4.

Angiosperms/Flowering Plants
 Angiosperms (Greek: angion, container (case); sperma, seed) are
 Vascular, seed-bearing plants
 flowering plants (Magnoliophyta) that produce flowers and
seeds as their reproductive structures.
 About 250,000 known species of angiosperms.
 the first flowering plants known to exist are from 140 million
years ago.
 They diversified enormously during the lower Cretaceous and
became widespread around 100 million years ago,
 Angiosperms make up more than 80% living green plants species.
 Are the most diverse group of land plants.
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 Distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of
synapomorphies (derived characteristics).

 These include

Flowers

Double fertilization forming zygote and endosperm

Endosperm (triploid) within the seeds, and

Fruits production that contain the seeds that dispersal of

seed within a fruit.

Vessel & sieve tube (companion cells)

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 Habitat and distribution

 They are the most successful land plants on the earth today.
Why?

 Angiosperms have a wide range of distribution ranging from

tropics to temperate and then arctic to antarctic.

 They have adapted to life in terrestrial habitats including,

desert, mountain wood land, crop lands etc.

 Some angiosperms even returned to fresh water and a few to

salt water bodies.

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Angiosperms are covered the greatest parts of land vegetation
on a world wide scale: because

The production of enclosed seeds that provide nourishment and

protection to the embryo plants from drying out during
dispersal, germination and establishment

Evolution of xylem vessels for efficient water conduction and

phloem with sieve tube and distinct companion cells for more
efficient conduction of sugar.

Evolution of vessels – xylem elements that are about 30

times the diameter of tracheids and 100 times as long.

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 Evolution of efficient and often specialized mechanism for
pollination and seed dispersal.
The extreme reduction of sexual gametophyte generation.
Male gametes of angiosperms are non- motile and carried
inside pollen grain by to the female parts of the plant.
o This is followed by production of pollen tube carrying male
nuclei to the female gametophyte to effect fertilization.
Thus, transfer of gametes does not require water

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 Structural and physiological adaptation
drought resistance mechanisms by
o evolution of tough leaves,
o commonly reduce in size of leaves,
o evolution of deciduous habits (shading of leaves in dry
seasons)
Production of chemicals in their body for defense against
diseases and herbivores.
most of them are adapted to resist pathogenic effects and are
rejected by herbivores from being eaten or consumed.

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 Angiosperms are a distinct groups showing great variation in
growth form, size and structure.

– The group includes mainly trees, shrubs, and herbs, climbers,

woody vines or lianas, epiphytes can also found.

• great variation in size ranges from giant angiosperm being

over 100 meters to tiny duck weeds, wolfia.

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 Life span/ duration of life of angiosperm
 Annual plants- plants complete their life cycle less than a year
 Biennial plants- plant require two season for completing their
life cycle. less than two years
 Perennials plants- plants grow for indefinite years/ seasons

 Great variation in size ranges from giant angiosperm being over

100 meters to tiny duck weeds, wolfia.

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 4.2. General Characteristics of Angiosperms
 Angiosperms have specialized cells for obtaining nutrients and
performing photosynthesis and cell division.

 Plant body is differentiated into root, stem, leaf and flower.

 All these parts are made up of different types of tissues

containing different cell types.

 A tissue is a mass of similar or dissimilar cells performing a

common function.

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1/3/2023 10
 4.2.1. Anatomy of Angiosperms

 The body of a vascular plant is composed of organs (root, stem,

leaves, flowers) and tissue systems such as dermal, Ground and
Vascular.
 Each tissue system is composed of distinctive tissues (epidermis,
periderm, xylem, phloem, cortex, pith and mesophyll), and tissues
are in-turn composed of cells (parenchyma, collenchyma,
sclerenchyma, and specialized cells such as trichomes, epidermal,
vessels, phloem, companion cells, etc.).

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I. Plant tissue and Plant tissue system

 A tissue is a group of cells having a common origin and usually

performing a common function.

 A plant is made up of different kinds of tissues.

 Plant tissue types

 Tissues are classified into two main groups based on whether

the cells being formed are capable of dividing or not.

a. Meristematic tissue and

b. Permanent tissues

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1/3/2023 13
 a. Meristematic Tissues

 Growth in plants is largely restricted to specialized regions of

active cell division called meristems.

 Plants have different kinds of meristems.

 The meristems which occur at the tips of roots and shoots and
produce primary tissues are called apical meristems.

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 Root apical meristem (RAM) occupies the tip of a root while
the shoot apical meristem (SAM) occupies the distant most
region of the stem axis.

Fig : Root Apical Meristem

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Fig : Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM) 15
 Types of meristematic tissues
 On the basis of their position the meristematic tissues are classified into three
types:
1) Apical meristems
2) Lateral meristems and
3) Intercalary meristems
1) Apical meristems
 are located at the tips of roots and shoots.
 In shoots, plants protect their meristems with young leaves and by forming
dormant reserve meristems (i.e., buds) that protect their apical meristems
with a root cap
 The primary meristems or apical meristems are responsible for primary
growth (or an increase in length or height).

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2) Lateral Meristems
 Occupy the lateral position in plant organs.

o Responsible for horizontal expansion in woody plants (tree

and shrubs)

 responsible for secondary growth in plants (growth in girth).

 The meristem that occurs in the mature regions of roots and

shoots of many plants, particularly those that produce woody
axis and appear later than primary meristem is called the
secondary or lateral meristem.

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 There are two types of secondary / lateral meristems:-
a. Vascular meristem- internal growth in girth which involves
secondary tissues (xylem and phloem).
o In the fasicular region the cambial cells which divide
toward the center form xylem tissue and towards the
outside phloem tissue.
o Interfasicular indicates the cambium between the 'fasciles
of xylem & phloem.
o This is a process continue throughout the life of the plant.
b. Cork cambium- external girth growth beyond the phloem area.
o They form the characteristic corky layer as well as an
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internal layer.
3) Intercalary Meristems
 are intermodal in their position and are found lying between
masses of permanent tissues.
 is short lived and shows meristematic properties for a short
period of time and merges with the permanent tissue.
 can be distinctly seen in internodes and in sheathing leaf bases
of grasses.
 helps regenerate parts removed (by lawnmowers, herbivores,
etc.)

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 b. Permanent Tissues
 These are formed by cell division of meristematic tissues followed
by their differentiation in to definite types of tissue cells.

 These differentiated cells do not have ability to divide thereafter.

 They are classified into two types:

i. simple permanent tissue and

ii. complex permanent tissue

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i. Simple permanent tissue:

 It is made of only one type of cells.

 There are three basic types of simple permanent tissues in plants

and they are named and classified on the basis of their structure
and function as follows: parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma.

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ii. Complex Permanent Tissues

 are made of more than one type of cells and these works
together as a unit.

 Xylem and phloem are the two most important complex tissues
in plants.

 are associated with the transport of water, ions and soluble

food substances, they are also known as conducting or
vascular tissues.

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  Plant tissue system types

 Tissues vary depending on their location in the plant body.

 Their structure and function would also be dependent on location.

 On the basis of their structure and location, there are three types
of tissue systems:
 Dermal/epidermal tissue being the outer layer and
 the ground tissue making up most of the inside of a plant.
 Vascular tissue is surrounded by ground tissue, but vascular
tissue doesn't make up much of the inside of a plant, this is
because vascular tissue transports water, mineral nutrient, and
organic compounds, to all parts of a plant.
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 Dermal Tissue (Skin)
 Dermal Tissue function is protective and prevention of water
loss . It is classified into two types – Epidermis and Periderm.
I. The epidermis is the outer protective layer of the primary plant
body (the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds).
 The epidermis is usually one cell layer thick, and its cells lack
chloroplasts.
 terrestrial habitat adaptation the epidermis has regulate the
loss of water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen.
o Cutin and waxes are fatty substances deposited in the
walls of epidermal cells, forming a waterproof outer layer
called the cuticle.
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• The cuticle and epicuticular waxes minimize transpiration from
the plant.

• Epidermis provides mechanical protection, allows gaseous

exchange through stomata.

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II. Periderm: This is formed during secondary growth replacing primary
epidermis.
 At a certain stage in their life cycle, woody plants cease to grow in
length and begin to add to their girth, or width.
This is accomplished not by the addition of more primary tissue
but by the growth of secondary vascular tissue around the entire
circumference of the primary plant body.
 In stems, the first cork cambium usually arises immediately inside
the epidermis or in the epidermis itself.
 In roots, the first cork cambium appears in the outermost layer of the
vascular tissue system, called the pericycle.
 Bark, on the other hand, is an inclusive term for all tissues outside of
the vascular cambium.
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  Vascular Tissues
 The vascular tissues include
 xylem, which conducts water and minerals from the roots upward and
throughout the plant, and

 phloem, which transports dissolved foods in all directions within the plant.

Xylem: its ability to transport water and dissolved nutrients to the

body of the plant.

Xylem is made of hollow, dead cells.

They have evolved two types of specialized xylem tissue, each

with its own specific function.

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  Tracheids: are dead cells that long, tapered, narrow cells at the ends and
overlap one another
o aid in both water transport and the actual structural support of the plant.
o some plants, such as gymnosperms
 Vessel Elements: Vessel elements are found in most, but not all,
angiosperm species.
 dead cells when at and age of functional maturity.
 Vessel elements are both shorter and wider than tracheids, and are
arranged in continuous tubes that connect to one and other end-to-end to
create xylem vessels, which are more efficient than tracheids alone.

Xylem parenchyma cells are living and thin-walled, and their cell walls
are made up of cellulose

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 Xylem Tracheid Xylem Vessel Element

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 Phloem: specializes in the transport of food (sucrose and other
organic compounds) from the photosynthetic leaves of a plant to
other non-photosynthetic parts (storage).
 Phloem cells are alive at functional maturity (made of living
cells).
 Food conduction in phloem is carried out through two kinds of
elongated cells: sieve cells and sieve-tube members

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 Sieve-Tube Members: lack such basic organelles as a central
vacuole, ribosomes, and a nucleus.
So they are connected to a companion cell that is non-
conductive and has a nucleus and other organelles.
They link together to form a chain of cells with perforated
walls, allowing nutrients to pass from cell to cell.
The sieve-tube members themselves are connected by
sieve plates, specialized cell walls that have pores to
allow the sap to flow through them.

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  Sieve cells : In seedless plants and some angiosperms

 Phloem parenchyma is absent in most of the monocotyledons

 Companion Cells: Companion cells are connected to sieve-tube

members by numerous channels called plasmodesmata, and run
alongside sieve-tube member chains, though they are non-conducting.

o The nuclei and ribosomes of these cells serve the sieve-tube

members.

o Companion cells in "source" tissues (ex. leaves) take in sugars and

amino acids from the cells that make them by active transport.

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1/3/2023 33
  Ground Tissue
 Ground Tissue is all of the non- dermal or vascular tissue made
up three simple tissue types: parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma.

 The cells of each simple tissue bear the same name as their
respective tissue.

 This tissue generally forms either the pith, cortex or bulk of leaf
(mesophyll).

 The function of ground tissue is photosynthesis, storage,

regeneration, support and protection.

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I. Parenchyma cells
 most abundant cells in plants;
 spherical cells which flatten at point of contact;
 alive at maturity; pliable, primary cell walls;
 large vacuoles for storage of starch, fats, and tannins (denature
proteins);
 primary sites of the metabolic functions such as photosynthesis,
respiration, and protein synthesis;
 they are "ready reserves" from which a plant makes specialized
cells to meet its changing needs
• Healing and tissue regeneration
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1/3/2023 36
II. Collenchyma cells

o living protoplasm;

o unevenly thickened primary cell walls; elongate cells;

o longer than wide; just beneath epidermis;

o function to support growing organs, grass, floral parts, and

border veins; their non-lignified cell walls can stretch

Support in young stems, roots, and petioles

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III. Sclerenchyma cells- ( skleos = hard)
 most are dead at maturity (i.e., have lost their protoplasts).
 rigid (support), thick, lignified, non-stretchable secondary cell walls
 Protection
 The two principal types of sclerenchyma cells are sclereids and
fibres
Sclereids or stone cells- short; variable shape; form hard layers
such as the shells of nuts and seed coats;
o produce the gritty texture of pears
Fibers- long, slender; occur in strands or bundles; tiny cavity or
lumen; the different hardnesses of fibers are used to make coarse
rope, linen cloth, etc.
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1/3/2023 39
 II. Anatomy of Dicotyledon and Monocotyledon

a. Leaf anatomy:
Dicotyledonous Leaf
 The vertical section of a dorsiventral leaf through the lamina
shows three main parts:
 epidermis,
 mesophyll and
 vascular system.
 The epidermis which covers both the upper surface (adaxial
epidermis) and lower surface (abaxial epidermis) of the leaf has
a conspicuous cuticle.
 The abaxial epidermis generally bears more stomata than the
adaxial epidermis. The latter may even lack stomata. Why?
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 The tissue between the upper and the lower epidermis is called
the mesophyll.
 Mesophyll, which possesses chloroplasts and carry out
photosynthesis, is made up of parenchyma.
 It has two types of cells: the palisade parenchyma and the
spongy parenchyma.
 The adaxially placed palisade parenchyma is made up of
elongated cells, which are arranged vertically and parallel to
each other.

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 The oval or round and loosely arranged spongy parenchyma is
situated below the palisade cells and extends to the lower
epidermis.
 There are numerous large spaces and air cavities between these
cells.
 Vascular system includes vascular bundles, which can be seen
in the veins and the midrib.
 The size of the vascular bundles is dependent on the size of the
veins. The veins vary in thickness in the reticulate venation of
the dicot leaves.
 The vascular bundles are surrounded by a layer of thick walled
bundle sheath cells.
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 Fig : T.S of Dicot leaf
1/3/2023 43
Monocotyledonous Leaf

 The anatomy of isobilateral leaf is similar to that of the

dorsiventral leaf in many ways.
 It shows the following characteristic differences.
 The stomata are present on both the surfaces of the
epidermis; and
 The mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy
parenchyma.

1/3/2023 Fig : T.S of Monocot leaf 44

 In grasses, certain adaxial epidermal cells along the veins
modify themselves into large, empty, colourless cells.

These are called bulliform cells.

 When the bulliform cells in the leaves have absorbed water

and are turgid, the leaf surface is exposed.

 When they are flaccid due to water stress, they make the
leaves curl inwards to minimize water loss.

 The parallel venation in monocot leaves is reflected in the

near similar sizes of vascular bundles (except in main veins)
as seen in vertical sections of the leaves.
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b. Stem Anatomy
Anatomy of Dicotyledonous Stems
 The transverse section of a typical young dicotyledonous stem
shows that the epidermis is the outermost protective layer of the
stem

 Covered with a thin layer of cuticle, it may bear trichomes and a

few stomata.

 The cells arranged in multiple layers between epidermis and

pericycle constitutes the cortex.

1/3/2023 46
 Cortex consists of three sub-zones: hypodermis, parenchymatous
cells and endodermis.

 The outer hypodermis consists of a few layers of collenchymatous

cells just below the epidermis, which provide mechanical strength
to the young stem.

 Cortical layers below hypodermis consist of rounded thin walled

parenchymatous cells with conspicuous intercellular spaces.

 The innermost layer of the cortex is called the endodermis.

 The cells of the endodermis are rich in starch grains and the layer
is also referred to as the starch sheath.

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 Pericycle is present on the inner side of the endodermis and
above the phloem in the form of semi-lunar patches of
sclerenchyma.

 In between the vascular bundles, there are a few layers of radially

placed parenchymatous cells, which constitute medullary rays.

 A large number of vascular bundles are arranged in a ring form.

 Ring form vascular bundle arrangement is a characteristic of

dicot stem.

 Each vascular bundle is conjoint, open, and with endarch

protoxylem.
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 A large number of rounded, parenchymatous cells with large
intercellular spaces which occupy the central portion of the stem
constitute the pith.

1/3/2023 Fig : T.S of Dicot stem 49

Anatomy of Monocotyledonous Stems
 The monocot stem has a sclerenchymatous hypodermis, a large number
of scattered vascular bundles, each surrounded by a sclerenchymatous
bundle sheath, and a large, conspicuous parenchymatous ground tissue
 Vascular bundles are conjoint and closed.
 Peripheral vascular bundles are generally smaller than the centrally
located ones.
 The phloem parenchyma is absent, and water-containing cavities are
present within the vascular bundles.
 vascular bundles scattered throughout ground tissue –
o have no vascular cambium –
o so secondary growth is not possible

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 Fig 3.2b: T.S of Monocot stem

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c. Root anatomy
Anatomy of Dicotyledonous Root
 The internal tissue organization of dicot root is as follows:
 The outermost layer is epidermis. Many of the epidermal cells protrude in
the form of unicellular root hairs.
 The cortex consists of several layers of thin-walled parenchyma cells with
intercellular spaces.
 The innermost layer of the cortex is called endodermis. It comprises a
single layer of barrel-shaped cells without any intercellular spaces. The
tangential as well as radial walls of the endodermal cells have a deposition
of water impermeable, waxy material-suberin-in the form of casparian
strips.

1/3/2023 52
  Next to endodermis lie a few layers of thick-walled
parenchymatous cells referred to as pericycle.

 Initiation of lateral roots and vascular cambium during the

secondary growth takes place in these cells.

 The pith is small or inconspicuous. The parenchymatous cells

which lie between the xylem and the phloem are called conjuctive
tissue.

 There are usually two to four xylem and phloem patches. Later, a
cambium ring develops between the xylem and phloem.

 All tissues on the inner side of the endodermis such as pericycle,

vascular bundles and pith constitute the stele.

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 Fig : T.S of Dicot root (primary)
1/3/2023 54
Monocotyledonous Root

 The anatomy of the monocot root is similar to the dicot root in

many respects.

 It has epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular bundles

and pith.

 As compared to the dicot root which has fewer xylem bundles,

there are usually more than six (polyarch) xylem bundles in the
monocot root.

 Pith is large and well developed.

1/3/2023 55
 As in dicots, there is a large cortex but the endodermis is very
prominent and heavily thickened.

 Monocotyledonous roots do not undergo any secondary

growth.

Fig : T.S of Monocot root

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1/3/2023 57
4.2.2 Plant Morphology: Vegetative parts

 The angiosperms show a large diversity in external structure or

morphology,

they are all characterized by presence of roots, stems,

leaves, flowers and fruits

 Q1. Differentiate b/n reproductive and vegetative organs

 Q2 . How many system do possess plant? Name them and

their development

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A. Root
 is the underground part of the plants.
 develops from the radicle.
 is positively geotropic and hydrotropic and negatively
phototropic.
Function of roots:
 to anchor the plant to its substrate and
 to absorb and conduct water and minerals from the soils.
 storing reserve food material and
 synthesis of plant growth regulators.
 propagation /reproduction (vegetative)
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1/3/2023 60
Structure of Root

 The root is covered at the apex by a thimble-like structure called

the root cap.

 It protects the tender apex of the root as it makes its way

through the soil.

 A few millimeters above the root cap is the region of

meristematic activity.

 The meristematic region are very small, thin-walled and with

dense protoplasm. They divide repeatedly.

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 The cells proximal to this region undergo rapid elongation and
enlargement and are responsible for the growth of the root in
length. This region is called the region of elongation.

 The cells of the elongation zone gradually differentiate and

mature. Hence, this zone, proximal to region of elongation, is
called the region of maturation.

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Types of root
 On the basis of their origin, there are two types of roots.
i) Tap Root
ii) Adventitious Root
i) Tap Root
 It is developed directly from the radical, and initially develops primary
root.
 Then it produces lateral root branches called secondary roots.
 Branches of the secondary roots in turn produce tertiary roots and so on.
 The root system developing from a tap root is called tap root system.
 Tap root system occurs in dicotyledonous plants.

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ii) Adventitious Root
 A root developing from any part of the plant other than the radicle
is called an adventitious root.
 Such roots may develop from hypocotyl, stem or leaf parts.
 On the basis of the nature development, the adventious are divided
into three as follows:
o Foliar roots: roots developing from any part of the leaf.
o Fibrous roots: roots developing from the base of a stem.
o True adventitious roots: roots developed from nodes and
internodes of stem.

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 Tap root Adventitious root

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Modification of roots
 Roots in some plants change their shape and structure and
become modified to perform functions other than anchorage to
the substrate, absorption and conduction of water and minerals.

i) Food Storage

 Both tap root and adventitious root modified for food storage.

 Such roots are underground, fleshy and of various shapes.

 The stored food helps the plant in tiding over the dormancy.

e.g., Carrot, Beet root, Sweet potato etc.

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ii) Mechanical Support
(a) Stilt roots:
 Adventitious roots arise from node of the stem nearer to the
ground.
 These roots grow obliquely downwards, enter the soil and
provide mechanical support. E.g., In Maize and Pandanus

1/3/2023 Maize Pandanus 67

(b) Prop Roots:
 The root system possesses a strong hold in the soil.

 Its aerial branches grow horizontally.

 Gradually they become thick and heavy. They may snap under
their own weight. To prevent this, prop roots develop.

 Prop roots are rope-like and develop in groups.

 They grow downwards, enter the soil and develop prop roots.
Later, they become thick and pillar-like. E.g., Banyan

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1/3/2023 69
iii) Climbing
 Plants growing as twinners and climbers possess weak stems.

 They possess modified structures for climbing.

Pothos Root- Modification for climbing

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VI) Absorption of Moisture
 Some Orchids live as epiphytes on the branches of trees in
forests.
o They obtain only a habitat from the host. They do not obtain
water and prepared food from the host.
o They have no contact with soil.
o They produce some adventitious roots which remain
suspended in air. These roots are spongy, thick, long and
greenish.
o A specialized velamen tissue occurs on their outer surface.
 The cells of this tissue are polygonal, thick walled and arranged
in many layers and absorb moisture from atmosphere.
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 Orchid
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 Vii) Parasitism

 Some plants are dependent on other plants for their nutrition.

They are called parasitic plants.

 It develops suckers or haustoria at places of close contact with the

host plant.

 Through these haustoria it establishes direct contact between its

own conducting tissues and the conducting tissues of the host.

 These haustoria suck water, minerals and prepared food from the
host. Such ‘suckers’ act as parasitic roots.

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Viii) Symbiosis root
 The leguminous plants like Bean, Groundnut and others
possess nodules on their root systems. These are called root
nodules.
 Nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium bacteria live in these root nodules.
 These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into absorbable
form of nitrogen cpds through nitrogen fixation.
o These cpds are available to the plants. In return, the bacteria
obtain a habitat and nutrition. Such a mutually beneficial
relationship is called symbiosis and the roots are called
symbiotic roots.
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 Symbiosis - Root nodules

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 B. Stem
 The stem is the ascending part of the axis bearing branches,
leaves, flowers and fruits.
 It develops from the plumule of the embryo of a germinating
seed.
The stem bears nodes and internodes.
o The region of the stem where leaves are born are called
nodes while internodes are the portions between two nodes.
The stem bears buds, which may be terminal or axillary.
Stem is generally green when young and later often become
woody and dark brown.
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 The main function of stem

 bearing leaves, flowers and fruits.

 conducts water, minerals and photosynthates.

 Some stems storage of food, support, protection and of

vegetative propagation.

 Stem increase in diameter through the activity of lateral

meristems which produce the bark and the wood in woody plants.

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 Structure of the stem
 The stem structure of a plant is usually responsible for its
overall manner of growth or habit, which may be described
as:
o Herbs- containing non wood

o Shrubs- woody and lack main stem or trunk rather they are highly
branching arising from ground level(less than 3-4 meters)

o Trees- has single woody main trunk. Larger than shrubs

o Climber (woody vines/ lianas or non woody) - need physical

support for growth.

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 Stems may be simple or variously branched, either at the base or
along the length of the stem, and either herbaceous (leaflike in
texture; non-woody) or woody.

 The soft tissues found in stems of herbaceous plants result from

primary growth (not secondary growth).

 Woody plants, however, exhibit primary growth in their first year

followed in subsequent years by secondary stem growth.

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 Modifications of stem
Stems are modified to perform different functions.
i) Food storage:
 Underground stems of potato, ginger, turmeric, and Colocasia are
modified to store food in them.
 They also act as organs of perennation to tide over conditions
unfavourable for growth.
ii) Support:
 Stem tendrils develop from axillary buds, are slender and spirally
coiled and help plants to climb such as in gourds (cucumber,
pumpkins, watermelon) and grapevines.
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iii) Protection:
 Axillary buds of stems may also get modified into woody, straight and
pointed thorns. Thorns are found in many plants such as Citrus, Carissa,
Bougainvillea. They protect plants from browsing animals.
iv) Photosynthesis:
 Some plants of arid regions modify their stems into flattened or fleshy
cylindrical structures. They contain chlorophyll and carry out

photosynthesis. e.g., Opuntia and Euphorbia

 Some plants of arid regions modify their stems into flattened (Opuntia
or Cacti), or fleshy cylindrical (Euphorbia) structures termed as
Phylloclade.
o They contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis
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v) Vegetative propagation:

 Underground stems of some plants such as grass and

strawberry, sugarcane, etc., spread to new niches and when
older parts die new plants are formed.

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Figure 3.1 Modifications of stem for: (a) storage (b) support (c) protection (d) vegetative
propagation
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C. Leaf
 Leaf is a flattened plant organ developing at the nodes of the
stem.
 They are borne exogenously and bear buds in their axil.
 Leaf is the most variable plant organ varies in their anatomy and
morphology.

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Leaf Parts:
 Apex: - is the tip portion of a leaf

 Leaf base: - is basal part of a leaf where the leaf attached to a

stem or branch

 Petiole: - is a stalk of a leaf which attaches the lamina with the

branch / stem.

 Stipules: - appendages of leaf base

 Lamina (Leaf blade): - is the flattened part of leaf which

usually is green in color.

 Margin:- is the outer lining of a leaf.

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 Leaf Shapes

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 Leaf Margins

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 Leaf Bases

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 Mid rib: - is a thick conducting tube which divides the leaf into
two halves. It gives out lateral veins called primary veins, which
in turn divide repeatedly to form a network of veinlets.

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Parts of leaf
Types of leaves
 based on incision of lamina/blade, there are two types of
leaves.

i) Simple leaf:

 when its lamina is entire or when incised, the incisions do not

touch the midrib.

ii) Compound leaf:

 When the incisions of the lamina reach up to the midrib

breaking it into a number of leaflets. The leaf is called
compound leaf.

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 The compound leaves may be of two types: pinnately
compound leaf and palmately compound leaves.

i) Pinnately compound leaves: a number of leaflets are present

on a common axis, the rachis. E.g Rose

ii) Palmately compound leaves: the leaflets are attached at a

common point, i.e. at the tip of petiole, as in silk cotton.

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Leaf venation

 The arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the lamina of leaf is

termed as leaf venation.
 There are two types of leaf venation: reticulate venation and
parallel venation.
i) Reticulate venation:- When the vein lets form a network, the venation is
termed as reticulate.
ii) Parallel venation:- When the veins run parallel to each other within a
lamina, the venation is termed as parallel.

 Leaves of dicotyledonous plants generally possess reticulate

venation, while parallel venation is the characteristic of most
monocotyledons.
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 Reticulate Venation
Parallel Venation

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Phyllotaxy (Leaf arrangement)

 is the pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem or branch.

 There are usually of three types: alternate, opposite and

whorled.

i) Alternate type of phyllotaxy:

 A single leaf arises at each node in alternate manner. E.g., China rose,
mustard and sun flower plants.

ii) Opposite type of phyllotaxy:

 A pair of leaves arise at each node and lie opposite to each

other. E.g., Calotropis and guava plants.
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iii) Whorled type of phyllotaxy:

 If more than two leaves arise at a node and form a whorl, it is

called whorled. E.g., Alstonia.

Alternate Opposite Whorld

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Modifications of leaves
 Leaves are often modified to perform functions other than
photosynthesis.

i) Food storage:
 The fleshy leaves of onion and garlic store food.

 Eg. Cabbage, lettuce, etc

ii) Support:

 They are converted into tendrils for climbing as in peas.

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 iii) Protection:
They are converted into spines for defense as in cacti.

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iv) Carnivorous leaf:

 Leaves of certain insectivorous plants such as pitcher plant,

venus-fly trap, water lily, etc are also modified leaves.
Venus flytrap plant
pitcher plants

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Questions

1. Differentiate between modified organs of plants like Tuber,

rhizome, bulb.

2. What is the difference between woody and herbs habits?

3. Discuss the role of morphology and anatomy of plants (root,

stem and leaves) in taxonomy.

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 4.2.3. Plant Morphology: Reproductive Parts

a. The Flowers

 The flower is the reproductive organ in the angiosperms.

 It is meant for sexual reproduction.

 It is very important in identification of a taxon (either at the

family, genus, or species level).

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 Parts of a Flower
A flower normally has four floral whorls: calyx, corolla,
androecium and gynoecium and other are receptacle (thalamus )
and pedicel
1. Calyx: The calyx is the outermost whorl of the flower and the
members are called sepals.
 Sepals are green, leaf like and protect the flower in the bud
stage.
2. Corolla: Corolla is composed of petals.
 Petals are usually brightly coloured to attract insects for
pollination.
 The shape and colour of corolla vary greatly in plants.
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3. Androecium: is composed of stamens.

 Each stamen which represents the male reproductive organ

 consists of a stalk or a filament and an anther.

 Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two chambers, the
pollen-sacs.

 The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs.

4. Gynoecium: is the female reproductive part of the flower

 made up of one or more carpels

 A carpel consists of three parts namely stigma, style and ovary.

Ovary is the enlarged basal part

The style connects the ovary to the stigma.

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  The stigma is usually at the tip of the style and is the receptive
surface for pollen grains.

 Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached to a flattened,

cushion-like placenta.

 The receptacle is the axis (stem) to which the floral organs are
attached.

 The calyx and corolla together compose the perianth.

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Type flowers

a. Complete or incomplete flowers

Flowers containing all four floral appendages are known as
complete flowers.
Flowers lacking any of the four floral structures are known as
incomplete flowers.

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b. Perfect or imperfect flowers
 Flowers with both stamens and carpels (pistil ) are called
perfect flowers even if sepals or petals are lacking.
Some flowers are unisexual; they are either staminate or
carpellate.
Incomplete flowers lacking either stamens or carpels are
imperfect flowers.
A single plant may have both staminate and carpellate
flowers;
o The plant is said to be monoecious.

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1. Discus on the flora parts of Euphorbia Pulcherrima

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 Bracts are modified leaves, usually differing in size, shape, and color from other
leaves.
 reduced leaf found at the base of the pedicel –
 Bracts serve varied functions such as attracting pollinators and protecting
inflorescences or flower structures.
 The floral buds are usually protected by the bracts.
 Flower with a bract is described as bracteate and the flower without a bract is
known as ebracteate.
 Type & number as criteria for classification

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 Flowers symmetry
Actinomorphic or polysymmetric (radial symmetry):
flower can be divided into two equal radial halves in any
radial plane passing through the centre, e.g., mustard,
datura, chilli.
Zygomorphic (bilateral symmetry) or monosymmetric:
Flower divided into two similar halves only in one
particular vertical plane, e.g., pea, gulmohur, bean, Cassia.
Asymmetric (Amorphic): Flower lacks any plane of
symmetry and cannot be divided into equal halves in any plane.
Parts of such flowers are twisted. Example: Canna indica,
Crotalaria
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 A flower may be trimerous, tetramerous or pentamerous when the
floral appendages are in multiple of 3, 4 or 5 respectively.

 The vegetative differences between monocots and dicots are easily

recognizable differences in the floral structures.

 Monocots generally have their floral parts in threes or multiples of

three; for example, lilies have three sepals, three petals, six stamens,
and a three-part ovary (formed from the fusion of three carpels).

 Dicots generally have a numerical plan of four or five or multiples;

o Example, a wild geranium flower contains five sepals, five petals,

10 stamens, and five fused carpels with separate stigmas.

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 Inflorescences (Floral Arrangement)

 Inflorescences are clusters of flowers on a branch or a system of

branches.

 The apex gets converted into a flower or continues to grow (by

their arrangement on an axis),

 Flower occurring singly terminally on the shoot is solitary flower.

Eg. Liliaceae

 The type of inflorescence where the flower arise in cluster on the

flora axis is called peduncle

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There are two type of inflorescence:

 Determinate or definite (cymose) -florescence ends with a

flower at the top of the axis inflorescence

 Indeterminate or indefinite (racemose) inflorescences -

theoretically continue to elongate and produce new flowers

 In indeterminate inflorescences

 Branching and the associated flowers develop at some distance

from the main stem (monopodial growth).

 are varied types: racemes, panicles, spikes, catkins (or

aments), corymbs, umbel and heads.

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 A raceme is an inflorescence in which a flower develops at the axil
of each leaf along an elongated, unbranched axis.

 Each flower terminates a short stalk called a pedicel.

 The main axis has indeterminate growth; therefore, its growth

does not cease at the onset of flowering.

 A spike is a raceme except that the flowers are attached directly to

the axis at the axil of each leaf rather than to a pedicel.

 The fleshy spike characteristic of the Araceae is called a spadix,

and the underlying bract is known as a spathe.

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 A corymb is a raceme in which the pedicels (pedicle) of the
lower flowers are longer than those of the upper ones so that the
appearance of the inflorescence overall is that of a flat flower

The lower flowers open first, and the axis of a corymb

continues to produce flowers (indeterminate growth).
 Umbel the axis is short or stunted, the flowers arise from a
common point and appear to be at approximately the same level.

a flattened raceme because the internodes of the axis, or

peduncle (the point of origin of the leaves and flower axes), are
shortened so that the pedicels are of the same length (e.g., the
carrot family).
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 A head (capitulum) is a raceme in which the peduncle is flattened

and the flowers are attached directly to it (e.g., aster family,

Asteraceae).

This results in a grouping of small flowers in such a way as to

appear as a single flower.

In the compound indeterminate inflorescences, the main axis is

branched so that the many inflorescences form off the main axis.

 A panicle is a branched raceme in which the branches are

themselves racemes (e.g., yuccas, Yucca).

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 What type of inflorescence are these flowers?

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Position of ovary
 Based on the position of calyx, corolla and androecium in respect of
the ovary on thalamus (receptacle), the flowers are

 Hypogynous flower: the gynoecium occupies the highest position

while the other parts are situated below it.

o The ovary in such flowers is said to be superior, e.g., mustard,

china rose and brinjal.

 Perigynous: gynoecium is situated in the centre and other parts of

the flower are located on the rim of the thalamus almost at the same
level, it is called.

o The ovary here is said to be half inferior, e.g., plum, rose,

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  Epigynous flowers, the margin of thalamus grows upward
enclosing the ovary completely and getting fused with it, the
other parts of flower arise above the ovary.

o Hence, the ovary is said to be inferior as in flowers of

guava and cucumber, and the ray florets of sunflower.

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 Pollination and fertilization
Male Gametophyte Development
 Pollen grains are the male gametophytes of plants.

 They are formed in the anther, in a process starting with many diploid cells
called microsporocytes (mother cells).

 The stamen consists of a filament and the anther, also known as the
microsporangium.

 the anther is bilobed that consists of four pollen sacs, or locules. i.e. diploid

 During the development of the stamen, certain cells in the pollen chambers of
the anther become distinct as microspore mother cells;

 in fact, the pollen chambers are technically referred to as microsporangia

(sing., microsporangium).

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 Each microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce four
microspores (male spores).

 Initially, the four spores stay together as a tetrad, but eventually they
separate and each will develop into a pollen grain, an immature male
gametophyte.

 In the development of the pollen grain, the microspore undergoes a

mitotic division to produce two cells,

 a small generative cell and

 a large vegetative cell (or tube cell).

 Also, the wall of the microspore becomes chemically and structurally
modified into the pollen wall.
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 The pollen wall consists of

o an inner layer, the intine, and

o an outer layer, the exine, which may be ornamented with

spines, ridges, or pores.

 When the pollen grains are fully developed, they are released as
the anthers open, or dehisce.

 When the anther opens, the mature male gametophytes or pollen

grains will be disseminated and ready for germination.

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 Female Gametophyte Development
 Within the ovary one or more ovules develop; an ovule consists of
a megasporangium enveloped by one or two layers of tissue called
integuments.
 The integuments completely surround the megasporangium except
for an opening called the micropyle.
 During the development of the ovule, one cell becomes distinct as a
megaspore mother cell; it is surrounded by tissue called the
nucellus.
 The megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce four
megaspores; generally three of these degenerate, leaving one
surviving megaspore.
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 This megaspore then undergoes a series of mitotic divisions,
eventually producing a mature female gametophyte, which is often
called the embryo sac.
 In the typical pattern of development, a series of three mitotic
divisions produces eight nuclei within the greatly enlarged
megaspore.
 These eight nuclei are distributed with
 three (the egg apparatus) near the micropyle end of the ovule,
 three antipodals at the opposite end, and
 two polar nuclei in the center.

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 The egg apparatus consists of two synergids and one egg.
 Cell walls soon develop around the egg, synergids, and
antipodals; at this stage the female gametophyte is mature

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 Pollination
 Pollination is the mechanical transfer of pollen grains from an
anther to a stigma, the receptive end of a carpel.
 Pollination is accomplished by a variety of physical dispersal agents
 wind, water, and gravity or many kinds of animals including
insects, bats, birds, and small rodents.
 The variations in floral structure are, in large part, adaptations to
achieve pollination success.
 Type of pollination:
 cross-pollination (allogamy), occurs between flowers located on separate
plants
 self-pollination (autogamous) occurs when pollen from the anthers falls on
stigmas of the same plant.
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 Agent of Pollination
 Different pollinators prefer different types of flowers.
 Color of petals and scent are what attract animals/insects to
flowers.
Insects:- bees, wasps, flies, ants, butterflies, and moths are the
most familiar,
o Flowers provide pollen and nectar as a sort of bribe to
induce insects to transfer pollen from one flower to the next
and cause pollination.
o Various contrasting color patterns (nectar guides) seen on
petals serve to direct insects toward the nectar
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 Bees tend to prefer flowers that are ultraviolet, blue, purple, or
yellow or some combination of these colors.
 Butterflies, on the other hand, visit flowers that are orange, yellow,
pink or blue.
 Moths are active at night, so require flowers that are open and
providing nectar at night. White flowers with a very strong, sweet
scent are easiest for them to locate. eg, datura, tobacco, and primrose.
 Beetles come to dull, reddish brown flowers that smell spicy or like
rotting fruit. Eg. magnolia and spice bush.
 Flies pollinate a few specialized flowers. They are attracted to drab,
colorless or green flowers that often emit a foul odor to lure them.

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 Birds , particularly hummingbirds, prefer red and orange flowers that
are tubular in shape. Flowers that are pollinated by birds generally lack
a scent. Eg. aloes.

 Bats like the moths, are attracted to flowers that open as night.
Examples of bat pollinated plants are saguaros and agaves.

 Generally, studying the relationship between flowers and their

pollinators is very useful to help maintain endangered species, to
encourage propagation of your favorite plant and/or to help you create a
garden that attracts the type of pollinator you are interested in.

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 Fertilization
 Once pollination has been accomplished, the stage is set for
fertilization.
 An angiosperm ovule contains an egg cell and a diploid fusion
nucleus, which is created through the joining of two polar nuclei
within the ovule.
 When the pollen grain lands on the stigma of a genetically
compatible flower, it absorbs moisture and a pollen tube emerges
through a pore in the wall.
 The germinated pollen grain with its pollen tube and three nuclei
is the mature male gametophyte.

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 The tube grows downward toward the ovary through special
tissues in the style, penetrates the embryo sac, usually through the
micropyle (destroying a synergid in the process), and discharges
its contents.
 As the pollen tube penetrates the ovule, it releases two sperm
cells.
 One fuses with the egg to create a diploid zygote, while
 the other joins with the fusion nucleus (polar cell,) to form a
triploid nucleus.
o This triploid nucleus turns into an endosperm.

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 In other words, a double fertilization occurs:
 Both sperms fuse with embryo sac nuclei.
 Double fertilization is a characteristic of the angiosperms and
results in a polyploid endosperm tissue.
 Polyploidy refers to the number of sets of chromosomes the cell
contains; plants with more than the diploid two sets are
polyploids.
 The endosperm tissue may be triploid (3n) or more depending
upon the species.
 If double fertilization does occur, the ovule develops into a seed
and the entire ovary into a fruit.
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1/3/2023 138
 Placentation

 The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known as

placentation.

 The placentation are of different types namely, marginal, axile,

parietal, basal, central and free central.

o Marginal placentation- the placenta forms a ridge along the

ventral suture of the ovary and the ovules are borne on this
ridge forming two rows, e.g. pea.

o Axial placenta is in china rose, tomato and lemon.

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 o Parietal placentation- the ovules develop on the inner wall
of the ovary or on peripheral part.

the formation of the false septum, e.g., mustard and

Argemone.

o Free central- When the ovules are borne on central axis and
septa are absent, eg. Dianthus and Primrose

o Basal placentation- the placenta develops at the base of ovary

and a single ovule is attached to it, as in sunflower, marigold.

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 Figure: Types of placentation : (a) Marginal (b) Axile (c) Parietal (d) Free central (e) Basal
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 b. Fruits and Seeds
 Fruits
 Fertilization of an egg within a carpel by a compatible pollen grain results
in seed development within the carpel from the ovary---true fruits.
 Formation of fruit without the fertilization of an egg and subsequent seed
development is called parthenocarpy e.g. banana.
 A fruit is a ripened ovary (or compound ovary) and any other structure,
usually the hypanthium, that ripens and forms a unit with it.
 Tomatoes, eggplants, and squashes are fruits, because they are derived
from floral parts.

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 Fruits aid in the dispersal and protection of dormant seeds.
 Though there are several types of fruits (simple fruits, aggregate
fruits, and multiple fruits), all are created from the growing
ovary of a fertilized flower.
Classification is based on:the development of fruits from
carpel(s) and the nature of fruit wall
 The form, texture, and structure of fruits are varied

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 Type of fruits
1. Simple fruits: develop from single ovary in one flower.
 Examples include mango, cucumber, peapod, walnut,
tomato, orange, cherry, apple, dandelion, and maple
“helicopter.”

 Generally, the fruit consists of a wall or pericarp and seeds.

 The fruit wall or pericarp, is divided into three regions: the

inner layer, or endocarp; the middle layer, or mesocarp; and
the outer layer, or exocarp.
 These regions (pericarp) may be fleshy or dry.

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 Type of simple fruits
There are two types: dry and fleshy
 Simple fleshy fruits- three main types: berries, drupes and
pomes.

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 Berries are many-seeded simple fruits composed of one carpel or a
multicarpellary syncarpous ovary.
 whole pericarp is succulent
 Ovary may be superior or inferior, Placentation is axile or parietal
 They are fleshy throughout, but the exocarp ranges in texture:
o a soft, thin exocarp, as in tomatoes (a berry);
o a leathery exocarp, as in oranges (a hesperidium);
o a somewhat hard exocarp, as in pumpkins (a pepo).

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1/3/2023 147
 Drupes, or stone fruits: fruit develops from mono or
multicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary.
 there is usually only one seed per carpel or locule.
 Pericarp divided into three layers i.e. epicarp, mesocarp(juicy)
and endocarp(hard)
 Drupes are fleshy fruits and consist of an inner stony or
woody endocarp, which adheres to the seed (peaches, mango,
plums, and cherries).
The term druplet is used for each unit of aggregate fruit of
this type (e.g., raspberries and blackberries).

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  Eg. In mango the pericarp is well differentiated into
o an outer thin epicarp/exocarp,
o a middle fleshy edible mesocarp and
o an inner stony hard endocarp.
 In coconut , the mesocarp is fibrous

Figure: Parts of a fruit: (a) Mango (b) Coconut

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 Mango (Mangifera indica)
Coconut (Cocos nucifera)

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 Pomes: are fleshy fruits of the rose family (Rosaceae) in which an
adnate hypanthium becomes fleshy (apples and pears).

 swollen receptacle that is usually a false fruit

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Simple dry fruits - dehiscent and indehiscent

 They are dehiscent if the pericarp splits open at maturity and

releases the seeds when the fruit is shed from the plant.

 The three principal types of dehiscent fruits are follicles,

legumes, and capsules.

Follicles and legumes are each derived from one ovary

with a single carpel,

capsule is derived from several united carpels.

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 As the fruit matures, the pericarp dries and the fruit splits.
follicles split along a single side of the fruit, such as in the
milkweeds, columbines, and magnolias,
legumes split along both sides, as in the bean family.
Capsules have two or more carpels and split open to release
their seeds in various ways.
They may open longitudinally to expose the seeds within
each locule (cavity) or longitudinally along each septum
between the locules, as in the agave (Agave; Agavaceae). ,
datura, aloe

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 Capsule
Follicle: milkweed

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Legume:
 Indehiscent fruits are if the pericarp remains intact when the fruit is
shed from the plant it is derived from either single carpels or compound
ovaries.
 Single carpel forms include the achene, the samara, and the
caryopsis.
 Forms derived from a compound ovary include nuts and
schizocarps.

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 An achene is a Small, one-seeded fruit; pericarp is easily separable
from seed coat.
 Eg. "Dry" fruit of strawberry, buckwheat, and sunflower
family (Compositae)

 The samara is a Winged, one-or two-seeded achene-like fruit;

wing(s) form from outgrowth of ovary wall. Eg. Elms, ash, maples

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 Caryopsis or grain, the seed adheres to the fruit wall (pericarp).
 The caryopsis is found among the cereal grasses, includes
wheat, oats, rice, corn, barley, rye, and other important grasses
 Nuts have a stony pericarp, and usually only a single seed in each
carpel matures, as in acorns of oaks and hazelnuts
 Schizocarps are fruits in which each carpel of a compound ovary
splits apart to form two or more parts, each with a single seed.
 found in the carrot family (Apiaceae). Winged schizocarps are
found in maples

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 Schizocarp: fennel
Achene: sunflower

Grain(caryopsis):
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oats Nut: 158
2. Aggregate fruits: develop from several ovaries/carpels
in one flower of free carpel.
 An individual ovary develops into a drupe, achene, follicle
or berry.
 Examples include raspberry and strawberry, Annona .

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Eg. Custard apple (Annona squamosa)
3. Multiple fruits: consist of the gynoecia of more than one
flower and represent a whole inflorescence, whose ovaries fuse
together after fertilization
 When fertilized, the ovarian walls of these clustered flowers
begin to thicken, and eventually fuse together to form one
larger fruit. such as the fig and pineapple.

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 Jackfruits (Artocarpus heterophyllus),

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 Seeds
 Seeds are the mature ovules.
 They contain the developing embryo and the nutritive tissue for the seedling.
 Seeds are surrounded by one or two integuments, which develop into a seed
coat that is usually hard.
 They are enclosed in the ovary of a carpel and thus are protected from the
elements and predators.
 The ovule is attached to the ovary wall until maturity by a short stalk called the
funiculus.
 The area of attachment to the ovary wall is referred to as the placenta.
 The arrangement of placentae (placentation) in the compound ovary of
angiosperms is characterized by the presence or absence of a central column in
the ovary and by the site of attachment.

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 Mature seeds are enclosed in integuments that may become hard
and stony or that may have an outer fleshy, usually brightly
coloured sarcotesta with an inner stony sclerotesta.
 Seed coats also may be winged or variously ornamented with
prickles or sclerified hairs.
 In some seeds, there may be an extra covering, the aril, which is
an outgrowth of the funiculus.
 The aril of tomato seeds makes them slippery.

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 Mechanisms of seed dispersal
 Fruits and seeds are the primary means by which angiosperms are dispersed.

 The chief agents of dispersal are wind, water, and animals.

 Some fruits and seeds have modifications that aid in wind dispersal.

 Fruit modifications include samaras, samaroid schizocarps, and the

feathery calyx lobes (e.g., dandelion).

 Seeds may be modified in various ways to promote dispersal:

 The kind of seeds which are often wind dispersed are smaller and light
seeds that have wings or other hair-like or feather-like structures (e.g.,
orchids, Orchidaceae).

 The fruits or seeds of many aquatic and shore plants are adapted to float on
water as a means of dispersal; for this reason, coconuts (Cocos nucifera;
Arecaceae) are readily transported across oceans to neighbouring islands.
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 Animals disperse fruits and seeds either by ingesting and
subsequently excreting them or by passively transporting them
once they have adhered to an external part of the body, such as the
fur or a claw.

 The evolution of fleshy fruits and seeds exemplifies the

coevolution of plants and their animal agents of dispersal.

 An animal diet often consists solely of fruits and seeds that are
designed to be eaten and dispersed, and in many cases these
seeds require full or partial digestion to stimulate germination.

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 Most fruits with a fleshy pericarp are eaten whole by vertebrates,
including the stony endocarp or the stony seed coat.

 The seeds then either are regurgitated by the animal or pass

through the alimentary canal and are excreted, often some distance
from the original site.

 Seeds with an aril (extra covering) that encloses a stony seed coat
or seeds with a sclerotesta and a fleshy, coloured sarcotesta are
found in dehiscent fruits.

 They are eaten by animals after the fruit has ripened and split
open.

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