Ray Optics (Note 2020) 2

RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL DISHA
INSTRUMENTS PU College of Science, Kalaburagi
Introduction
OPTICS: -
It is a branch of physics, which deals with the study of nature, sources,
properties and effects of light, is known as optics.
Generally optics divided into three branches, i.e.
1. Geometrical optics 2. Physical optics and 3. Quantum optics.
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS: - It treats the propagation of light in terms of rays.

Here it is assumed that light travels in a straight line. It concerns with the image
formation. It deals with the study of laws of reflection, refraction, rectilinear
propagation of light. It will be studied with the help of rays of light, which indicates
the path of propagation of light. So it is also known as ray optics. Ray optics deals
with optics phenomenon without consideration the nature of light.
PHYSICAL OPTICS: - It deals with the nature of light and its propagation. In
fact, the laws of physical optics are more accurate than those of geometrical optics. It
deals with phenomena that depend on the wave nature of light, e.g. interference,
diffraction and polarization. It is also known as wave optics.
QUANTUM OPTICS: - It deals with the interaction of light with matter.
LIGHT: - Light is a form of energy, which stimulates the sense of sight.

Light by itself is not visible, but objects are rendered visible when light
scattered by them enters the eye. In fact, a beam of light is recognized by
the dust particles it illuminates and in the absence of dust particles, the
beam cannot be recognized.
To explain the nature of light so many theories are given, such as Newton’s
corpuscular theory of light, Huygen’s wave theory, Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave
theory, Max Planck’s Quantum theory etc.
Light shows dual nature i.e. particle &wave nature. Its speed is 3x108ms-1 in vacuum.
SOURCES OF LIGHT: -
Self-luminous: - A source, which emits the light of its own, is called as self-
luminous source of light.
E.g. The sun, stars, candle flames, electric lamp etc.
Non - luminous: - A body which does not produce its own light, but reflects light
coming from a self-luminous source is called as non-luminous source of light.
E.g. The moon, planets, stone, book etc.
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Transparent bodies: - Bodies that allow light to pass through them, i.e. transmits
light through them so that we can see objects on the other side very clearly are called
transparent bodies.
E.g. glass, water, etc.
Translucent bodies: - Bodies that can transmit only a part of light through them are
called translucent bodies. It is difficult to see objects through them.
E.g. oiled paper, frosted glass, paraffin wax, fiber sheets etc.
Opaque bodies: - Bodies that do not allow light to pass through them at all are said
to be opaque. Objects cannot be seen through such bodies.
E.g. stone, wood, book, etc
Optical medium: - Any space comprised by matter or not, through which light
propagates is called an optical medium.
Homogenous medium: - A medium, in which the properties of light remains same
at every point in the medium. Its density is same at all points in it, in such medium
light travels in a straight line.
Heterogeneous medium: - A medium, in which the speed of light has different

values in different direction.
E.g. air, quartz, crystalline substances etc.
Isotropic medium: - An optical medium is isotropic, if the speed of light has same in
all direction.
E.g. glass, water, benzene etc.
An-isotropic medium: - An optical medium is an-isotropic, if the speed of light has
different values in different direction.
E.g. quartz crystal etc.
Principle of reversibility: - It states that the path of ray of light in any phenomenon,
which light exhibits, is completely reversible.
Rectilinear propagation of light: - In a homogenous isotropic medium, light travels

in a straight line. This property is known as rectilinear propagation of light.
It is established by the action of the pinhole camera and by the formation of

shadow and eclipses. A pinhole camera consists of a rectangular box with small hole
at one end and a translucent screen at the other end. A lightened candle is placed in
front of the hole H. an inverted image of the flame is formed on the screen showing
that light travels in straight line. If the size of the hole is increased, a brighter but
blurred image is formed.
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Reflection of light
Definition: -
When light fall on the surface of an object, a part of it is sent back in to the
same medium from which it is coming. This phenomenon is known as the reflection
of light.
A C B
i r
X O Y
• A surface which reflects light is called mirror (i.e. XY)

• A ray of light that, which falls on the object (mirror) is called as incident ray.(i.e.
AO)
• A ray of light that, which is sent back into the same medium from surface of the
object is called as reflected ray (i.e. OB)
• A line which is perpendicular drawn on the object surface or reflecting surface at
a point of incident is called as normal (i. e. OC)
• A point where incident ray, reflected ray, normal are meeting is known as point
of incidence
Laws of reflections:- There are two laws of reflection,

I - law of reflection:-
During reflection, the incident ray, reflected ray, the normal at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane.
II - law of reflection: -
During reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
Regular reflection: -
Consider a plane smooth surface. If a beam of parallel ray incident on such a surface,
the reflected beam will also have parallel; such a reflection is called regular reflection
or specular reflection.
Irregular reflection: -
If a surface has irregular or rough, then a beam of parallel light ray incident
on it, will not emerge a parallel beam after reflection i.e. it scattered in all
direction, called as diffused or irregular reflection.
Properties of image formed by a Plane Mirror:-
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The image formed by plane mirror is,

1. It is virtual, erect, same size and as far behind the mirror as the source is in front
of it. (fig-1)
2. It is laterally inverted.
PR Яϥ
3. When two plane mirrors are kept in contact inclined at an angle 

with an object at the bisector, then the number of images N is given by,
360 360
1] N = (if N is odd) 2] N = − 1 (if N is even)
 
Real and virtual object: -

Real object: - If rays of light from an object falling on the mirror are diverging, then
the object is a real object.
Virtual object: - If rays of light from an object falling on the mirror are converging,
then the rays of light meet at a point if the mirror is absent. Such a point is called as
virtual object.
Real image: - If rays of light from a point on an object after reflection actually
converge to a point, the image is real. Holding a screen can see such an image. A real
image is inverted.
Virtual image: - If rays from a point on an object after reflection do not actually meet
but only appear to diverge from a point, then the image is virtual.
Since the rays do not actually meet, the image cannot be caught on a screen. In
other words, no screen is required to see a virtual image. A virtual image is erect.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS: -

What is a curved(spherical) mirror? Explain the types of spherical mirrors.
Answer: A mirror whose reflecting surface forms a part of the hollow sphere is called
spherical mirror.
Spherical mirrors are of two types: Concave mirror and convex mirror.
Concave mirror: A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of
the sphere of which the mirror forms a part is called concave mirror.
Convex mirror: A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is away from the centre
of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part is called convex mirror.
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Aperture - the surface area of mirror, which is available for reflection.

Pole - It is a geometrical center of the reflecting surface of the spherical mirror
Center of curvature - It is a center of imaginary sphere of which the given mirror is a
part.
Radius of curvature - the distance between pole and center of curvature of a mirror
is called as radius of curvature.
principal axis - the line passing through the pole and the center of curvature of the
mirror is called the principal axis of the mirror.
Principal focus - The narrow beam of parallel rays close to the principal axis incident
on the mirror. After reflection either converges at a point or appears to diverge from
a point on the principal axis, is called as principle focus.
focal length - the distance between the pole and principle focus of the given mirror
is called as focal length of the mirror.
Sign conventions: -
1. All the distances are measured from pole of the mirror along the principal axis.
2. The distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken to be positive
and opposite to the direction of incident ray are taken to be negative.
3. The distances measured in the upward direction normal to the principle axis are
taken to be positive and downwards are taken to be negative.
focal length of spherical mirrors: -
Focus of a (a) concave and (b) convex mirror.

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The relation between radius of curvature and focal length of given concave mirror
for real image.
Consider a concave mirror of small aperture APB of pole P, centre of curvature C,
focal length ‘f’. Consider OM is the paraxial light incident on the mirror at M, after
reflection it will pass through focus F. Draw a dotted line CM as normal.
From fig. <OMC = < CMF = θ

Now, <OMC = < PCM = θ (alternate angles)
From ∆le PCM
MP
tan  = . Here θ is very small
PC
MP
∴ tan  =  = ---------[1]
PC
From fig.  MFP = 2 θ , which is very small.
MP
 tan 2 = 2 = -------[2]
PF
Comparing equation 1 and 3, we get
MP MP
2 = , here PR = R (radius of curvature and PF = f ( focal length of mirror)
PC PF
2 1
 = OR R = 2f
R f
The Mirror equation:-

Case – 1: Concave mirror producing real image.
Consider a small aperture concave mirror of pole P, centre of curvature C and
principle focus F as shown in fig. An erect object AB placed on principle axis beyond
C. A incident ray of light from A parallel to principle axis falls on mirror at M, after
reflection it passes through principle focus F. another incident ray from A incident at
pole P and get reflected along the PA’. both reflected rays meet at point A’, where
A’B’ gives the image of object AB.
∆ABP and ∆A’B’P are similar triangle , using similar triangle property,
AB PB
 = ----------[1]
A ' B ' PB '
∆MPF and ∆A’B’F are similar triangle ,
using property of similar triangle,
MP PF
 = from fig. AB = MP
A ' B ' FB '
AB PF
 = ----------[2]
A ' B ' FB '
Equating eqn 1 and 2 , we get,
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PB PF
 = -----------[3]
PB ' FB '
Applying Cartesian sign convention,
we have PB = -u, PB’ = -v, PF = -f and FB’ = -(v – f)
So equation [3] becomes,
−u −f
 =
− v − (v − f )
uv –uf = vf
dividing both sides by uvf, we get
uv uf vf 1 1 1 1 1 1
− =  − =  = +
uvf ufv uvf f v u f u v
Linear Magnification: - the ratio of the linear size of the image to the linear size of
the object is called magnification. It is denoted by ‘m’
linear size of image image dist [v] v
m= = m = −
linear size of object object dist [u ] u
Some other forms

hi v f f −v
1] m = =− 2] m = 3] m =
ho u f −u v
h v f −v f
Note: Magnification produced by a spherical mirror is: m = =− = =
h u f f −u
Concave mirror producing virtual image.
Convex mirror producing virtual image.
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Note Distinguish between concave mirror and convex mirror.

Concave mirror Convex mirror
1.Reflecting surface is towards the centre of 1. Reflecting surface is away from the
curvature. centre of curvature.
2. It has real principal focus. 2. It has virtual principal focus.
3. It is called converging mirror. 3. It is called diverging mirror.
4. It forms real as well as virtual image. 4. It always forms virtual image.
5. It produces erect as well as inverted 5. It always produces erect image.
image.
6.It produces diminished as well as 6. It always produces diminished
magnified image. image.
Note Nature of the image formed by the concave mirror

Position of the
Position of the object Nature of the image
image
At the principal Real, inverted and Greatly
1 At ∞
focus (F) diminished
Beyond centre of
2 Between C and F Real, inverted and Diminished
curvature (C)
3 At C At C Real, inverted and same size
4 Between C and F Beyond C Real, inverted and magnified
Real, inverted and Greatly
5 At F At ∞
magnified
6 Between F and P (pole) Behind the mirror Virtual, erect and Magnified
Nature of the image formed by convex mirror.
Virtual, erect and Greatly
1 At ∞ At F
diminished
At any point between ∞ Behind the mirror
2 Virtual, erect and Diminished
and P between F and P
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
What is refraction of light? State the laws of
refraction.
“The phenomenon of bending of a ray of light when it
passes obliquely from one medium into another is
called refraction of light.”
OR
The phenomenon of change in the direction of path of light when it
goes from one medium to another optical density medium is called refraction of light
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Where:
n1 = RI of the first medium .
n2 = RI of the second medium .
i = Angle of incidence. r = Angle of refraction .
d = Angle of deviation.
When the ray of light falls obliquely on the interface of two homogenous media, it
changes the direction of its path at the interface itself.
• When it travels from optically rarer medium to denser medium, it bends towards
the normal, hence i > r
• When it travels from optically denser medium to rarer medium, it bends away
from the normal, hence i <r
• The deviation suffered by the refracted ray is given by the angle, d = ( i – r )
• The ray traveling along the normal is not refracted i.e. it proceeds un-deviated
into the second medium.
LAWS OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT: -

There are two laws of refractions,
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of
incidence lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction ( r )
is constant for the given pair of medium for a given wavelength of light.
This law also known as Snell’s law.
sin .i
The ratio is a constant for a given pair of media ‘1’ and ‘2’. This constant is
sin .r
called as refractive index of the medium ‘2’ with respective the medium ‘1’. It is
represented by the symbol 1n2 .
sin i
 = 1n2
sin r
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Absolute refractive index:-The refractive index of a denser medium with respective

air or vacuum is called as absolute refractive index.
The ratio of the velocity of light in air or vacuum ( c ) to the velocity of light in a
medium (v) can gives the absolute refractive index of the medium. It is simply
denoted by ‘n’ or ‘  ’.
c
n=
v
Relative refractive index:- The refractive index of the one medium with respective
another medium other than air or vacuum is called as relative refractive index.
When a ray of light travels from medium 1 to the medium 2 (other than air or
vacuum) , then the ratio of velocity of light in a medium 1(V1) to the velocity of light
in a medium 2 (V2 )is called as relative refractive index.
velocity of light in medium1 V
1 n 2= = 1
velocity of light in medium2 V2
Note:-
1. Relative refractive index may be less than or greater than unity, but the absolute
R.I. is always greater than unity.
2. Refractive index for a homogeneous medium is a scalar. It has no unit and no
dimensions. It is a just a number.
3. During refraction, frequency and phase if light does not change while
wavelength and velocity of light change.
n2 > n1
The relation between A.R.I. and R.R.I. :--

Consider a ray of light passes from med-1 to med-2 with velocities V1 and V2 respt.
 The R.R.I. of med-2 with respect to med-1 is as,

v1
1n2 = ---------------[1]
v2
Now, the A.R.I of med-1 and med-2 are given as,

c c
n 1= & n2 =
v1 v2
n2 c v1 v1
= x = ------------[ 2]
n1 v2 c v2
 from eqn. 1 and 2, we get,
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n2
1 n2 =
n1
E.g. if a ray of light travels from water to glass medium, then the R.I, of glass with
respect to water is given as,
ng
w ng =
nw
In general, let i be the angle of incidence in the medium-1 and ‘r’ be the angle of
refraction in the medium-2, then
sin .i n2
1n2 = =
sin .r n1
∴ n 1 sin i = n 2 sin r
In case of refraction through multiple refracting media, since the boundaries are
parallel, i = r
 n sini = constant, where n is the R.I. of the medium & i is the angle of incidence in
the first medium.
Refractive index in terms of wavelength of light :--
If 1 and 2 are the wavelengths of medium-1 and medium-2, then
v1 f 
1n2 = = 1 = 1
v2 f 2 2
Limitation of Snell’s law:-
When a ray of light is incident along the normal on a refracting surface, it
passes un-deviated. i .e. i = 0 & r = 0,then Snell’s law cannot be applied. In such case,
the R.I, of medium may be expressed in terms of velocities or wavelength of light
used.
Lateral shift:-
Definition: the perpendicular distance between the incident ray and the emergent
ray, when the light is incident obliquely on a parallel-sided refracting slab, is called
lateral shift.
t sin(i - r)
 Ls =
cos.r
Special case:-
1. When a ray of light incident normally on a parallel sided slab, then i = 00 &  r = 00
hence Ls = 0. this is the minimum lateral shift.
2. When a ray of light incident parallel to a parallel sided slab, then i =90 0
t
hence  Ls = (sin 900 – r )
cos.r
t
= cos r [∵ sin(90 – r ) = cos r ]
cos.r
 Ls = t. this is the maximum lateral shift.
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Factors on which lateral shift depends on,

1. thickness of the medium [ t ]
2. refractive index of material and surrounding
3. value of angle of incidence
4. wavelength of light used
Normal shift:- Normal shift is defined as, the distance through which an object
appears to be shifted when an object placed in a one medium is seen from another
medium [ i.e. different Refractive index] observation being made normal to the
surface separating two media.
OR
Normal shift is the apparent shift in the position of object placed in one medium
when viewed along the normal from another medium.
OP = OR, the real depth of the object
IP = IR, the apparent depth of the object
OR real depth
 1n2 = = ------- [1]
IR apparent depth
 for normal shift ( Ns) = real depth – apparent depth
Ns = OR – IR
OR
= OR – 1 n 2 [ from eqn 1 ]
 1 
= OR 1 − 
 1n2 
 1 
Ns = t 1 −  where OR = t , thickness of medium
n
 1 2
The normal shift is depend on,
1. The thickness of refracting medium

2. Refractive index of medium
3. Refractive index of surrounding
4. Wavelength of light used
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Apparent depth for

(a) normal, and (b) oblique viewing
Total Internal Reflection:-
When a ray of light travels from denser medium to rarer medium, it bends away
from the normal. If the angle of incidence is gradually increased, the angle of
refraction becomes more and more.
At a particular value of angle of incidence, the
o
angle of refraction becomes 90 . This angle of
incidence in the denser medium at which the
o
angle of refraction becomes 90 in the rarer
medium is called critical angle. When the
angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle,
the ray is totally reflected back into the denser medium. This phenomenon is called
total internal reflection.
Definition:- When a ray of light traveling in denser medium gets incident at the
interface of the two media at an angle greater than critical angle for that pair of
media, then the reflection of light takes place. This phenomenon is called as total
internal reflection.
Critical angle :- critical angle is that particular angle of incidence in denser medium
for which the angle of refraction in the rarer medium is 900
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Conditions for Total internal reflection:-
1. The incident ray should travel from denser to rarer medium

2. The angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle for the given pair of
medium & for given wavelength of light used.
Relation between refractive index ( n )and critical angle ( C ) :-
According to Snell’s law, Refractive index of rarer medium 1 with respect to denser
medium 2 is 1n2
sini
n =
2 1 sinr
When the ray of light is incident at critical angle for the given pair of media,
 i = C & r = 900 , then the above equation becomes,
sinc
n =
2 1 sin90 0
2n1 = sin C,
n2 1
=
n 1 sin C ,
if rarer medium is air n1 = 1 & n2 = n, then
 1 
 n= 
 sinC 
Note:- Critical angle decreases with the increase of refractive index. The lower the
critical angle, the denser the medium.
 Refractive index of a medium is equal to reciprocal of sine of the critical angle.
Total internal reflection in nature and its technological applications:-
1. Mirage:- An optical illusion caused due to refraction and total internal reflection
in the atmospheric layers is called mirage.
There are two types of mirage I] inferior mirage II] superior mirage
Inferior mirage:- when we are travelling on very hot summer days, we feel that
water is present at some distant place on the road. This is due to optical illusion and
is called inferior mirage.
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2. Looming: An optical illusion caused by atmospheric refraction downward seen in

polar region or over a body of cold water (sea or lake) is called looming.
3. Sparkling of diamond:- the refractive index of diamond is about 2.42 and its
critical angle is about 240. The faces of diamond are suitably cut so that a ray of
light that enters it undergoes a series of total internal reflections before it emerges
out. In addition, the ray also undergoes dispersion, this account for its brilliance.
4. An empty test tube immersed in water appears to be silvery when viewed from
the side at a suitable angle.
OPTICAL FIBRES:-
A British Physicist John Tyndall (1870), demonstrated that light could be

transmitted along a curved path using a water jet. This remarkable idea was
recognized and applied by Kapany and co-workers (1960) in the form of optical
fibres.
An optical fibre is a thin, hair like transparent fibre made of glass or plastic
with refractive index greater than that of the surrounding material. It works on the
principle of total internal reflection.
Construction :-
Buffer
Cladding coating
Core
Structure of optical fibres
Core:- core is made of glass or silica and its diameter is in the range of 10 to 100 µm
and having Refractive index greater than the cladding.
Cladding:- The core is surrounded by glass or plastic known as cladding. Its

thickness is in the range of 100 to 400 µm & Refractive index less than the core.
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Buffer:- Glass is brittle. For providing safety and strength, the core – cladding system
is covered with a plastic coating known as buffer. This also provides optical
insulation when hundreds of fibres are packed into a cable. The Refractive index of
the buffer material is less than that of the cladding.
Working:- Since optical fibres are very thin, any light ray enters the core at one end
of it falls on its surface at a wide angle. This angle of incidence will be greater than
critical angle for the pair of core- cladding. Hence total internal reflection takes
place. Reflected rays fall on the opposite surface again, satisfies the conditions for
total internal reflection, so this process continues through the fibre. Light emerges
finally at the other end of the optical fibre. Since light is transmitted due to multiple
total internal reflection, without loss of energy. Light is trapped inside the fibre, until
it emerges at the other end. Thus, an optical fibre acts as a ‘light tube’. It continues
the process in whatever manner the fibres are bent.
Applications of optical fibres:-
1. Optical fibres are used in communication.

2. In construction of Fibroscope, this is used by doctors to see inner parts of the
body.
3. To transmits the signals and three dimensional pictures.
4. To scan the interiors of the jet engines.
5. Optical sensor fibres are used to measure temperature, pressure and rate of flow
of liquids.
6. Optical fibres are used in medical instruments such as Endoscope, Bronchoscope
and colonoscopy. These are extremely useful for examining hard to reach regions
within the human body.
7. Optical fibre cables are used in smoke and pollution detectors.
8. Conical optic fibre bundles are used to enlarge or diminish optical images.
Applications of optical fibres over conventional metal wire cables:-
1. Optical fibres are small in size, lighter in weight, flexible and cheaper.
2. Optical fibres provide wider bandwidth; an optical cable can transmit 50,000
telephone calls at a time, while a metal cable composed of 900 pairs of wires can
handle only around 10,000 calls at a time.
3. Signal loss is low.
4. Noise level is negligible.
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5. Tapping of signals very difficult, i.e. it is more secure.

6. Its temperature tolerance range is wide between -2500C and 5000C.
Note:- First experimental Optical Fibre Communication System was laid in India in
1970’s, between Shivaji nagar and Cantonment of Pune, the distance being only 4 km.
Application of optical fibres in communication:-

Optical fibres can be replacing the large array of conventional copper cables. Huge
quantities of information in the form of voice signal, video and digital dare can be
rapidly and efficiently transmitted from one place to another. Following are the three
most important components of an optical five communication link.
1. Transmitter:- Converts the given information into optical singles, modulates &
transmits.
2. Communicating medium :- A bundle of optical fibres, which transfer optical
signals from transmitter to receiver.
3. Receiver :- Receivers the optical signals and converts them into the required form.
Total reflecting prism is a right angled isosceles prism made up of glass. In other
words, a prism having an angle of 900 between its two refracting surfaces and the
other two angles each equal to 450 , is called a total reflecting prism. A ray of light
incident normally on any one face of the prism, undergoes total internal reflection
inside the prism.
Total reflecting prism
o
1. Total reflecting prism is used to deviate a ray of light through an angle of 90 .
This action of the prism is used in a Periscope.
2. A total reflecting prism is used to deviate a ray of light through an angle of 1800.
The prism used in this way is called Porro prism.
This action of the prism is used in prism Binocular and Camera.
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3. A total reflecting prism is used to erect the inverted image without deviation.
This action of the prism is used in a Slide projector.
Write the uses of total reflecting prism.

Total reflecting prisms are used:
1. to turn the beam of light through 900 and 1800.
2. to invert the image of an object.
3. in periscope , prism binocular and slide projector.
REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL SURFACE
Spherical refracting surface: -
The portion of refracting medium, whose curved surface forms the part of a sphere, is
called spherical refracting surface.
A small portion of a spherical surface can always be treated as a plane surface. The
laws of refraction that hold good at a plane surface can thus be applied to a spherical
surface.
The spherical refracting surfaces are of two types,
Concave refracting surface & convex refracting surface.
Concave spherical refracting surface: - the spherical refracting surface concave

towards the rarer medium is called as concave spherical refracting surface (fig. 1)
Convex spherical refracting surface: - the spherical refracting surface convex

towards the rarer medium is called as convex spherical refracting surface. (fig. 2)
Some important terms: -

• Aperture: - It is the area of the spherical surface across which refraction taken
place.
• Pole: - The geometric center of the aperture of a given spherical surface is called
as pole.
• Center of curvature: - It is the center of the sphere of which the curved surface
forms a part is
called as its center of curvature. It denoted by ‘C’.
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• Radius of curvature: - The radius of the sphere of which the curved surface forms
a part is called as radius of curvature.
• Principal axis: - The line passing through the pole and center of curvature of the
spherical refracting surface is called as its principle axis.
To study refraction from the spherical refracting surfaces, we make the following
Assumptions:
1. The aperture of the refracting spherical surface is small.

2. The object is a point object situated on principal axis.
3. The incident and refracting rays make small angles with the principle axis.
SIGN CONVENTION: -
1. All the distances are measured from the pole of the refracting surface along the
principle axis.
2. The distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken to be positive
and opposite direction of incident ray are taken as negative.
3. The distances measured upward normal to the principle axis are taken to be
positive and distances downward normal to the principle axis are taken to be
negative
Relation connecting n, u, v, and R for refraction at a spherical surface: -
Consider a convex refracting surface APB of small aperture with P as pole and C as
centre of curvature. A point object O is placed in a rarer medium. A ray of light OP
incident normally along the principal axis of the surface proceeds without deviation.
Another ray OM gets refracted along MI. The two rays after refraction actually meet
at a point I on the principal axis. Therefore, I is the real image of the object O. The
normal N through M to the refracting surface meets at C on the principal axis.
Let:n1 = R.I. of rarer medium (object space).
n2 = = R.I. of denser medium (image space).
PO = u = object distance.
PI = v = image distance.
PC = R = radius of curvature.
i = angle of incidence.
r = angle of refraction.
α, β and γ= small angles made by
incident ray, refracted ray and normal
with the principal axis respectively.
From ∆ MOP:
Physics Page 19
MP
tanα = ------(1)
PO
From ∆ MIP:
MP
tanβ = ------(2)
PI
From ∆MCP:
MP
tanγ = -----------------------(3)
PC
As the aperture of the refracting surface is small, the angles α, β and γ are also
small. Therefore, these angles are replaced by their tangents (tanα= α ,tanβ = β &
tanγ = γ ).
Equations (1), (2) and (3) become:
MP
α= ---------------------(4)
PO
MP
β= -----------------------(5)
PI
MP
γ= -----------------------(6)
PC
From ∆ OMC:
i = α+γ
MP MP
i = + ----------------(7)
PO PC
From ∆ IMC:
r= γ–β
MP MP
r= − ----------------(8)
PC PI
From Snell’s law:
n1sini = n2sinr-------------(9)
Since i and r are small angles, sini = i & sinr = r. Equation (9) becomes :
n1i = n2r--------------------(10)
Substituting i and r from equations (7) and (8) in equation (10),
 MP MP   MP MP 
n1  +  = n2  − 
 PO PC   PC PI 
n1 n n n
+ 1 = 2 − 2
PO PC PC PI
Physics Page 20
n1 n n n
+ 2 = 2 − 1 -----------(11)
PO PI PC PC
According to new Cartesian sign conventions: PO = -u , PI = +v and PC = +R.
Substituting these conventions in equation (11),
n1 n2 n n
+ = 2 − 1
−u + v + R + R
n2 n1 n2 − n1
− = -----------------------(12)
v u R
This is the required equation for refraction at a spherical surface.
Note:
Refractive index of image space Refractive index of object space
−
image distance object distance
Refractive index of image space− Refractive index of object space
=
Radius of curvature
Lenses:
A lens is an optical medium bounded by two surfaces of which at least one is either
spherical or cylindrical.
The lenses commonly used have either two spherical surfaces or one spherical and
one plane surface.
The lenses may be classified into convex lens and concave lens.
Biconvex Plano convex Concavo convex
Biconcave Plano concave Convexo concave

Convex lens: A lens that is thicker in the middle than at the edges is called a convex
lens. They bring together parallel rays of light passing through them at a point &
hence called as converging lens. They includes biconvex, Plano –convex and
converging meniscus lenses.
Concave lens: A lens that is thinner in the middle than at the edges is called a
concave lens. They diverges parallel rays of light so that they appear to come from a
Physics Page 21
point & hence called as diverging lens. They includes biconcave, Plano –concave and
diverging meniscus lenses.
Optic centre: when a ray of light incident on a lens emerges parallel to itself, the
refracted ray intersects the principle axis at a fixed point O inside the lens. This point
O is called as optic centre. It may be noted that the position of optic centre is not
depend upon R.I. of material of lens but it depends upon the radii of curvature, so
optic centre is regarded as a unique point for the lens. A thin lens whose thickness is
very less compared to the radii of curvature of the surface, in such a lens a ray of
light directed towards the optic centre proceeds un-deviated.
Incident light R1→ Positive
C2 R2 O RC2→
1 Negative
R1
(A)
Incident light R1→ Negative
C1 R1 RC2→
2 Positive
O
R2
(B)
Principal focus: The rays of light traveling parallel to the principal axis refracted by a
convex lens, converges at a point on the principal axis & when the rays passing
through concave lens diverges or appear to come from a point. Such point on the
principal axis is called as principal focus. It is denoted by ‘F’.
First principal focus : An object point for which image is formed at infinity.
F1 F1
(A) (B)
Second principal focus: An image point for an object at infinity.
F2 F2
(A) (B)
Focal Length, Power and Aperture of Lens

(1) Focal length (f) : Distance of second principle focus from optical centre is
called focal length
f convex → positive, f concave → negative, f plane → 
Physics Page 22
(2) Aperture : Effective diameter of light transmitting area is called aperture.

Intensity of image  (Aperture) 2
(3) Power of lens (P) : Means the ability of a lens to deviate the path of the rays
passing through it. If the lens converges the rays parallel to the principal axis
its power is positive and if it diverges the rays it is negative.
1 100
Power of lens P = = ; Unit of power is Dioptre (D)
f (m) f (cm)
Pconvex → positive, Pconcave → negative, Pplane → zero .
Power of a lens
The ability to converge or diverge a beam of light incident on a lens is called power
of a lens.
The power of a lens is defined as the tangent of the
angle by which it converges or diverges a beam of
light incident on it at a unit distance from its optical
centre.
Consider a thin lens of focal length f. Let h be the perpendicular distance of incident
light from the optical centre of the lens and  be the angle of convergenceor
divergence.
Power of a lens is defined as:
p = tan  ----------------(1)
From the figure:
h
tan  = ---------------(2)
f
For h=1, equation (1) becomes:
1
tan  = ---------------(3)
f
From equations (1) and (3):
1
p= ------------------(4)
f
 Power of a lens is defined as reciprocal of its focal length.
Note: If the focal length of a lens is one metre, then its power is said to be one dioptre
(1D).
Define linear magnification produced by a lens.
Physics Page 23
Answer: The linear magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the
height of the image (h/) to the height of the object (h).
h
m=
h
Lens Maker’s Formula or Refraction by a lens: -
Consider a thin convex lens of focal length f made of material of RI n2surrounded by
a medium of RI n1 (n2> n1). A point object O
is placed on the principal axis of the lens. A
ray of light OB from the object incident
normally along the principal axis and
passing through the optical centre, proceeds
without deviation. Another ray of light OP,
gets refracted along PQ and emerges out
along QI. The two rays of light from the
object after refraction through the lens actually meet at a point I on the principal axis.
Therefore, I is the real image I of the object O.
The refraction phenomenon through the lens is cut into two parts :
1. Refraction at ABC : In the absence of the second surface ADC, the refracted rays
meet at I1. Therefore, I1 is the real (intermediate) image of the object O. A normal
N1 to ABC through P meets the principal axis at the centre of curvature C1 of the
surface.
The equation for refraction at ABC is:
n2 n1 n2 − n1
− = ------------------------------(1)
v1 u R1
2. Refraction at ADC : For refraction at ADC in the absence of ABC, I1 acts as a
virtual object. Its real image is formed at I. A normal N2 to ADC through Q meets
the principal axis at the centre of curvature C2 of the surface.
The equation for refraction at ADC is:
n1 n2 n1 − n2
− = ------
v v1 − R2
n1 n2 n −n 
− = − 2 1  --------------------(2)
v v1  R2 
Adding equations (1) and (2):
n1 n1 n2 − n1 n2 − n1
− = −
v u R1 R2
 1 1  n − n1 n2 − n1
n1  −  = 2 −
v u R1 R2
Physics Page 24
1 1  1 1 
n1  −  = (n2 − n1 ) − 
v u  R1 R2 
1 1  n2 − n1  1 1 
− =   −  -------------------------(3)
v u  n1  R1 R2 
If the object O is placed at infinity, then the image I is formed at the principal focus of the
lens.
u =   v = f .
Substituting these in equation (3),
1 1  n2 − n1  1 1 
− =   − 
f   n1  R1 R2 
1  n2 − n1  1 1 
=   −  ----------------------------(4)
f  n1  R1 R2 
This is the required lens maker’s formula.

Comparing equations (3) and (4),
1 1 1
− = ------------------------------------------(5)
v u f
This is the lens formula.
For n1 = 1 (air) and n2 = n, the lens maker’s formula leads to the form:
1 1 
= (n − 1) −  -------------------------------(6)
1
f  R1 R2 
State the factors affecting the focal length of a lens.
1.Refractive index of the material of the lens.
2.Refractive index of the surrounding medium of the lens.
3.Radii of curvature of surfaces of the lens.
Combination of thin lenses in contact:
A single lens which produces the same effect as that of the combination of lenses is
called equivalent lens.
Derive an expression for equivalent focal length of combination of two thin
lenses in contact.
Consider two thin convex lenses L1 and L2 placed in contact with each other so as to
have a common principal axis. A point object O is placed on the common principal
Physics Page 25
axis of the lens combination. The two rays of light from the object O incident on the
combination, after refraction through the combination meet actually at a point I on
the principal axis. Therefore, I is the real image of the object O.
The refraction phenomenon through the combination is cut into two parts:
Refraction through L1 : For refraction through L 1 in the absence of L2 , I1 is the real

image of the object O.
 Lens formula for L1 is :
1 1 1
− = ……………..….(1)
v1 u f1
Refraction through L2: For refraction through L2, I1 acts as virtual object. Its real
image is formed at I.
 Lens formula for L2 is :
1 1 1
− = ……………..….(2)
v v1 f 2
Adding equations (1) and (2):
1 1 1 1
− = + …….……..(3)
v u f1 f 2
Refraction through equivalent lens L:

Lens formula for the equivalent lens L is :
1 1 1
− = ……………………(4)
v u f
Comparing equations (3) and (4):
1 1 1
= + ……………......(5)
f f1 f 2
 The reciprocal of the focal length of the equivalent lens is equal to the sum of
the reciprocals of the focal lengths of the lenses in contact.
Note :
1.For n lenses of focal lengths f1,f2,f3,………fn in contact.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +−+
f f1 f 2 f 3 fn
Physics Page 26
2.As power of a lens is equal to reciprocal of its focal length,

1
P=
f
P = P1 + P2
Express the magnification in terms of focal length and image distance.
f −v
m=
f
Express the magnification in terms of focal length and object distance.
f
m=
f +u-

h v f −v f
Note: Linear magnification produced by a lens is: m = = = =
h u f f +u
Refraction through a prism:
Prism : Prism is a transparent media which is bound by 3 rectangular and two

triangular surface
In ABC and DEF
1. CBDE → Base
2. AFEC and AFDB = Refracting faces
3. AF → Refracting edge
4.  CAB → Refracting angle [Angle of prism]
5. XY → Principle section
Base :
Out of 3 rectangular surfaces of prism one which is rough polished (or translucent) is
called as base of the prism.
Refracting surfaces :
Out of 3 rectangular surfaces two faces are well polished (transparent) & inclined to
each through which light undergoes refraction are called as refracting surface.
Refracting edge :
The common line at which two refracting surfaces of the prism meets together is
called refracting edge.
Angle of prism :
The angle of inclination of two refracting surfaces is called as angle of prism.
Physics Page 27
Principal section:
The section of the prism which is taken perpendicular to the refracting edge is called
principal section.
Prism Formula
The relations connecting refractive index, Angle of prism and minimum deviation is
called as prism formula.
Consider the principal reaction ABC of prism as shown in fig.
Let
PQ → incident ray
QR → refracted ray
RS → emergent ray
 i →Angle of incidence
r1 → Refraction at first interface
r2 → Refraction at second interface
e → angle of emergence
When a ray of composite light is incident on one refracting surface, it undergoes

refraction twice, i.e. at face AB and AC.
The deviation produced at interface AB is given as
d1 = i – r1
Similarly the deviation produced at interface AC is given as
d2 = e – r2
 Net deviation produced by prism is
d = d1+d2
d = i- r1 + e- r2
d = i + e – (r1 + r2) ………………….. (1)
In fig, quadrilateral AQNR
Physics Page 28
 AQN = ARN = 900
QAB + QNR = 1800
A +  N = 1800 ………………. [2]
In  QNR
r1 + r2 + N = 180 …………[ from 2]

r1 + r2 + A-180 = 180
A = (r1 + r2) ……………..(3)
From above experiment result it is found that with increase in angle of incidence the
deviation in angle of incidence the deviation goes on decrease attain the value and
then increases. Thus, under minimum deviation condition,
d
i = e = i (say) and r1 = r2 = r(say)
D = i + e – (r + r)
D = 2i – A ……. [from3] D i
A+ D
i= ………….. (4)
2
A = r1 + r2
A = 2r
A
r= ………………………… (5)
2
Applying Snell’s law at AB, we get
Sin i = n sin r
sin i
n=
sin r
 A+ D
sin  
n= 
2 
Substituting the value of i and r from 4 & 5
sin( A / 2)
Physics Page 29
Explain the formation of rainbow

The rainbow is an example of the dispersion of
sunlight by the water drops in the atmosphere.
This is a phenomenon due to combined effect of
dispersion, refraction and reflection of sunlight by
spherical water droplets of rain. The conditions
for observing a rainbow are that the sun should be
shining in one part of the sky (say near western
horizon) while it is raining in the opposite part of
the sky (say eastern horizon). An observer can
therefore see a rainbow only when his back is
towards the sun.
In order to understand the formation of rainbows,
consider Fig (a). Sunlight is first refracted as it enters
a raindrop, which causes the different
wavelengths (colours) of white light to
separate. Longer wavelength of light (red) are
bent the least while the shorter wavelength
(violet) are bent the most. Next, these
component rays strike the inner surface of the
water drop and get internally reflected if the
angle between the refracted ray and normal to
the drop surface is greater than the critical angle (48º, in this case). The reflected light
is refracted again as it comes out of the drop as shown in the figure. It is found that
the violet light emerges at an angle of 40º related to the incoming sunlight and red
light emerges at an angle of 42º. For other colours, angles lie in between these two
values.
Figure (b) explains the formation of primary rainbow. We see that red light from
drop 1 and violet light from drop 2 reach the observers eye. The violet from drop 1
and red light from drop 2 are directed at level above or below the observer. Thus the
observer sees a rainbow with red colour on the top and violet on the bottom. Thus,
the primary rainbow is a result of three-step process, that is, refraction, reflection and
refraction.
When light rays undergoes two internal reflections inside a raindrop, instead of one as
in the primary rainbow, a secondary rainbow is formed as shown in Fig. 9.27(c). It is
due to four-step process. The intensity of light is reduced at the second reflection and
hence the secondary rainbow is fainter than the primary rainbow. Further, the order
of the colours is reversed in it as is clear from Fig. (c).
Physics Page 30
What is scattering of light? Give two examples for it.

Answer: “The phenomenon of absorption and re-emission of light by the atoms and
molecules of the atmosphere in all directions, when
light falls on them is known as scattering of light”.
Examples:
1.The blue colour of the sky and sea.
2.Reddish colour during sunset and sunrise.
What do you mean by Rayleigh’s scattering?
Give an example for it.
Answer: When the dimensions of the scattering particles are very small as compared
with the wavelength of the incident radiation, then the scattering is called Rayleigh’s
Scattering.
Example : Scattering of light by air molecules.
State the Rayleigh’s law of scattering.
Answer: According to Rayleigh’s scattering, the intensity of the scattered light(I) is
inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength of incident light (λ). 1
 1
4
Explain the blue colour of the sky.
Answer: When the sunlight passes through the earth’s atmosphere, it gets scattered
by large number of air molecules. The different wavelengths get scattered through
different amounts obeying Rayleigh’s law of scattering. The intensity of scattered
light in the given direction is inversely proportional to fourth power of the
wavelength of incident light. The wavelength of blue colour is much smaller than
that of the red colour. Hence, blue is the most scattered and red is the least scattered.
Therefore, the sky appears blue.
Explain the reddish colour during sunrise and sunset.
Answer: During sunset or sunrise, the sun is near to the horizon. The light rays from
the sun travel through a larger atmospheric distances than when the sun is overhead.
Due to this, most of the blue light is scattered by the particles of atmosphere. The
unscattered light reaching the observer is rich in red colour. Hence, during sunrise or
sunset, the sun appears to be reddish.
Optical instruments:
What is simple microscope? Explain its construction, working and theory with a
neat labeled ray diagram.
Physics Page 31
Answer: A simple microscope is an optical instrument used to observe the magnified

images of the minute objects placed close to the eye. It consists of a convex lens of
small focal length f. The tiny object AB whose minute details are to be seen is brought
within the principal focus F of the lens. The microscope forms an erect, virtual and
highly magnified image A1B1on the same side of the object. The eye is held close to
the lens. The distance of the lens from the object is adjusted till the image is formed at
a distance of 25cm from the eye. This is the minimum distance from the eye at which
the eye can see the object clearly and distinctly without any strain and is called least
distance of the distinct vision D.
Magnifying power or angular magnification: The magnifying power of a simple
microscope is defined as the ratio of angle subtended by the image to the angle
subtended by the object at the eye, when
both the image and the object are at the
least distance of distinct vision from the
eye.

m= ………………………(1)

Where:
 = angle subtended by the object at the eye at the least distance of distinct vision D.
 = angle subtended by the image at the eye at the least distance of distinct vision D.
D
m =1+ ...........................(6)
f
This is the expression for magnifying power of a simple microscope at a near point
adjustment (at the least distance of distinct vision).
Note: The expression for magnifying power of a simple microscope when the image
is formed at infinity.
D
m=
f
Mention the uses of simple microscope (magnifying glass).
Answer: 1.To obtain magnified view of the tiny parts of the watch and fine
jewellery work.
2.To magnify the vernier scale reading while performing the experiment.
3.To magnify the printed letters in a book and details of stamp.
What is compound microscope? Explain its construction, working and theorywith

a neat labeled ray diagram.
Physics Page 32
Answer: A compound microscope is an optical instrument used to observe

magnified images of tiny objects. It consists of two convex lenses L o and Le. The lens
Lo which faces the object is called objective and the lens Le through which the final
image is observed by the eye is called eyepiece. The objective is of small focal length
and small aperture. Whereas an eyepiece is of slightly greater focal length and large
aperture. The objective and the eyepiece are fitted co-axially at the free ends of a long
metallic tube. The eyepiece can be made to slide in or out. The distance between the
objective and the eyepiece is called length of the microscope. The length of the
microscope L can be adjusted by rack and pinion arrangement.
Magnifying power or angular magnification(m): The magnifying power of a
compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the final
image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the eye, when both final
image and object are at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.

m= ………………………(1)

Where:
 = angle subtended by the object AB at the eye at the least distance of distinct vision
D.
 = angle subtended by the final image A B at the eye at the least distance of distinct
2 2
vision D.
m = mO x.me …………………(2)
A1 B1 A2 B2
 = mO = Magnificat ion.of .objective & . = me = Magnificat ion.of .eyepiece.
AB A1 B1
 The magnifying power of compound microscope is equal to product of
magnifications produced by objective and eyepiece.
D
me = 1 +
fe
vO  D
m=− 1 + 
uO  fe 
This gives the expression for magnifying power of compound microscope.

As the object AB is placed close to the principal focus FO of the objective,
uo = -fo
Physics Page 33
As the intermediate image A1B1 is formed close to the eyepiece whose focal length is
short,
vo = L
Substituting these in equation above,
L  D
m=− 1 + 
fO  fe 
Note:
1. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, then the
length of the compound microscope becomes:
L = vo + ue
2. When the final image is formed at infinity, then equation (8) leads to the form:
L D
m=− x
fO fe
3. When the final image is formed at infinity, then the length of the compound
microscope becomes:
L = vo + fe
What is telescope? Explain the types of telescopes.

Telescope: An optical instrument used to observe the distant objects clearly and
magnified is called telescope. There are two types of telescopes :1.Refracting
telescope and 2.Reflecting telescope.
1. Refracting telescope: A telescope in which lenses are used to observe the distant
objects is called refracting telescope. The lenses form images of the objects by
refraction of light. The refracting telescopes are of two types: astronomical
telescope and terrestrial telescope.
Astronomical telescope: A telescope used to observe heavenly objects like
moon, sun, stars, planets etc is called astronomical telescope. The final image
formed by the astronomical telescope is virtual and inverted.
Terrestrial telescope: A telescope used to observe the objects on the earth is called
terrestrial telescope. The final image formed by the terrestrial telescope is virtual
and erect.
2. Reflecting telescope: The telescope in which the combination of a mirror and a
lens is used to observe the distant objects is called reflecting telescope. The
mirror forms images of the objects by reflection of light. The examples of
reflecting type telescope are Cassegrain telescope and Newtonian telescope.
Physics Page 34
What is astronomical telescope? Explain.

A telescope used to observe heavenly objects like moon, sun, stars, planets etc. is
called astronomical telescope. An astronomical telescope consists of two convex
lenses Lo and Le. The lens Lo faces the object, so it is called objective and the lens Le
faces the eye through which image of the distant object is observed, is called
eyepiece. The objective is of large aperture and large focal length. Whereas the
eyepiece is of small aperture and small focal length. The objective and the eyepiece
are mounted co-axially at the free ends of two sliding metallic tubes. The eyepiece
can be made to slide in or out. The distance between the objective and the eyepiece is
called length of the telescope. The length of the telescope L can be changed by rack
and pinion arrangement.
Magnifying power or angular magnification(m): The magnifying power of an

astronomical telescope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the final
image at the eye at the least distance of distinct vision to the angle subtended by the
object at the eye at infinity, when seen directly.

m= ………………………(1)

 = angle subtended by the object AB at the eye at infinity.

 = angle subtended by the final image A2B2 at the eye at the least distance of distinct
vision D.
fo  f 
m=− 1 + e 
fe  D
This is the expression for the magnifying power of an astronomical telescope at a

near point adjustment. The negative sign indicates that the final image formed is
real and inverted.
Telescope at a far point adjustment (in normal adjustment): In normal adjustment,

the image A1B1 by the objective is
brought exactly at the principal focus Fe
of the eyepiece. The eyepiece forms the
final image A2B2 at infinity. The final
image is virtual, erect and magnified
with respect to A1B1 but it is real,
Physics Page 35
inverted and magnified with respect to object AB. In this case, the telescope is said to
be in normal adjustment and the telescope is focused to infinity.
Magnifying power or angular magnification (m): The magnifying power of an
astronomical telescope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the final
image at the eye to the angle subtended by
the object at the eye, when both the final
image and the object are at infinity.

m= ………………………(1)

Where:
 = angle subtended by the object AB at the eye at infinity.
 = angle subtended by the final image A2B2 at the eye at infinity.
fo
m=−
fe
Note:
1. Magnifying. power.of .an.astronomical.telescope

Focal.length.of .objective
in.normal.adjustment = Focal.length..of .eyepiece
2. Length of the telescope in normal adjustment = Focal length of objective + Focal

length of eyepiece
L = fo + fe
Explain the Cassegrain telescope with a neat labelled diagram.
Answer: The Cassegrain telescope consists of a concave parabolic mirror (primary) of
large aperture with a hole at its
centre. This primary mirror is used as
an objective of large light gathering
power and high resolving power.
There is a small convex hyperbolic
mirror (secondary) near the principal
focus of the primary mirror. A convex
lens of a large focal length acts as an
eyepiece. The eyepiece is placed on
the principal axis of the telescope
near the hole of the primary mirror. The parallel rays of light from the distant object
are made to incident on the objective. The objective reflects the rays towards its
principal focus Fo . Before these rays come to focus Fo, they are reflected by the
Physics Page 36
secondary mirror. The secondary mirror forms an inverted image at I just outside the
hole. This image I at the back of the objective is seen through the eyepiece.
Expression for magnifying power of Cassegrain telescope:
1. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision:
fo  f 
m=− 1 + e 
fe  D
2. When the final image is formed at infinity (normal adjustment):
R
fo
m=− =− 2
fe fe
Where:
fo= focal length of the objective.
fe = focal length of the eyepiece.
R = radius of curvature of the objective.
D = least distance of distinct vision.
State the advantages of reflecting telescope over refracting telescope.

1. As the objective in the reflecting telescope is a mirror, the image produced is free
from the chromatic aberration.
2. The spherical aberration can be reduced by using a parabolic mirror.
3. The reflecting telescope has a high resolving power due to large aperture of its
objective.
4. As there is no loss of light, the image produced by reflecting telescope is more
bright and sharp.
5. A concave mirror of large aperture can be designed easily.
State the differences between refracting telescope and reflecting telescope.

Refracting telescope Reflecting telescope
1. The objective is a convex lens. 1. The objective is a concave mirror.
2. It suffers from spherical and 2. It is free from spherical & chromatic
chromatic aberrations. aberrations.
3. The image formed is coloured and 3. The image formed is sharp and
blurred. bright.
4. The light gathering power and 4. The light gathering power and
resolving power are small. resolving power are large.
Physics Page 37
Previous Year Questions

MARCH - 2014
1. Mention three application of total internal reflection of light. (3 M)
2. Two lenses of focal length 0.20 m and 0.30m are kept in contact. Find the focal
length of combination. Calculate powers of two lenses and combination. (5 M)
JULY - 2014
3. State the laws of refraction. (2 M)
4. Write the expression for limit of resolution of
a) Microscope and
b) telescope. Write one method of increasing the resolving power of microscope
(3 M)
5. A prism of angle 60o produces angle of minimum deviation 40o. What is its
refractive index? Calculate the angle of incidence. (5 M)
MARCH - 2015
6. Draw the ray diagram of image formation in case of compound microscope. (2 M)
7. Derive the expression for the refractive index of the material of prism in terms of
the angle of prism and angle of minimum deviation. (5 M)
JULY- 2015
8. Write two conditions for total internal reflection to takes place. (2 M)
9. Derive Lens Maker’s formula. (5 M)
APRIL - 2016
10. How does the power of lens vary with its focal length? (1 M)
11. How can the resolving power of telescope be increased? (1 M)
12. What is myopia? How to correct it?(2 M)
13. Derive an expression for equivalent focal length of two thin lenses kept in contact.
(5 M)
JULY - 2016
14. What is total internal reflection? Mention two applications of optical fibres. (3 M)
15. Derive Lens Maker’s formula for a convex lens. (5 M)
MARCH - 2017
16. How the power of lens is related to its focal length? (1 M)
17. Name the type of lens which is used to correct i) Myopia ii)
Hypermetropia. (2 M)
18. Derive Lens Maker’s formula for a convex lens. (5 M)
19. Draw the ray diagram for the formation of image by a refracting telescope and
write the expression for magnifying power of telescope. (3 M)
20. A prism is made of glass of unknown refractive index. A parallel beam of light is
incident on a face of the prism. By rotating the prism, the angle of minimum
deviation is measured to be 40o. What is the refractive index of the material of the
Physics Page 38
prism? If the prism is placed in water (nw = 1.33), calculate the new angle of
minimum deviation of a parallel beam of light. The refracting angle of the prism
is 60o. (5 M)
APRIL– 2017
21. Write the expression for resolving power (R.P.) of microscope and explain the
terms. (2 M)
22. What is total internal reflection? Mention the conditions for total internal
reflection. (3 M)
23. Derive the expression for the refractive index (n) of the material of a prism in
terms of the angle of the prism and angle of minimum deviation. (5 M)
MARCH – 2018
24. Two lenses of power +1.5D and –0.5D are kept in contact on their principal axis.
What is the effective power of the combination? (1 M)
25. What is ‘myopia’? how to rectify it? (2 M)
26. Arrive at Snell’s law of refraction, using Huygen’s principle for refraction of a
plane wave. (3M)
27. Deduce the relation between n, u, v, R for refraction at a spherical surface, where
the symbols have their usual meaning.(5 M)
MARCH – 2019
28. For which position of the object magnification of convex lens is –1 (minus one)?
(1 M)
29. For which angle of incidence reflected ray is completely polarised? (1 M)
30. Write the ray diagram for formation of image in the simple microscope. (2 M)
31. Derive Lens Maker’s formula. (5 M)
Physics Page 39

Ray Optics (Note 2020) 2

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RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL DISHA

INSTRUMENTS PU College of Science, Kalaburagi

1. Geometrical optics 2. Physical optics and 3. Quantum optics.

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS: - It treats the propagation of light in terms of rays.

QUANTUM OPTICS: - It deals with the interaction of light with matter.

LIGHT: - Light is a form of energy, which stimulates the sense of sight.

Heterogeneous medium: - A medium, in which the speed of light has different

Rectilinear propagation of light: - In a homogenous isotropic medium, light travels

It is established by the action of the pinhole camera and by the formation of

• A surface which reflects light is called mirror (i.e. XY)

Laws of reflections:- There are two laws of reflection,

Properties of image formed by a Plane Mirror:-

The image formed by plane mirror is,

3. When two plane mirrors are kept in contact inclined at an angle 

Real and virtual object: -

REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS: -

Aperture - the surface area of mirror, which is available for reflection.

focal length of spherical mirrors: -

Focus of a (a) concave and (b) convex mirror.

From fig. <OMC = < CMF = θ

From ∆le PCM

The Mirror equation:-

Some other forms

Convex mirror producing virtual image.

Note Distinguish between concave mirror and convex mirror.

Note Nature of the image formed by the concave mirror

LAWS OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT: -

Absolute refractive index:-The refractive index of a denser medium with respective

The relation between A.R.I. and R.R.I. :--

 The R.R.I. of med-2 with respect to med-1 is as,

Now, the A.R.I of med-1 and med-2 are given as,

Factors on which lateral shift depends on,

OP = OR, the real depth of the object

IP = IR, the apparent depth of the object

 for normal shift ( Ns) = real depth – apparent depth

The normal shift is depend on,

1. The thickness of refracting medium

Apparent depth for

Total Internal Reflection:-

Conditions for Total internal reflection:-

1. The incident ray should travel from denser to rarer medium

Relation between refractive index ( n )and critical angle ( C ) :-

 i = C & r = 900 , then the above equation becomes,

if rarer medium is air n1 = 1 & n2 = n, then

 Refractive index of a medium is equal to reciprocal of sine of the critical angle.

Total internal reflection in nature and its technological applications:-

2. Looming: An optical illusion caused by atmospheric refraction downward seen in

A British Physicist John Tyndall (1870), demonstrated that light could be

Structure of optical fibres

Cladding:- The core is surrounded by glass or plastic known as cladding. Its

Applications of optical fibres:-

1. Optical fibres are used in communication.

Applications of optical fibres over conventional metal wire cables:-

5. Tapping of signals very difficult, i.e. it is more secure.

Application of optical fibres in communication:-

Write the uses of total reflecting prism.

REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL SURFACE

Spherical refracting surface: -

The spherical refracting surfaces are of two types,

Concave refracting surface & convex refracting surface.

Concave spherical refracting surface: - the spherical refracting surface concave

Convex spherical refracting surface: - the spherical refracting surface convex

Some important terms: -