Chapter 2

TON DUC THANG UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
402057
ELECTRONIC MATERIALS
CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPERTIES

OF SOLIDS & APPLICATIONS
 2.1. Conducting materials

 2.2. Hall effect
 2.3. Insulating materials
 2.4. Piezoelectricity
 2.5. Magnetic materials
 2.6. Superconductivity
 Reference slides
1/14/2019 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 2
OBJECTIVES
 Understand the electromagnetic properties of

conducting, insulating and magnetic materials
 Learn the applications of these materials in
electronic industry
 Understand special physical effects of materials
and their applications
402057-ELECTRONIC MATERIALS 1
CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPERTIES
OF SOLIDS & APPLICATIONS

CONDUCTING MATERIALS
 A material is classified as a conductor if it contains a

large number of “free” or mobile charge carriers.
 In the presence of an electric field Ex, electrons
experience a Coulombic force eEx in the x direction
Electric current density J
where vdx is electron drift velocity
 Motion of conduction electrons in metals
No applied electric field In the presence of an

applied electric field
 Electrical conductivity σ
1
= = where = =
Ohm’s law
 Temperature dependence of resistivity

For pure metal
For metals with

impurities
 Resistivity of mixtures and porous materials
 Applications
Conducting wire
Resistor
 Applications (cont.)
CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS &
APPLICATIONS
HALL EFFECT
“Electron as a particle” – Hall effect

 When a magnetic field is applied in a perpendicular
direction to the applied electric field, electron flow is
“bent” due to Lorentz force
 Hall field
 Hall coefficient
HALL EFFECT
 Applications
 Watt-meter
 Magnetometer
 Measurement of carrier
concentration and
mobility
 Magnetically actuated
electronic switch
Hall-effect watt-meter
ASSIGNMENTS
 1. Exercises 2.2, 2.12, 2.13, 2.20

 2. Read and given value of following resistor:
 a. red, red, red ,gold
 b. yellow, violet, orange, silver
 c. brown, red, gold, gold
 3. Given the corresponding color
 a. 100k±10%
 b. 47±5%
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

INSULATING MATERIALS
 Materials in which electrons tend to

stay put and do not flow easily from
atom to atom are termed insulators
(σ < 10-8 S/cm)
 Insulators are used to prevent the
flow of electricity.
 Insulating materials such as glass,
rubber, or plastic are also called
dielectrics, meaning they can store
charges  capacitors
 Parallel plate capacitor
= C= =
is relative permittivity
 Electronic polarization
 The increase in stored charge is due to polarization
of the dielectric by the applied field
 When an atom is
placed in an
external electric
field, it develops
an induced dipole
moment pinduced
polarization
= is electronic polarization
 Polarization vector P
 Vector P
 Amplitude
 Polarization vector P
 Dependence of P on the electric field
= is electric susceptibility
= =
1
= N
Relative permittivity = =1+
 Polarization mechanisms
Local field
Electronic
Ionic polarization Dipolar polarization
polarization
 Frequency dependence:
 Relaxation process
0
=
 Applied AC field
= ( ) exp ( )
(0)
=
1+
At low frequency ~ (0)

At very high frequency ~0
 Frequency dependence:
 Complex dielectric constant
= j ′′ Energy loss
The reciprocal impedance

of the capacitor
Dielectric loss
 Dielectric breakdown:
 Intrinsic breakdown
 Thermal breakdown
 Electromechanical breakdown
 Internal discharges
 Dielectric strength Ebr: The maximum field can
be applied to an insulating material without
causing dielectric breakdown
 Capacitor dielectric material
APPLICATIONS
PIEZOELECTRICITY
 Piezoelectric effect
Apply force Apply electric field
PIEZOELECTRICITY
 Applications
 Piezoelectric transducer
 Piezoelectric spark generator
ASSIGNMENTS
 1. Exercises 7.4, 7.20, 7.22

 2. Read and given value of following capacitor:
 a. 12
 b. 102
 c. .1
 3. Given value of the following capacitors
 a. 123j
 b. 274k
APPLICATIONS
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Many modern technological devices rely on

magnetism and magnetic materials
 The magnetic behavior of materials can be traced
to the structure of atoms.
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Magnetization of matter
A current passing through a coil sets up a magnetic field H with a flux

density B. The flux density is higher when a magnetic core is placed
within the coil.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 The relationship between B and H is a

property of the material
 Magnetic permeability - a measure
of the ease with which magnetic flux
lines can ‘‘flow’’ through a material.
 Magnetic susceptibility - The ratio
between magnetization and the applied
field.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Classification of magnetic materials
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Classification of magnetic materials
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Soft and hard magnetic materials
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Inductors
 Inductors provide us with a
means of storing electrical
energy in the form of a
magnetic field
 The electrical characteristics
of an inductor are
determined by a number of
factors.
 Inductance is the property of a coil which gives rise to the
opposition to a change in the value of current flowing in it 
prevent rapid changes in currents in circuits
APPLICATIONS
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
 Superconductor
ZERO
RESISTANCE
 Meissner effect: a conductor

below its critical temperature
expels all of the magnetic
field from the bulk
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
 Superconductor
ASSIGNMENTS
 1. Exercises 8.1, 8.10

 2. Read and given value of following inductor:
 a. red, red, red ,gold
 b. yellow, violet, orange, silver
 c. brown, red, gold, gold
 3. Given the corresponding color
 a. 100µH±10%
 b. 47µH±5%
SUMMARY
 In this chapter, we have learnt:

 Fundamental physics of materials used for
construction of resistor, capacitor and magnetic
devices
 Several special effects of materials and their
applications in electronic industry
REFERENCE SLIDES
SELECTING RESISTOR
SELECTING RESISTOR
- Color codes
- Tolerance
- Temp. coeff
Standard
range of
resistor
SMD RESISTOR
SMD RESISTOR
SELECTING RESISTOR
SELECTING RESISTOR
TESTING DEVICES
402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and

20/12/2015 applications 51
TESTING DEVICES
TYPES OF RESISTORS
a/Thermistor
 Negative
temperature
coefficient (NTC):
 T up -> R down
 Positive
Temperature
Coefficient(PTC):
 T up -> R up
 - Applications:
power amplifier,
temperature sensor
circuits …
TYPES OF RESISTORS
b . Photo resistor
Manufacturing from Sulfide Cadmium
 Lux up  R down , about hundred Ω -> KΩ
 Lux down -> R up, shade dark light is R about hundred KΩ
-> MΩ
 Application: automatic control circuits …
TYPES OF RESISTORS
TYPES OF RESISTORS
c/ Varistor (Voltage Dependent Resistor: VDR)
 Is used to eliminate the high voltage transients, a special

type of variable resistors used to protect circuits from
destructive voltage spikes
 When voltage increases across a connected sensitive
device, it reduces the level of voltage to a secure level
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
Film capacitors: Polyester

 Available in the range:
1 nF to 15 μF,
 with working voltages
from 50 V to 1500 V.
 Tolerance is 5%, 10% or 20%.
 High temperature coefficient
 Low price, choice in most
applications.
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
20/12/2015
402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 61
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
 Film capacitors: Poly-styrence capacitor

 Low value in the range:
10 pF to 47 nF,
From 30 V to 630 V.
 Tolerance is 5%, 10% and
precision types 1%, 2%.
 Negative temperature
coefficient -125 ppm/0 C
 Suitable for tuning and filter
circuits.
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
 Film capacitors: Poly-carbonat

 Value in the range:
100 pF to 10 uF,
 with working voltages up to 400
Vdc
 Tolerance is 5%, 10%.
 Temperature coefficient 100
ppm/0 K
 Application in filtering and
timing circuits
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
 Multi layer Ceramic capacitor:

1 pF to 1 uF,
about 50 V
 Tolerance is 2%, 20%.
 The temp varies with the
material used for the
dielectric
 Application in filtering and
tuning, coupling and
decoupling circuits
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
 Single layer Ceramic capacitor:

1 pF to 220 nF,
 with working voltages about
50 V
 Tolerance is a wide range.
 The temp varies with the
material used for the
dielectric
 Application in coupling and
decoupling circuits
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
 Electrolytic capacitors:
1 uF to 10.000 uF,
with working voltages about
10V to 100V
 Tolerance is usually ±20%
or more.
 The temp varies and up to
2000 C
 Many applications
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
 Tantalum capacitors:
100 nF to 150 uF, with working
voltages about 3V to 35V
 Tolerance is usually ±20%.
 The temp varies and up to 2000
C
 lower leakage (maximum 0.01
VC)
 they are smaller than
electrolytics of the same capacity
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
 Variable capacitors:
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
 Variable capacitors:
The variable type of capacitors can vary the capacitance by
changing the distance between the plates or the effective
area of the capacitor.
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
a. Air-gap capacitors:
 These capacitors use air as the dielectric medium.
 The distance between the plates can be varied to change

the capacitance.
 The capacitance values offered are high and can be used
with high voltages.
 These are used for high frequency operations in
communication systems.
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
b. Vacuum capacitors:
 These capacitors have glass or ceramic encapsulation
and vacuum as the dielectric.
 Their complex construction makes it very expensive.
 Theoretically, it has less losses and are used in RF
applications.
INDUCTOR VALUE CODES
TYPES OF INDUCTORS
VARIABLE INDUCTORS
 A ferrite cored inductor can be made variable by moving its

core in or out of the former onto which the coil is wound.
 Many small inductors have threaded ferrite cores to make
this possible
TYPES OF INDUCTORS
TRANSFORMERS
 Transformers provide a means of coupling a.c. power or
signals from one circuit to another.
 Voltage may be stepped-up or stepped-down
 Since no increase in power is possible
(transformers are passive components like resistors,
capacitors and inductors)
 An increase in secondary voltage can only be achieved at
the expense of a corresponding reduction in secondary
current, and vice versa.
CHARACTERISTICS
 The electrical characteristics of a transformer are
determined by a number of factors including the
core material and physical dimensions.
 The specifications for a transformer usually include the
rated primary and secondary voltages and current
the required power rating
 Which can be delivered by the transformer under a given
set of conditions, the frequency range for the component
CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS
BASIC STRUCTURE
BASIC STRUCTURE
 Testing capacitors by VOM
VOLTAGE AND TURN RATIO
 The primary and secondary windings are

wound on a common low-reluctance magnetic core.
 The alternating flux generated by the primary
winding is therefore coupled into the secondary
winding.
 A sinusoidal current flowing in the primary winding
produces a sinusoidal flux. At any instant the flux in the
transformer is given by the equation:
PRINCIPLE
INDUCTOR APPLICATIONS
 Micro, speaker, relay
INDUCTOR APPLICATIONS

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TON DUC THANG UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL AND

CHAPTER 2: ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPERTIES

 2.1. Conducting materials

1/14/2019 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 2

 Understand the electromagnetic properties of

1/14/2019 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 3

 2.1. Conducting materials

1/14/2019 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 4

 A material is classified as a conductor if it contains a

Electric current density J

where vdx is electron drift velocity

1/14/2019 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 5

 Motion of conduction electrons in metals

No applied electric field In the presence of an

1/14/2019 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 6

 Temperature dependence of resistivity

For metals with

1/14/2019 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 8

 Resistivity of mixtures and porous materials

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 9

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 10

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 11

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 12

“Electron as a particle” – Hall effect

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 13

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 14

 1. Exercises 2.2, 2.12, 2.13, 2.20

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 15

 2.1. Conducting materials

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 16

 Materials in which electrons tend to

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 17

 Parallel plate capacitor

Relative permittivity = =1+

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 21

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 22

At low frequency ~ (0)

The reciprocal impedance

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 25

 Capacitor dielectric material

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 26

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 27

Apply force Apply electric field

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 28

 Piezoelectric spark generator

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 29

 1. Exercises 7.4, 7.20, 7.22

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 30

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 31

 Many modern technological devices rely on

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 32

A current passing through a coil sets up a magnetic field H with a flux

 The relationship between B and H is a

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 34

 Classification of magnetic materials

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 35

 Classification of magnetic materials

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 36

 Soft and hard magnetic materials

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 37

20/12/2015 402057 – Chapter 2: Electromagnetic properties of solids and applications 38