched.[10]

Great trench
Before the enclosure wall, Djoser's pyramid complex is
surrounded by a trench dug into the underlying rock. At 750 m
(2,460  ft; 1,430  cu) long and 40  m (130  ft; 76  cu) wide, the
trench is the largest structure of this kind in the Memphis
necropolis. It is rectangular in shape, oriented on the north–south
axis. The trench resembles a 𓉔 (hieroglyph h) which represents
the floorplan of a house. It is decorated with niches which are
suggested by Nabil Swelim to have hosted the spirits of
members of the king's court, there to serve the king in his
afterlife. In parts, the trench doubles into two with distinct
entries. These make accessing the enclosure wall more difficult,
Temples of the festival complex.
indicating its function as a safe-guard. Miroslav Verner suspects
that a single entrance was built at the south-east corner granting
access to the area.[42]

Enclosure wall

The complex is enclosed by a wall 10.5 m (34 ft) high that stretched for over 1.6 km (0.99 mi). This wall was
built from a thick core of masonry that was encased with Tura limestone, wholly on the outside but partially
on the inside.[43] The external façade of the wall had a bastion at a regular interval of 4.1 m (13 ft) adorned
with 1,680 hand-carved niches 9 m (30 ft) tall.[16][44] Fourteen of these bastions were larger than the rest.
These hosted false double-doors, while a fifteenth situated in the south-east corner of the east façade held the
real entrance.[44][45] The entrance was flanked by two towers leading to a passage past which lay the
colonnaded entrance.[44]

The enclosure wall design recalls the appearance of First Dynasty tombs, such as those found directly north
of the complex and at Abydos.[44][46][47] Alan Spencer compares the design to the panelled construction of
the palace façade, which imitates bound bundles of reeds.[46] Jean-Philippe Lauer suggests that the wall was
modelled after the 'White Walls' of Memphis, though Verner notes that the presence of so many doors renders
this unlikely.[44][45] Hermann Kees thought the fifteen doors were related to the sed festival and indicated its
duration as being half a lunar month.[45] The remaining doors are known as false doors, and were meant for
the king's use in the afterlife. They functioned as portals through which the king's ka could pass between life
and the afterlife.[48]
 Enclosure wall of the step Entrance corridor facing The bastions with hand-
pyramid complex towards the desert carved recesses

Entrance colonnade

The entrance colonnade led from the enclosure wall to the south court of the complex.[49] It comprises two
distinct passageways oriented approximately east–west.[b] The first is a narrow 1.05 m (3.4 ft) wide by 6 m
(20  ft) long corridor cut into the enclosure walls bastion.[51] The ceiling blocks here were carved into the
shape of tree trunks.[45] This is followed by a wider corridor flanked by 40 limestone columns, arranged in
pairs, that fronted projecting walls, which formed alcoves.[45][51][52] The columns were each nearly 6  m
(20 ft) tall[45] and were fashioned to resemble bundled reeds[51][53] that had between seventeen and nineteen
ribs.[52] They supported a limestone ceiling whose blocks carved again into the form of palm tree
trunks.[45][51] There are 24 alcoves which are suggested to have held statues of the king or perhaps, because
of their number, a double statue of the king and a nome deity. Such statues are present in the monuments of
the Fourth Dynasty, but no trace of them has been uncovered at Djoser's complex.[45][52] The end walls of
the alcoves had slits cut into them near the ceiling thus allow light to filter in.[54] Near the beginning of the
colonnade, at its eastern end, is a corridor which leads to the heb-sed court.[55] Between the twelfth and
thirteenth alcove[56] is a 'transverse vestibule' with a passage flanked by eight 5 m (16 ft) tall columns and
cross-walls leading to a sanctuary.[50][57] Lauer believes this chamber contained a statue of Djoser on a
pedestal that bore his name and Imhotep's titles.[51] The torso and base of this statue were found in the
entrance colonnade.[19] The west wall of the entrance colonnade has the form of an open door which leads
into the south court.[57]
 Entrance Entrance colonnade of the Colonnaded corridor
step pyramid complex leading into the complex
proper

South court

The south court is a large court between the south tomb and the pyramid. Within the court are curved stones
thought to be territorial markers associated with the Heb-sed festival, an important ritual completed by
Egyptian kings (typically after 30 years on the throne) to renew their powers.[9] These would have allowed
Djoser to claim control over all of Egypt,[9] while its presence in the funerary complex would allow Djoser to
continue to benefit from the ritual in the afterlife.[41] At the southern end of the court was a platform
approached by steps. It has been suggested that this was a platform for the double throne. This fits into the
theory proposed by Barry Kemp, and generally accepted by many, that suggests the whole step pyramid
complex symbolizes the royal palace enclosure and allows the king to eternally perform the rituals associated
with kingship.[41] At the very south of the South Court lay the South Tomb.

South tomb

The south tomb has been likened to the satellite pyramids of later
dynasties, and has been proposed to house the ka in the afterlife.
Another proposal is that it may have held the canopic jar with the
king's organs, but this does not follow later trends where the
canopic jar is found in the same place as the body. These
proposals stem from the fact that the granite burial vault is much
too small to have facilitated an actual burial.[10]

The substructure of the south tomb is entered through a tunnel-like

corridor with a staircase that descends about 30 m before opening
Relief of Djoser facing the temple of
up into the pink granite burial chamber. The staircase then
Horus of Behedet (modern Edfu) in a
continues east and leads to a gallery that imitates the blue
blue faience chamber of the south tomb
chambers below the step pyramid.[40]

Current evidence suggests that the south tomb was finished before
the pyramid. The symbolic king's inner palace, decorated in blue faience, is much more complete than that of
the pyramid. Three chambers of this substructure are decorated in blue faience to imitate reed-mat facades,
just like the pyramid.[10] One room is decorated with three finely niche reliefs of the king, one depicting him
running the Heb-sed.[9] Importantly, Egyptian builders chose to employ their most skilled artisans and depict
their finest art in the darkest, most inaccessible place in the complex. This highlights the fact that this
impressive craftsmanship was not meant for the benefit of the living but was meant to ensure the king had all
the tools necessary for a successful afterlife.[10]

North temple and serdab court

The northern (funerary/mortuary) temple was on the north side of the pyramid and faced the north stars,
which the king wished to join in eternity. This structure provided a place in which the daily rituals and
offerings to the dead could be performed, and was the cult center for the king. To the east of the temple is the
serdab, which is a small enclosed structure that housed the ka statue. The king's ka inhabited the ka statue, in
order to benefit from daily ceremonies like the opening of the mouth, a ceremony that allowed him to breathe
and eat, and the burning of incense. He witnessed these ceremonies through two small eye holes cut in the
north wall of the serdab.[41] This temple appeared on the north side of the pyramid throughout the Third
Dynasty, as the king wished to go north to become one of the eternal stars in the North Sky that never set.[40]
In the Fourth Dynasty, when there was a religious shift to an emphasis on rebirth and eternity achieved
through the sun, the temple was moved to the east side of the pyramid, where the sun rises, so that through
association the king may be reborn every day.[40]

Heb-sed court

The Heb-sed court is rectangular and parallel to the South Courtyard.

It was meant to provide a space in which the king could perform the
Heb-sed ritual in the afterlife.[10] Flanking the east and west sides of
the court are the remains of two groups of chapels, many of which
are dummy buildings, of three different architectural styles. At the
north and south ends there are three chapels with flat roofs and no
columns.[58] The remaining chapels on the west side are decorated
with fluted columns and capitals flanked by leaves.[40] Each of the
chapels has a sanctuary accessed by a roofless passage with walls that In the foreground are chapels on the
depict false doors and latches. Some of these buildings have niches west side of the Heb-Sed Court. In
for statues. Egyptologists believe that these buildings were related to the background the step pyramid is
the important double coronation of the king during the Heb-sed.[58] visible.

See also
Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
List of Egyptian pyramids

Notes
a. There is direct evidence for some of these stages, though others remain hypothetical in nature
as confirming or disproving them would require dismantling the pyramid.[21]
b. The corridor is oriented slightly to the south-west.[50]

Citations
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 2. Verner 2001d, p. 461.
3. Lehner 2008, p. 17.
4. Hawkes, Jacquetta (1974). Atlas of Ancient Archaeology (https://archive.org/details/atlasofanci
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15. Verner 2001d, p. 109.
16. Lehner 2008, p. 84.
17. Edwards 1993, p. 34.
18. Lauer 1962, p. 73.
19. Verner 2001d, p. 114.
20. Verner 2001d, pp. 110 & 114.
21. Edwards 1993, p. 35.
22. Verner 2001d, pp. 114–115.
23. Lauer 1962, p. 69.
24. Lauer 1962, p. 70.
25. Edwards 1993, pp. 35–36.
26. Lauer 1962, p. 71.
27. Edwards 1993, pp. 38–39, fig. 7:7.
28. Lauer 1962, pp. 71–72.
29. Lauer 1962, p. 72.
30. Verner 2001d, pp. 116–117.
31. Verner 2001d, p. 116.
32. Verner 2001d, p. 117.
33. Edwards 1993, p. 36.
34. Lauer 1962, pp. 73–74.
35. Lehner 2008, p. 16.
36. Dick Parry, Engineering the Pyramids (Phoenix: Sutton Publishing Limited, 2004), 14
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38. Martin Isler, Sticks, Stones, and Shadows: Building the Egyptian Pyramids (Norman:
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40. Miroslav Verner, The Pyramids (New York: Grove Press, 1998), 105–139.
41. Gay Robins, The Art of Ancient Egypt (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 40–45.
42. Verner 2001d, pp. 110–111.
43. Edwards 1993, pp. 50–51.
44. Edwards 1993, p. 51.
45. Verner 2001d, p. 112.
46. Spencer 1993, pp. 98–99.
47. Robins 1997, p. 40.
48. Siliotti & Hawass 1997, pp. 105–113.
49. Bard 2015, p. 142, fig. 6.2.
50. Verner 2001d, p. 113.
51. Lauer 1999, p. 861.
52. Edwards 1993, p. 47.
53. Bard 2015, p. 143.
54. Edwards 1993, pp. 47–48.
55. Edwards 1993, p. 46.
56. Lauer 1962, p. 111.
57. Edwards 1993, p. 48.
58. A. J. Spencer, Early Egypt: The Rise of Civilization in the Nile Valley (London: British Museum
Press, 1993), 98–110.

References
Bard, Kathryn (2015) [2008]. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (second ed.).
West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-470-67336-2.
Edwards, Iorwerth (1993) [1975]. The pyramids of Egypt. Baltimore: Harmondsworth.
ISBN 978-0-14-020168-0.
Lauer, Jean-Philippe (1962). Histoire Monumentale des Pyramides d'Égypte : Les Pyramides
á Dégres (IIIe Dynastie). Vol. 1. Le Caire: Imprimerie de l'Institut français d'archéologie
orientale. OCLC 18402034 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/18402034).
Lauer, Jean-Philippe (1999). "Saqqara, pyramids of the 3rd Dynasty". In Bard, Kathryn (ed.).
Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaarc
h00bard). London; New York: Routledge. pp. 859 (https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaarch
00bard/page/n149)–865. ISBN 978-0-203-98283-9.
Lehner, Mark (2008). The Complete Pyramids. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-
500-28547-3.
Robins, Gay (1997). The Art of Ancient Egypt (https://archive.org/details/artofancientegyp00rob
i). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-04660-9.
Siliotti, Alberto; Hawass, Zahi (1997). Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt. New York: Barnes and
Noble Books. ISBN 0760756171.
 Spencer, Alan (1993). Early Egypt: The Rise of Civilization in the Nile Valley. London: British
Museum Press. ISBN 9780714109749.
Verner, Miroslav (2001d). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture and Science of Egypt's Great
Monuments (https://archive.org/details/pyramidscomplete00vern). New York: Grove Press.
ISBN 978-0-8021-1703-8.

External links
Virtual exploration of the colonnade (https://my.matterport.com/show/?m=zBpDdPqxTKz&fbcli
d=IwAR0C1P60Au1oeoVQEErdky5CW5ALlAksy34DvqDf4uPBg_EbaaJfgfheyTk)
Virtual exploration of the southern entrance of the Step Pyramid (https://my.matterport.com/sho
w/?m=vKmQTWhYD8u&sr=-2.92,.76&ss=15&play=1)
Virtual exploration of the burial chamber (https://my.matterport.com/show/?m=YjEZoGY4urw&
sr=-.28,.71&ss=6&play=1)

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