Part three

Space environment effects: Design and usage of satellites and

spacecraft, Space radiation effects

3. Space Environment Classification, Interactions, and Effects

3.1 Classification

1) The neutral environment; includes the ambient gas released from spacecraft
surface materials through outgassing or decomposition (decay in some
components/ sputtering).
2) The plasma environment; includes the ambient plasma created by ionization
with the neutral gas.
3) The particulate environment: orbital debris, meteoroids, and particulates
released by spacecraft.

4) The radiation environment:

a-Electromagnetic radiation: includes the ambient solar proton flux,
electromagnetic interference generated by the operation of spacecraft systems or
arcing, and
electromagnetic waves generated by the plasma environment .
b-Corpuscular/ (group of particulation) radiation: Flux/ flow of particles
(electrons, protons, heavy ions, and neutrons) + High energy particles

The distribution of these environmental components with the variation of the orbits
is written as seen in table (a), while the components of the environment in the
overall different orbits and altitude are given as table (b).
 Table (a): the orbits of the environmental classification

Table (b): Description of the environmental components

Interaction of space environment with space systems

Space systems and subsystems
 Power System (Batteries –Solar cells and modules)
 Propulsion System
 Attitude control System
 Structures
  Thermal control system
 Communications system (High-gain antenna)
 Payload
 Electronic subsystem
 Scientific instruments

Interaction mechanism
Due to the interaction of the components of space environment with any space systems, the
following scenario can be occurred;
- Single event upsets (disturbed and sudden particle) (Change of state due to
transient effect)
Single event effect

- In this case, the radiation induced observable effect in microelectronics circuits caused
by a single charged particle losing energy by ionization in a small sensitive target. This
is leading to;

o Current pulse or a continuous current path created

o Noise in microchannel plate detector

- Surface and internal charging(plasma and energetic particles)

- Radiation Hazards (solar/ cosmic, flare, alpha and Gamma rays, energetic
protons, electrons)

Environmental effects
Major and more important effects due to the interaction of space environment with the spacecraft
and any of space systems are;
- penetrate from debris
- Interference from solar flare particles
- Radiation damage of electronic and sensitive space systems
- Degradation from radiation belt particles
- Charging/ discharging from energetic plasma

Charging mechanism and plasma effects

The spacecraft will charge to some voltage with respect to the surrounding plasma such
that all of these currents sum to zero.
The basic equation expressing the current balance for a uniformly conducting spacecraft
at equilibrium is written in the form’

where:
- Vs = surface potential relative to the plasma; all currents are functions of surface
potential.
- Inet = total current from the spacecraft surface
- Ie = incident electron current on spacecraft surface
- Ii = incident ion current on spacecraft surface
- Ise = low energy secondary electron current due to Ie (electron impact)
- Isi = secondary electron current due to Ii (ion impact)
- Ibse = backscattered electron current due to Ie
- Iph = photoelectron current due to solar UV.
This is usually dominant counter charging current in sunlight
- Ib = particle beams, ion thrusters, and other active current sources
- Is = surface current via material resistively

The total net current from the spacecraft (balance condition) must be equal to zero, i.e.

I net (V s )  0
- This mechanism of charging is seen as the figure below.

Such charging has long been considered a hazard in high-altitude orbits where the

thermal plasma (with energies generally less than 1 eV) is relatively weak. During geo-

magnetic events such as substorms, the flux of high-energy electrons can be significantly

larger than the flux of thermal electrons and the outer layers of the spacecraft can charge

to significant voltages.

Two hazardous charging phenomena are known as

Surface charging, caused by energetic electrons with energies less than about 100 keV,

and deep dielectric charging, caused by electrons with energies greater than about 500

keV. Such charging can lead to discharges within and on the surfaces of the outer

spacecraft layers such as thermal blankets and solar arrays that can cause significant

damage and spacecraft anomalies.

Space Plasma Interactions with Spacecraft dielectric Materials

- When a solid dielectric interacts with plasma, it is subject to a number of different

destructive and non-destructive processes. A charged particle impinging on a surface with
 sufficient energy will penetrate the surface and lose energy into the bulk of the

material. The deposition of this kinetic energy will result in electronic and vibrational

excitations. If sufficient energy is deposited into a single bond to excite it beyond its

dissociation energy, the chemical bond can be broken.

- i) Massive particles such as heavy ions will impart large amounts of ballistic energy
over a relatively small depth, displacing nuclei in the solid, exciting phonons, and

vibrational transitions sufficient to break any chemical bond.

- ii) A less massive particle such as an electron can be expected to deposit energy
primarily in the form of electronic excitation. Sufficient electronic energy deposition will

also break bonds, but the damage will be deposited over a longer trajectory and the

chemical damage will be more bond-selective.

- iii) Ions, electrons, and photons incident on a surface will also eject secondary
electrons, initiating charge imbalance near the surface.

Near earth plasma effects on spacecraft

- In case of low orbital environment (near earth orbit|) (LEO), the spacecraft and vehicles
may pass through dense plasma with low-energy. These spacecraft are negatively

charged, and resulted from orbital velocity. This velocity is higher than thermal

velocity the ions nevertheless slower than the thermal velocity of electrons.

Consequently, electrons are capable to impact all surfaces, while the ions just impact the

ram surfaces. The LEO spacecrafts could be charged to thousands of volts.

 - In the LEO plasma, the operation of solar array with higher voltage can also produce the
parasitical current power exhaust on the electrical system. The main problem

accomplished of a highly voltage solar array with the exposure on the surrounded

plasma is the discharging and arcs occurred on the conductor-dielectric junctions.

- Discharges can cause serious physical damaging to spacecraft surfaces. The changeable
in physical characteristics, heating and degrading in material structures

Criteria and mechanism of internal charging

a) Charge builds up: when charge leakage rate < charge collection rate

b) Discharge occurs when electric field > 2x105 V/cm

• Electrons >100 keV penetrate into and are trapped in isolated parts (highly insulating

dielectrics)

Important theory:

The Local time distribution of internal charging anomalies different from surface charging

anomalies reflecting. This is interpreted as;

The capacitor plate equation

 1  exp  t /  
V (t ) J
E (t ) 
d 

  relaxation time

  dielectric conductivi ty
  dielectric permittivi ty

J/ε > dielectric strength  discharge

High-density of (lower-energy) electrons (LEO)  large J

High-energy (lower-density) electrons (GEO)  high V

Examples for plasma conditions and properties are tabulated and given in the following table as

shown below;