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Fundamentals of media English

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 Table of Contents

Dedication: «««««««««..«..««««««««««««

Acknowledgements: ..................................................................................... 3

The Book: ..................................................................................................... 4

Chapter One: Word Classes ......................................................................... 5

Chapter Two: Sentence Structure............................................................... 46

Chapter Three: Punctuation and its Conventions ....................................... 51

Chapter Four: The Necessity of Correct Spelling ...................................... 67

Chapter Five: Grammar and the Radio Copy........................................... 165

References: ............................................................................................... 168

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 Dedication

The book is dedicated to all conscious and organised effort to

improve English grammar proficiency, spelling and punctuation
appreciation among aspiring and practicing journalists globally.

ͲϮͲ

 Acknowledgements

In the culmination of this scholarly adventure of documenting this

inspiring book, we are grateful to Almighty God, who out of His infinite
mercy provided us with the wisdom, time, energy and resources to produce
this intellectual resource. We are deficient for the appropriate adjective to
express our gratitude to distinguished scholars in the field of
Communicaion and Journalism for their contribution to the body of
knowledge in the area.

We are enormously indebted to our oversea editor of Lambert

Academic Publishing, Ms. Catalina Popoveniuc, for the constructive
suggestions and moral support offered towards getting the book published.
We also recognize and appreciate the moral support of Professor Umaru A.
Pate, former Dean of the Faculty of Communication, Bayero University,
Kano and Professor Abdalla Uba Adamu, the Vice Chancellor, National
Open University of Nigeria throughout this adventure which significantly
stimulated and sustained our desire and enthusiasm to accomplish this task.

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 The Book

Studies conducted in the US, UK, Canada and Australia about

English proficiency among students revealed that grammar, spelling and
punctuation are the major challenges irrespective of the academic discipline
and orientatioin. This reality was acknowledged by prominent newspaper
editors in both developed and developing countries as the salient challenges
affecting aspiring and practicing journalists.

Media scholars and professionals are consensual that for the

journalists to communicate to their respective audience with high fidelity
there is the need for substantial appreciation of English grammar right from
the universities and journalism training institutions. This book offers a
comprehensive alternative and resource in English grammar, spelling and
punctuation to journalists alike. The book will equally be useful to Engish
teachers, instructors as well as mass communication and media
professionals.

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 Chapter One
Word Classes

Although English grammar is seen as something essentially difficult

and boring, it fundamentally facilitates effective and confident speaking
and writing. The smallest unit in English language is the word. All words in
English are assigned a grammatical category which is technically known as
part of speech.Every word that occurs in a sentence belongs to one of the
essential word classes. To demonstrate facility with words in English one
needs to be familiar with the word classes, their characteristics, functions
and interactions. This will help you to construct better sentences.
The following are the main word classes in English: Noun,
Pronoun, Adjective, Determiner, Verb, Adverb, Preposition and
Conjunction Noun. A noun can be defined mechanically or organically:
Mechanically a noun is any word or phrase that identifies or
constructs a person, an animal, a thing, a concept, an idea, an incident or an
event. In the following sentences the highlighted expressions are noun: The
editor is writing. The dog is barking. Abuja is in Nigeria. The newspaper
is popular. Democracy is a good system of government. The accident is
ghastly. Chrismas is approaching. Organically a noun is a word that has
the following characteristics:
a) It occurs in a position immediately before and after the verb in a
sentence, e.g.
The news is objective. We saw the reporter.
b) It has plural ending ±s (or some other forms that mean more than
one), e.g. newspapers, churches, children, women.
c) It has a possessive form, e.g. the editor¶V book, the reporter¶V radio.

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 d) It can be preceded by a noun-marker such as a, an, the, my, his, this,
several and many, e.g. a television, many mobile phones, his radio.

Forms of a noun
Noun has four grammatical forms, namely, singular, plural, singular
possessive and plural possessive.
a) The singular form
This refers to a single entity or one in numerical value. Here the
noun is listed as a headword in the dictionary, e.g. radio, television,
newspaper, editor, reporter, journalist.
b) The plural form
Literally plural refers to more than one entity. Regular nouns are
transformed in to plural by the addition of ±s or ±es to the end of the
word, e.g. journalists, editors, tomatoes, mosques.
The nouns that form their plural in the manner described above are
called regular nouns. However, some nouns do not form their plural
by the simple addition of ±s or ±s, but in a number of ways as
presented below. They are called irregular nouns.
i) Some add ±en and ±ren to the end of the noun as in: ox/ oxen and
child/children.
ii) Some change the vowel sound of the word, e.g. man/men;
foot/feet.
iii) Some change the final ±f or ±fe to ±ve and then add ±s, e.g.
half/halves; knife/knives.
iv) Some do not add any ending at all, e.g. aircraft, sheep, and deer.
v) Some can occur with or without the plural ending, e.g. fish(s),
herring(s).

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 c) The singular possessive form
Noun occurs in possessive form to establish ownership. In
journalistic writings, the singular possessive form is indicated by an
apostrophe followed by ±s, e.g. reporter¶V, journalist¶V, editor¶V.
However, if the noun naturally ends in ±s, the additional ±s of the
possessive is retained in writing only when the ±s is pronounced, but
dropped when it is not, e.g. James¶V, Charles¶V-HVXV¶0RVHV¶

d) Plural possessive form

In the plural possessive form the apostrophe is placed infront of the
plural ±s and the possessive ±s is dropped. But if the noun forms its
plural without adding ±s, the possessive ±s is retained. Examples of
plural possessive are boyV¶, studentV¶, journalistV¶, editorV¶,
reporterV¶. Therefore, it is structurally foulty to write: FKLOGUHQV¶ and
SHRSOHV¶.

Classifications of noun
Nouns are very common feature of English language and are
principally divided into sub-classes of their structure as follows.
a) Common and proper nouns
Common noun signifies a whole class of person, places or things or
an unidentified member of that class. It literally refers to something
of which there are many examples, hence very common. Examples
of common noun include, team, committee, audience, country,
religion, man and book. Conversely, proper noun denotes an
identified person, place or thing of which there is limited or one
example. Conventionally a proper noun begins with an upper case

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 letter, e.g. Abuja, Nigeria, London, Buhari, John, Toyota, and
River Niger.

b) Countable and uncountable nouns

A noun that is preceded by the determiner (a or an) and can exist in
plural form is grammatically classified as countable noun. This is
because it can make a clear distinction between the singular and the
plural form, e.g. city, gate, foot, lady, journalist, television and
university. Uncountable on the other hand is not preceded by a
determiner and does not exist in plural form. Because it cannot make
distinction between the singular and plural forms, it is grammatically
treated as singular, e.g. information, luggage, equipment, under
wear, poverty, education, sugar, petrol.

c) Concrete and abstract nouns

Concrete noun refers to things that are perceivable to thehuman
sense organs, e.g. bag, ball, newspaper, mobile phone, television
and radio. While abstract noun represents things that are not
perceivable through human sense but exist as ideas and concepts in
human mind or psyche, e.g. anger, beauty, courage, loyalty,
democracy, freedom, wisdom, Christianity, fear, Marxism and
greed. Most concrete nouns are countable while most abstract nouns
are uncountable.

d) Collective nouns
A collective noun is a singular noun that refers to a group of people
or things when the whole group is being considered, e.g. a pack of
wolves, a flock of sheep, a herd of cattle, a school of whales, a

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 fleet of ships, a pride of lions, a team of reports, a committee of
friends.

e) Compound nouns
Compound nouns are fixed expressions that are made up of more
than one word and functions as a noun in a sentence or clause. Most
compound nouns are derived from the combination of two nouns or a
noun and an adjective. Compound nouns are written fundamentally in
variety of styles. Some compound nouns are written as two words
separately, e.g. estate agent, class captain, news editor, script writer,
event manager and public relations. Others are separated by a
hyphen, e.g. pen-friend, tea-spoon, girl-friend, sport-wear and hip-
hop. Some are also written as one word, e.g. housewife, newspaper,
sweetheart, chairman, airplane, aircraft, workshop and
farmland.The style of writing compound nouns adopted and the
observance of consistency is paramount in journalist contents. For
example, babysitter can also be written as baby-sitter, or spinoff as spin-
off depending on the in house style. Other examples of compound nouns
are:
Air conditioner, bank account, blood pressure, coffee jug, frying fan,
health care, income tax, letter-box, make-up, swimming pool teapot,
washing machine, news camera and radio station.
The plural forms of compound noun vary with the type of words they
are made up of. If the final word of a compound noun is countable, the
plural form of the countable noun is used when the compound noun is
made plural, as in police stations, swimming pools, coffee jugs, and
letter-boxes.

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Structural functions of nouns
In English grammar theory noun performs the following eight
functions in English sentences:
a) As subject of the verb. The subject performs the action of the verb or
in the state identified by the verb, e.g. John bought a book, Ahmad
became a journalist.
b) As direct object of the verb. The direct object receives the action of
the verb, e.g. The news director congratulated the reporter.
c) As indirect object of the verb. The indirect object is the element
which benefits from the action described by the verb, e.g. The editor
lent a pen to the reporter.
d) As subject compliment. The subject compliment and the subject refer
to the same person or thing, e.g. The presenter is my friend. The
presenter became the editor.
e) As object compliment. The object compliment and the object refer to
the same person or thing, e.g. the radio station considered the editor a
hero.
f) As prepositional compliment. The prepositional compliment is
required by the preposition to form prepositional phrase and
complete the meaning, e.g. The news reporter placed the recorder on
the table.
g) As a modifier of another noun. The noun functions as adjective to
qualify another noun,e.g. journalists are excluded from the Chrismas
holiday.
h) As an appositive. An appositive is noun or noun phrase used
alongside another noun or noun phrase to further explain it, e.g. The
radio presenter, Mr Joseph, is a generous person.

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Common journalistic usage errors
The following constitutes the frequent areas of the misuse of nouns
by journalists, public relation practitioners and advertisers.
a) Use of uncountable nouns in similar contexts as countable nouns
It has been emphasized that uncountable nouns do exist in plural
form because they do not make distinction between singular and
plural. Conventionally they are treated as singular; consequently,
they should not occur with the following:
i) Plural ending ±s or ±es;
ii) Indefinite article a or an;
iii) Numerals one, ten, hundred etc.;
iv) Quantifiers such as many, few, several.
The following are some of the frequent uncountable nouns
erroneously made plural, or misused by journalists in Nigeria:
Advice furniture luggage
Ammunition hardware offspring
Baggage information personnel
Behaviour jargon slang
Electorate jewellery software
Equipment junk underwear

However, for journalists to use or refer to some specific instances of

uncountable nouns, they can use partitives. These are words or phrases that
identify or denote part of a collective whole, e.g. a piece of advice instead
of an advice, an item of furniture instead of two furniture.

ͲϭϭͲ

 b) Omission of determiners before singular nouns
As a grammatical rule a determiner should always precede the
singular form of a countable noun. It is evident from journalistic contents
that determiners are frequently omitted as in the following examples:
The news editor was offered ( ) special seat at the occasion. (a)
The principal is reading ( ) newspaper. (a)
The lecturer gave the students ( ) assignment. (an)

1.1 Pronouns
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun or noun phrase to
essentially avoid the unnecessary repetition of the noun or noun phrase
throughout the sentence. In English grammar the noun or noun phrase that
a pronoun refers to or replaces is known as its antecedent.

Classifications of pronoun
Pronouns are classified into the following sub-classes:
a) Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns are used instead of the names of persons and
things. They are structurally refered to as personal because their
unique forms locate the noun they stand for as the person speaking
(known as the 1st person: I, me, we, my, us, our), the person spoken
to (known as the 2nd person:you, your, yours), and the person or
thing spoken about (known as the 3rd person: he, she, it, him, his,
her, they, them, its)

b) Interrogative pronouns
The words who, whose, whom, which and what are pronouns used to
verify or question the veracity, accuracy and precision of events and

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 issues, hence are called interrogative pronouns. for example, who
reported the news? What the news is all about? Which newspaper
reported the story?

c) Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are used to indicate or point out to persons
and things we meant to emphasize. They include, this, that, those,
these, e.g. These are the representatives of the union of journalists.
This is the newspaper reporter.

d) Indefinite pronouns
These are pronouns that are used to refer to people or things without
specifying exactly who or what they are. Indefinite pronouns could
be singular, plural or both.
Singular indefinite pronouns consist of: anybody, anyone,
anything, everyone, everybody, each, either, neither, somebody,
someone, something, another, one, little, less, much.
Plural indefinite pronouns are: both, several, few, fewer, many,
two.
Indefinite pronouns that can serve both as singular and plural
include: any, plenty, enough, more, most, all.

e) Reflexive pronouns
These are formed by the addition of ±self or ±selves to some of the
personal pronouns. They are essentially used to indicate that the
person or thing referred to acts on himself/herself or to make
emphasis. Some examples of reflexive pronouns are: myself,

ͲϭϯͲ

 ourselves, yourself, himself, herself and themselves, e.g. The editor
blamed himself for the controversy generated by the news.

f) Reciprocal pronouns
These pronouns are used to indicate dual relationship between two or
more people. They can also be used to an idea of reciprocity. The
only reciprocal pronouns in English are each other and one another.
The latter is used to indicate mutual relation between two people or
elements while the former is used for more than two people, e.g. The
editors have been helping each other since their appointment. The
news reporters blamed one another for being late at the press
conference.

g) Relative pronoun
When pronouns are used to introduce certain clauses which they
relate to some other words in the sentence, they are called relative
pronouns. They include: who, whom, whose, which, that and
whoever, e.g. This is the reporter who interviewed the governor.

Functions of pronouns
The noun or noun phrase that a pronoun represents is technically
known as antecedent. All pronouns in a sentence should agree with their
antecedents in four important ways: number, gender, person and case.
a) Number in grammar denotes the singular or plural form of a noun or
noun phrase, e.g. I, you, she, he, it (singular) or we, you, they
(plural).
b) Gender indicates whether the pronoun is used as male (masculine),
female (feminine) or neutral (neuter) antecedent, e.g. she is a news

ͲϭϰͲ

 editor (feminine), he is a news editor (masculine), they are news
editors (neuter).
c) Person emphasizes the speaker (s) (1st person), the listener (s) (2nd
person) or the element referred to in the context (3rd person). For
example, I am a journalist, you are a journalist, and he is a journalist.
d) Case refers to whether the pronoun is used as the subject or object of
the sentence, or to indicate possession. Principally there are three
cases in English grammar, namely, the subjective case, the objective
case and the possessive case. Pronouns in English have distinctive of
patterns and forms for each specific case as exemplified below:

Subjective case objective case possessive case

I me my/mine
We us our/ours
He him his
She her her/hers
They them their/theirs
You you your/yours
Who whom whose
It it its

The usage convention is to use subjective case pronouns in subject

and subject compliment positions in the sentence. Also use objective case
pronouns in object positions or after prepositions. But use possessive case
pronouns only to demonstrate ownership or association with some elements
in the sentence. For example, Adamu is a journalist (he as subjective case
pronoun), I called the journalist (him/her as objective case pronouns), and
7KLVLVWKHMRXUQDOLVW¶VERRNKLVKHUDVSRVVHVVLYHFDVHSURQRXQV

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Common journalistic usage errors
The following are some of the glaring areas in which MRXUQDOLVWV¶
violet the structure of pronouns.

a) Disharmony between the pronoun and its antecedent in case.

As a rule, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number,
gender, person and case as in the following examples: The editor
sent Ali and I to the press conference. (me). The news reporter
invited my friend and myself to discuss the issue with he and his
editor. (me; him).

b) Using reflexive pronouns as reciprocal pronouns.

It should be noted that reflexive pronouns indicate that somebody
has acted on him/herself while reciprocal pronouns emphasize
mutual relationship between two or more elements in the sentence.
Consequently, the two are not similar and should not be used
interchangeably. In the following examplesone of the pronouns
overlapped with the other: The editor and the reporter contacted
themselves before the story was published. (each other). Fellow
reporters and editors let us be familiar with ourselves. (one
another).

c) Using pronouns without antecedents.

The antecedent of a pronoun should always be apparent in the
context of its use. However indefinite pronouns can be used without
any antecedent. In the following examples the pronoun does not have
any antecedenthence the expression is grammatically faulty: Hello,
they are talking to you.In this sentence the pronoun they do not have

ͲϭϲͲ

 any antecedent and the sentence is confusing. If the antecedent is not
important the sentence should be recast to (hello you are being
called).

d) Using plural they for singular antecedents

In African and Asian tradition, the culture of respect for elders and
authoritiesappreciates and admits the use of plural personal pronouns
such as (they) in reference to a singular entity. This constitutes a
fundamental flaw in English grammar. Consider the dialogue below:
Reporter: They are calling you, sir.
Editor: Who?
Reporter: The Managing Director.
In the first sentence the pronoun does not have any antecedent and
there is no agreement in number between the pronoun and the
antecedent in the last sentence.

e) 8VLQJWKHFRQWUDFWHGIRUPLW¶VIRUWKHSRVVHVVLYHIRUPLWV
,W¶VLVWKHFRQWUDFWHGIRUPRILWLVRULWKDVZKLOHLWLVWKHSRVVHVVLYH
form of pronoun it. The two should neither overlap nor being used
interchangeably. For example, the newspaper has lost LW¶V identity as
a popular newspaper in the country.

1.2 Adjectives
An adjective is a word that modifies, qualifies, describes or gives
more information about a noun or a pronoun. An adjective is said to qualify
a noun or pronoun because it restricts the word it describes in some way by
making it more specific. For example, qualifying the word journalist with

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the adjective newspaper means we are concentrating on a newspaper
journalist hence we can forget about journalists of any other form.
Adjectives usually describe the colour, size, quantity, quality or
classification of a noun or pronoun, e.g.: The editor wore a white dress.
She bought a small television. The radio audiences were sad people.

Classifications of adjective
Adjectives are categorized and used in the following structural
classifications:
a) Gradable and non-gradable adjectives
Gradable adjective denotes qualities that can vary in degree. These
adjectives can be associated with comparative and superlative forms
or can be accompanied by an adverb of degree. Qualities that cannot
be expressed in degrees, cannot be associated with comparative and
superlative forms and cannot be modified by adverb of degree are
known as non-gradable adjectives. In the following examples the
highlighted words are gradable adjective: The editor drives a small
car. The news reporters were happy. However, in these sentences
the highlighted expressions are non-gradable adjectives: The editor
had a unique experience. He is the superior news reporter in the
station.

b) Attributive and predicative adjectives

When an adjective precedes the noun or pronoun it qualifies, it is
said to be an attributive adjective. But when the adjective is
separated from the noun or pronoun it qualifies by a linking verb, it
is known as predicative adjective. Example: The tall editor spoke.
(Attributive). The editor is tall. (Predicative).

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 c) Regular and irregular adjectives
The various qualities expressed by adjectives are often compared in
terms of their degree. Consequently, adjectives have three forms,
namely the positive, comparative and superlative. Regular
adjectives form their comparative and superlative degree in a
predictable pattern by the addition of ±er/more and ±est/most to
their comparative and superlative degrees respectively.

Positive comparative superlative

Tall taller tallest
Big bigger biggest
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Hopeful more hopeful most hopeful

Irregular adjectives form their comparative and superlative degrees

in a variety of unpredictable ways as exemplified below:

Positive comparative superlative

Good better best
Bad worse worst
Little less least

There are various types of adjective. The two main groups are
qualitative adjective and classifying adjectives. While qualitative
adjectives describe the quality or attribute of a noun or pronoun (sad,
happy, wealthy, intelligent and foolish), classifying adjectives identify
the class or category that a noun or pronoun belongs to (democratic,

ͲϭϵͲ

financial, agricultural, medical and annual). There are also adjectives
that are demonstrative, interrogative, possessive and emphatic.

Common journalistic usage errors

Adjectives are a relatively easy word class to use among administrators,
technocrats and even students. However, journalists frequently violet the
structural usage of adjectives in the following areas:
a) Simultaneous use of multiple comparatives or superlatives
As emphasized earlier, the comparative form of a regular adjective is
formed by the addition of ±er or more, and not both at the same time.
Moreover, the superlative is formed by the addition of ±est or most.
In some instances, however, journalists erroneously use the two
expressions simultaneously, as in the following sentences: This book
is more simpler to read (double comparative). It is much more
easier to write a news story than a feature article (double
comparative). Today is the most happiest day of my life. (double
superlative).

b) The grading of non-gradable adjectives

Non-gradable adjectives state absolute or extreme qualities that
should never be expressed in degrees. Therefore, sentences such the
following are grammatically flawed: This is the most fatal accident I
have ever reported. The quality of my computer is more superior to
WKDWRIWKHHGLWRU7KHHGLWRU¶VH[SHULHQFHLVvery unique.
In these sentences fatal, superior and unique are absolute and
extreme: fatal implies consequential to death irrespective of the
number involved. While superior denotes a disposition of highest
quality. Unique also emphasizes unequalled or unparalleled entity

ͲϮϬͲ

 hence should not be further graded. Other non-gradable adjectives
include terrible, ghastly, horrible, inferior, vicious, genuine and
fake.

c) Arbitrary ordering of multiple attributive adjectives

When multiple attributive adjectives qualify the same noun or pronoun,
they should occur in a discriminate, selective and predetermined
sequence. The comprehensive organization and presentation of co-
occurring adjectives is as follows: quality + length + weight + size +
shape + age + colour + origin + noun as adjective + nounhead.
Example The editor is a hardworking young man. The gang leader is
an old wicked man. The principal drives an old red car.

1.3Determiners
A determiner is a word that is used in front of a noun or pronoun to
provide some information about it. Determiner was formally classified as a
sub-class of adjectives. However, advances in literary and linguistic
research have found that determiners do not strictly qualify or describe a
noun or pronoun but expand our associated knowledge with the noun or
pronoun.

Classifications of determiner
The full range of determiners in English is as follows:

a) Definite and indefinite articles

The definite and indefinite articles are often classified as determiners.
The definite article is primarily (the) and is essentially used in English
sentences to refer to a noun or pronoun that has already been mentioned

ͲϮϭͲ

 or identified and to identify someone or something as one of its kind.
The definite article can also be used to refer to a whole group or class of
people or things. Example: Mr Ibrahim is the editor in-chief of the
newspaper. The news reporter has cited example from the KRO\4XU¶DQ
All journalists are members of the Nigerian Union of Journalists.
The indefinite article exists fundamentally in the (a and an) form. The
form a is used before words that begin with a consonant sound, as in; a
journalist, a newspaper, a radio, a book and a studio. While the form an
is used before words that begin with an initial vowel sound, as in; an
envelope, an apple, an egg, an uncle and an application.
Generally, the indefinite article can be used to imply a single or one
entity and not many or several entities, to refer to a specific person or
thing and to imply an indefinite meaning. The following examples
demonstrate these usage patterns: The radio station is exactly a
kilometer away. The news reporter interviewed a girl called Fatima in
the village. An island is a piece of land surrounded by water.

b) Demonstrative determiners
Previously classified as demonstrative adjectives are essentially used
to point out or indicate the nouns they qualify. They include this,
that, those and these as in this editor, that reporter, these
journalists and those books.

c) Possessive determiners
These are use indicate that something is associated, connected or
owned by someone. Possessive determiners include words like my,
our, your, his, her, its and theirs. Formally possessive determiners
were classified as possessive adjectives. Examples: he will take my

ͲϮϮͲ

 bag to the office. The reporter broke his leg. The book belongs to
our teacher.

d) Indefinite determiners
These are determiners used to qualify nouns or pronouns in an
indefinite or unidentified way. They include words such as all, both,
each, either, little, less, many, much, no, more, some and neither.
Examples: Any reporter in the station can perform the task. Both
editors and reporters are to be blamed. Many books were destroyed
in the fire.

e) Numerals determiners
Numbers are often used attributively in English sentences as
determiners. Numbers such as one, two, ten, twenty, ete. Are called
cardinal numbers, while numbers such as second, last, first, tenth
etc. are called ordinal numbers. Example: We only have one chance
to succeed. There are twelve editors in the organization. This is the
fourth time the reporter was threatened.

Common journalistic usage errors

The following apparent errors should be avoided in the use of
determiners in journalistic contents:

a) Negation of a determiner prior before a singular noun

As a rule, a determiner should precede the singular form of a
countable noun. Example: This is a news reporter. He is an article
writer.

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 b) Simultaneous use of possessive and demonstrative determiners to
qualify the same noun
It is ungrammatical to use possessive and demonstrative determiners
together to qualify the same noun, because one of the determiners is
redundant by not adding and grammatical value to the expression.
Thus journalists should avoid sentences like: I talked to that your
editor about the story. This our reporter is very generous. Let us
consider that his suggestion next time. In all the sentences it will be
prudent and necessary to either recast the sentence or drop one of the
determiners. Example: I talked to that editor of yours about the
story, or I talked to your editor about the story.

c) Simultaneous use of multiple quantifiers to modify the same

noun
It is unconventional to use two determiners from the same sub-class
to qualify or modify the same noun in a sentence as one of them will
be clearly redundant. To correct this anomaly one should simply
drop one of the determiners. The following sentences should not
deliberately feature in a journalistic content: The news reporter
submitted some few stories to the editor. There are some certain
issues the chief editor must resolve with the police.

d) The interchangeable use of few and a few

The expressions few and a few are not synonymous; therefore, one
should not overlap with the other. Few implies an inadequate
quantity that is below expectation and insignificant for a given
purpose. A few means not many but adequate and significant for a
given purpose.

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 Given these meaning differences, sentences such as the following
should not be constructed. The accident occurred few kilometers
after Katsina. The boy was knocked down few meters down the road.
Few days after flew into the country he was arrested by the police.

1.4 Verbs
The verb is usually the word in a sentence that is most concerned
with the action. It is essential to the structure of a sentence because without
it most English sentences will be empty or dull; hence, it is the most
important part of the predicate. Verb can denote a physical or mental
actions or state of being (write, dance, speak, think, hope, expect, and
believe). The most frequently used state of being verb is (be), with its
various forms: is, are, were, was, been and being. Others include
appear, seem, become, taste, grow, look, feel, smell, remain,
sound.Verbs function primarily in English sentences to indicate tense,
voice, mood, number and person.
English verbs have five forms: the base or infinitive (V), the 3rd
person singular present tense (V-s), the past (V-ed1), the perfect (V-ed2),
and the progressive (V-ing). The manner in which these forms are realized
depends on whether the verb is regular or irregular.

a) Regular verbs
Regular verbs are action verbs that have a uniform and predictable
form in the realization of their tenses. They add the ending ±s to the
base or infinitive form of the verb to form the 3 rd person singular of
the present tense as in he writes, she dances, it plays. They also add
the ending ±ed to the base, or the ending ±d if the base form already

ͲϮϱͲ

 ends in ±e, to form the past tense. This applies to all persons, as in: I
walked, you killed, he worked, she danced, they hated. Example:

V V-s V-ed1 V-d2 V-ing

Answer answers answered answered answering
Stop stops stopped stopped stopping
Kill kills killed killed killing

b) Irregular verbs
Irregular verbs do not obey the rules which apply to regular verbs.
The deviate from the pattern of adding ±ed or ±d to the infinitive
form to realize the past and the past participle forms. In other words,
the past and the perfect tenses of irregular verbs occur in a variety of
unpredictable forms. For example:

V V-s V-ed1 V-d2 V-ing

Eat eats ate eaten eating
Hit hits hit hit hitting
Take takes took taken taking

Transitive and intransitive verb

Verbs in English can be transitive or intransitive depending on the
context of their use.

a) Transitive verbs
These are words in which the action of the verb is extended to the
object of the sentence. Example: The boy scored the goal. The editor
approved the story. The radio station played the music.

ͲϮϲͲ

 b) Intransitive verbs
These are words in which the action of the verb remained with the
subject of the sentence, as in the following examples; Theeditor is
happy. The newspaper is popular. The reporter could not speak.
A verb can be transitive or intransitive relative to the context in
which it is used. Example:

Transitive Intransitive
The reporter is writing story The reporter is writing
She is watching television She is watching
He is studying the report He is studying

Functions of verb
As emphasized earlier, verbs function primarily in English sentences
to indicate tense, voice, mood, number and person.

a) Tense
One of the fundamental functions of verb in English sentences is to
indicate the time at which an action is executed. This entails whether
the action is taking place at the moment, has took place at some time
in the past or will take place in an anticipated time in the future. In
English language tense is expressed by inflection in the present and
past tenses only. For example, thethird person singular masculine of
the verb to work is he works, while the past tense is he worked.
The major tenses in English are the present tense, the past tense
and the future tense. However, there are other categories associated
to these.

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 i. The present tense is essentially used to indicate an action
currently taking place or a state existing now. It uses the infinitive
form of the verb, as walk, run, write, go but it changes in the
third person singular when it adds ±s to the infinitive form,
sometimes with a change in the spelling as in walks, runs,
writes, goes.
There are two forms of the present tense, the simple present tense
and the continuous present tense. The simple present tense is used
to indicate an action happening now as in: The editor works in a
book publishing firm. I need some books from the library. The
simple present tense is also used to indicate something that is
generally or always true, as in: Abuja is the capital of Nigeria.
The sun rises from the east. I love children.
The simple present tense can be used to indicate a regular or
habitual action, for example: He watches television every night.
They walk to school every day. We work on Sundays.
The continuous tense otherwise known as the progressive
continuous tense is used to refer to an action happening at the
very moment you are speaking or when you are referring to an
action continuing over a period of time and not completed as at
the time you are referring to it. Example: the editors and reporters
arehaving a meeting. I am studying the report. We are
interviewing the president. The present continuous tense is also
used with some adverbs or adverbials of time to refer to a time in
the future, example: I am travelling tomorrow. She is
graduating next session.
ii. Past tense: the past tense is primarily used to refer to an action
that has taken place before the present time, the inflection added

ͲϮϴͲ

 to a verb in the past tense is dependent on whether the verb is
regular or irregular. The past tense is also classified into simple
past tense and continuous past tense. The simple past tense is
used to refer to an event or state that occurred at some point in the
past, as in these examples: he wrote the story. They hated each
other. The car crashed into the van. It can also be used to indicate
a regular or repeated action in the past, example: The editor
attended the local primary school. They drank very little alcohol
in those days. He edited all the feature stories during the time.
The continuous past tense also called the progressive past tense is
used to refer to a continuing action that happened in the past and
is probably complete now. It is formed by using the past tense of
the verb to be (was and were), and the present participle ending in
±ing, of the main verb, as in. we were reporting for the radio
station then. She was working as reporter last year. I was
studying in the university a decade ago. The continuous past
tense is also used to refer to an event in the past that occurred
during the course of another event, example. He was working as
a reporter when the incident happened. I was preparing the
report when the news broke. We were driving home when the
accident occurred.
iii. Perfect tense: this is another tense which is used to refer to the
past. It refers to an action that began in the past but continuous or
has consequences in the present. It is formed by using the present
tense of the verb have and the past participle of the main verb.
Example: The editor has lived in Nigeria for over ten years. We
have thought about this idea. I have searched everywhere for
the camera.

ͲϮϵͲ

 The perfect tense also exists in continuous form to indicate an
action in the past that is still going on, example. I have been
editing for the newspaper for many years now. We have been
thinking of employing a new editor. She has been dating
Michael for years.
iv. The past perfect tense: also refers to the past and is formed by
using the past tense of the verb have and the past participle of the
main verb. It is used to refer to past actions in which there is
causal link between the events. Example. The editor agreed to
interview him after he had received all his credentials. I granted
the interview after she had given me the confidence of
anonymity. The past perfect tense also exists in the progressive
form, as in these examples. We had been working on the project
four years by then. I have been contemplatingto resign from the
editorial desk.
v. The future tense: this tense describes an action or state that will
occur at some point in the future. It is used to predict or say what
is likely to happen in the future, as in: he will report the next story
from the government house. She will serve as an acting editor.
They will analyze the sport coverage. One can also use about to
or going to with the infinitive form of the main verb to refer to
the future. Example. I am going to see her today. You are about
to discover the secret of her success.
vi. The continuous future tense: this is also used to refer to an
action in the future with emphasis that the action will go on over
a period of time. It is formed by using will be or shall be
followed by the present participle of the main verb. Example.
They will be installing the news equipment next week. He will

ͲϯϬͲ

 be reporting the issue to the chairman. The director shall be
chairing the editorial meetings.
vii. The future perfect tense: this is used to predict that a future
action will be completed by a particular time. It is formed by
using shall have or will have followed by the past participle of
the main verb, as in: the reporterwill have interviewed the
governor by midnight. She will have regretted her actions by
tomorrow morning.
viii. The future perfect continuous tense: this is used to refer an
action that will have been completed at a point in the future
emphasizing that the action will have been continuing over a
period in time. Example. We will have beenreporting for seven
years by the end of December. I will have beenpreparing for
months for this interview.

b) Mood
Verbs also function to indicate the mood of action. Mood expresses
the attitude or view point that a specific verb indicated. The major moods
of English verbs are the indicative, imperative and subjunctive.
a) The indicative mood
The indicative mood of a verb is used to express a factual or truthful
statement. For example, each of the highlighted words in the
following sentences is a verb in the indicative mood. He reports for
the radio station. She authored the book. We edit the story.
b) Imperative mood
The imperative mood of a verb is used to construct orders,
instructions or stipulations. The imperative mood can also indicate a

ͲϯϭͲ

 request, demand or wish, as in the following example: Go out. Give
me the report. Comply with them. Safe journey. Good luck.
c) Subjunctive mood
Verbs in the subjunctive mood are primarily used in English to
express hypothetical statements which includes supposition, doubt
and other non-factual statements. The subjunctive mood is also used
in certain formal clauses beginning with (that or as) and in certain
fixed expressions. Example: If I were you I would apply for the
position of an editor. I pray that he interviews the governor. Let it
be.

Voice
This is an examination of the structure of a transitive verb. A
transitive verb is a verb whose action transcends from the subject to a direct
object in the sentence. There are two categories of voice in English; they
are the active and passive voices.

a) The active voice

This indicates the action of the verb been performed by the subject of
the sentence. For example: The editor wrote the story. She is
cooking the dinner today. The verbs wrote and cookingis in active
voice because the subjects (editor and she) performed the actions of
writing and cooking. Other examples are: we lost the opportunity.
Fire destroyed the books. Police arrested the thieves.

b) Passive voice
This is expressed when the subject of the sentence becomes the
recipient of the action of the verb. In the sentence; The story was

ͲϯϮͲ

 written by the editor, the verb was written is in passive voice
because the subject of the sentence the story is having the action of
writing performed on it. Other examples are: The reporter was
highly celebrated as a hero. A journalist was killed. The Programme
was suspended.

Concord
This refers to the structural harmony in number and person between
the subject and the verb in a sentence. Numbers denotes whether the
subject is singular or plural and person refers to the speaker(s) 1st person,
the listener(s) 2nd person or the third party referred to in the context.
The general convention is that a singular subject takes singular verb
and plural subject takes plural verb. Example: The editor travels to Abuja,
(singular). The editors travel to Abuja, (plural).
Generally plural noun adds ±s and singular noun drops it. Also
singular verb adds ±s while plural verb do not.

Rules of concord
The following rules should be observed to achieve maximum
grammatical harmony in number and person between subject and verb in
all English sentences:
a) A compound subject is plural when members are joined by the
coordinating conjunction and, as in these examples: The editor and
the reporter are happy with the verdict. The HOD and all the
lecturers in the department were in the meeting.
b) A compound subject is singular when the members are thought as
single unit, as in these examples: bread and butter is good for

ͲϯϯͲ

 growing children. Rice and beans was served as dinner. Lightning
and thunder is frightening to children.
c) $FRPSRXQGVXEMHFWZLWKVLQJXODUPHPEHUVMRLQHGE\HLWKHU«RURU
QHLWKHU«QRULVVLQJXODUKHQFHWDNHVVLQJXODUYHUE([DPSOH(LWKHU
the editor or his reporter has interviewed the governor. Neither the
editor nor his reporterhas interviewed the governor.
d) $ FRPSRXQG VXEMHFW ZLWK SOXUDO PHPEHUV MRLQHG E\ HLWKHU«RU RU
QHLWKHU«QRULVSOXUDODQGVKRXOGWDNHSOXUDOYHUE([DPSOH Either
the Deans or their HODs were at the conference. Neither the Deans
nor their HODs were at the conference.
e) When some members of a compound subject are singular and others
are plural the verb agrees with the nearest member. This is called
concord of proximity. Example. Either the editor or thereporters
arehappy. Either the reporters or the editor is happy.
f) Subjects that are plural in form and singular in meaning take singular
verb. Example. Bad newsis irritating at all times. Twenty thousand
dollars is a lot of money in Nigeria. Ten tons of rice is heavy for the
truck.
g) When a singular subject is linked to other words by any of these
expressions; with, together with, along with, as well as, in
addition to, accompanied by etc. the verb agrees with the singular
subject. Example. The editor together with all the reporters was
highly delighted during the occasion. The lecturer accompanied by
all the students was honored at the party.
h) The expression the number of refers to specific figure such as 10,
100, 1000, 10000 etc. and is singular. Example. The number of
reporters in the radio station is on increase. The number of
reported cases of social crime has declined.

ͲϯϰͲ

 i) The expression a number of implies several and is plural. Example.
A number of newspaper journalists are deficient in English
grammar. A number of armed robbers were arrested by the police.
j) Collective noun is singular when viewed as a unit and plural if
viewed as different people acting as individuals. Example. The jury
has reached a decision. The juries are still arguing over the point.
k) When affirmative and negative expressions are joined to form a
compound subject the verb agrees with the affirmative subject.
Example. The editor not the reporter was correct in the discussion.
The reporters not the editor were plausible in argument

Common journalistic usage errors

The following are some of the apparent areas of journalistic violation
of the structure of English verbs:
a) Addition of ±ing to the state of being verbs
English verbs that signify emotional or psychological dispositions
rather than physical actions should not occur with ±ing as present
participle. This is because literally ±ing denotes action in progress. It
is contradictory to indicate action in progress where no action is
actually taking place.
The following sentences are grammatically faulty because ±ing was
added to each of the state of being verb in the context: The reporter
VDLG µ, DP QRW hearing \RX VLU¶ 6KH LV knowing the editor for the
first time. The students are seeing the white board clearly. We are
admiring his generosity. The correct expression should be: I cannot
hear you sir. The students can see the white board clearly.

ͲϯϱͲ

 b) The use of transitive verb intransitively
A transitive verb must have an object that received the action
performed by the subject of the sentence. While an intransitive verb
occurs without an object that is affected by the action of the verb in
the sentence. Most journalists are able to use most transitive verbs
appropriately because they presume to be dull and incomplete hence
wrong when their objects are omitted. Example: The editor
DSSURYHG« DSSURYHG ZKDW? 7KH UHSRUWHU LQWHUYLHZHG«
(interviewed whom?).
There are many transitive verbs that do not sound incomplete when
their objects are omitted. Consequently, they are usually used
wrongly without the necessary objects. These verbs include assure,
discuss, disturb, enjoy, prostrate. Example: The editor assured ( )
that the story will be published. The chairman will enjoy. She
discussed ( ) at length.

c) Confusion of the perfect and progressive forms of some irregular

verbs
The following pairs of verbs are frequently confused and misused by
journalists: been/being, given/giving, taken/taking. It is important
to note that the ±en form of the verb is usually preceded by have,
has, or had (have been, has given or had taken). While the ±ing
form is usually preceded by an appropriate form of be (is being, was
giving, were taking).

ͲϯϲͲ

Adverb
An adverb is any word that modifies verbs, adjectives and other
adverbsin a sentence. When a group of words performed this task they are
known as adverbial phrase or adverbials. Example: The story was
reported yesterday (adverb modified a verb). The editor is highly generous
(adverb modified adjective). The reporter asked all the questions quite
intelligently (adverb modified adverb).
Adverbs are usually formed by the addition of ±ly to adjectives, while
others are independent words, e.g. actively, honestly, correctly,
gracefully, brilliantly, intelligently, yesterday, now, soon, tomorrow.
Like adjectives many adverbs can be compared in terms of degrees, e.g.

soon sooner soonest

fast faster fastest
Quick more quickly most quickly

Classification of adverb
Adverbs are classified into the following:

a) Adverbs of time
These adverbs indicate or establish the period within which
something happened. They consist of words like then, now,
afterwards, before, later, tomorrow, yesterday. Example, the
editor will see you soon. The reporter was in the government house
then. The editor and the reporter had never met before.

ͲϯϳͲ

 b) Adverbs of frequency
This class of adverbs denotes the rate, oftenness or incidence of
occurrence of something. They include words such as often, seldom,
always, never, rarely, usually, constantly, frequently. Example:
The newspaper publishes political stories regularly. The reporter
usually verifies news sources. The editor always complies with the
rules of grammar.

c) Adverbs of duration
This indicates the amount of time through which something occurred
or lasted. Words in this category include briefly, permanently,
indefinitely, overnight, temporarily. Example, The reporter has
been suspended from the job indefinitely. The editor stayed in the
newsroom overnight. The journalists stopped briefly to interview
the eye witnesses.

d) Adverbs of location
This constructs the place or environment at which something
occurred. They include such words as here, there, near, indoors,
nearby. Example: The editor and the reporter have travelled
overseas. The editor went outside. The journalist lives nearby.

e) Adverbs of manner
This indicates the pattern of occurrence or circumstance within
which something happened. They are mostly formed by the addition
of ±ly to adjectives. Example: The editor dressed corporately. The
reporter spoke eloquently. The journalists waited patiently for his
response.

ͲϯϴͲ

 f) Adverbs of degree
These are used to indicate the magnitude or intensity of the
occurrence of an action. They include words as fairly, moderately,
very, partly, remarkably. Example: The editor was tremendously
excited. The reporter is incredibly beautiful. The police were partly
responsible for the accident.

g) Adverbs of emphasis
These are extracted from the class of adverbs of degree to indicate
the weight or forcefulness of occurrence of something. They include
words such as positively, totally, really, completely. Example: The
newspaper really lost its credibility. The editor disagreed completely
with the reporter. The reporter admires the editor positively.

Common journalistic usage errors

Adverbs as modifiers are highly flexible because they can occur in
different positions in a sentence. Despite this challenge, they are relatively
easy to use. Journalists should acknowledge that extra caution should be
exercised in the positioning of an adverb in a sentence as often the position
can substantially alter the meaning of the sentence. For example, there is a
significant meaning difference in these three sentences: The editor
curiously read the story (refers to the editor himself). Curiously, the editor
read the story (refers to the act of reading). The read the story curiously
(refers to manner of reading). These changes are consequences of the
different positions of the adverb in the sentences.
The most important area of the misuse of adverbs by journalists is
the misplacement of the adverb in the sentence in such a way that it
modifies other words than the intended one and changes the meaning of the

ͲϯϵͲ

sentence. The adverb may also modify either one of two words and makes
the sentence ambiguous, dull or ungrammatical. Example: The editor was
excited that he almost included all the facts in the story. The reporter
nearly interviewed all the eye witnesses. The journalists nearly lost all
their news gathering equipment in the fire disaster.
None of these sentences really communicate the intended meaning of
the speakers due to the misplacement of the adverbs in the sentences. To
almost include all the facts means not including any fact, to nearly
interview all eye witnesses implies not interviewing anyone and
tonearlylost all equipment means not losing any piece of equipment.
The correct form of the first sentence should be: The editor was
excited that he included almost all the facts in the story. This means that he
included many or adequate facts in the story which is the exact intended
meaning of the speaker.

Prepositions
A preposition is a word or group of words that highlights the
relationship between a noun or pronoun and the object or other elements of
the sentence. It usually occurs before the noun or pronoun it relates with.
Example: The story appeared on the cover page. The reporter asked
questions about the crisis. The editor will stay in London for two months.

Classification of prepositions
Prepositions are classified into simple and complex depending on
the composition of its structure.
a) Simple prepositions are often short words and comprises of a single
word such as at, by, on, in, before, after, of, off, to, behind,
during, as demonstrated in the examples above.

ͲϰϬͲ

 b) Complex prepositions consist of two or three words that collectively
perform the function of a simple preposition in a sentence. These
include ahead of, because of, instead of, on account of, by means
of, on behalf of, in addition to, in terms of, and in spite of.
Example: The editor attended the occasion on behalf of the
Managing Director. The radio station is not rich in terms of man
power and facilities. The group has a television station in addition
tothree newspaper organizations.

Common journalistic usage errors

The structural usage of prepositions is frequently flawed by
journalists in the following areas:

a) Replacement of some prepositions for the right ones.

This usually happened unconsciously, where some other prepositions
are substituted for the right ones in sentences as exemplified in these
sentences: The meeting between the editor and the reporters
commenced exactly by 11am (at). One journalist sustained an injury
on the leg during the accident (in). The news editor was not in the
first bus (on).

b) Insertion of some prepositions where they are not needed.

Most often journalists insert prepositions in a position where they
redundant. The prepositions neither add any grammatical value nor
perform any grammatical function in the structure. They should be
dropped out rightly. Example: The editor is contemplating on which
story to appear on the cover page. The journalists are denied of their

ͲϰϭͲ

 right to seek for information. The editor solicited for more
information.

c) Omission of prepositions where they are needed.

This is another area of the violation of prepositions by journalists,
where prepositions are unconsciously omitted in a sentence which
affects the grammatical structure of the sentence. Example: The
SULQFLSDO DVNHG µZKDW DUH \RX WDONLQJ ( )¶" (about). The reporters
arrived here ( ) H[DFWO\R¶FORFN(at). The police did not reply ( ) our
letter (to). She bought the radio ( ) two thousand Naira (for).

Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that links different elements of a sentence
together. Unlike the prepositions, conjunctions do not show relationship
between elements but connect words or group of words. Example: The
editor and the reporter are in the newsroom. The story was not published
because the facts are not verifiable.

Classification of conjunctions
Conjunctions are fundamentally classified into four categories:
a) Coordinating conjunctions
These are words that connect elements of equal grammatical status.
They may be words, group of words or main clauses. They include
words such as and, but, or, yet. Example: The story is short but
comprehensive. The reporter should verify the facts or kill the
story.The editor is highly rigid yet fair.

ͲϰϮͲ

 b) Correlative conjunctions
These are words usually in pairs that connect elements in a
comparative or relative structure to achieve emphasis. They include
ERWK«DQG HLWKHU«RU QHLWKHU«QRU. Example: The reporter is
neither trained nor experienced. The reporter is either trained or
experience. The editor is both intelligent and creative.

c) Subordinating conjunction
These are used to link a subordinate clause to the main clause in the
sentence. It introduces an adverbial clause, comparative clause or
relative clause. It introduces adverbial clausesor phrases by
providing information about time, place, manner, purpose,
concession and condition. They include before, as soon as,
wherever, so as to, so that, in case, provided, as long as, as if,
although, even though. Example: The reporter likes his job even
though the pay is low. The program will be on air providedthe eye
witnesses are willing to talk. The editor spoke clearly so that
everyone understands the position of the newspaper.

d) Conjunctive adverb
This includes however, moreover, nevertheless, therefore, still, so
that are used to connect sentence parts.

Common journalistic usage errors

The following are examples of apparent journalistic errors in the use
of conjunctions:

ͲϰϯͲ

 a) The use of double conjunctions to connect the same elements
It is important to understand that only one conjunction is needed to
connect two sentence parts. Expressions such as still yet, so
therefore, although but, should incase, although yet that are
frequently used as conjunction should be avoided in journalistic
contents. Example: The reporter has scored the highest points in the
interview, so therefore he deserves to be promoted. Although the
editor presented all facts in the storybut he is not satisfied. The radio
station satisfied all the conditions still yet the license is not
approved. In all sentences more than one conjunction is used as
highlighted hence the sentences are grammatically faulty.

b) The use of moreso for moreover

Moreso is not an English expression or word, it is presumed to be a
foreign word. It is not synonymous with moreover and should not be
confused with situation in which the word more is followed by
another distinctive word so. Example: The reporter was happy about
the popularity of the newspaper and the editor even more so
(meaning that the editor is happier than the reporter).

c) 7KHXVHRIERWK«DQGIRUPRUHWKDQWZRHOHPHQWVLQDVHQWHQFH
7KH FRUUHODWLYH FRQMXQFWLRQ ERWK«DQG VKRXOG VWULFWO\ EH XVHG WR
connect two elements only. Sentences such as the following are
faulty because the correlative conjunction is used for more than two
elements. We invited both the editor, reporter and Managing
Director to the workshop.Both television, radio and newspaper
are media of mass communication.

ͲϰϰͲ

 d) Failure to make conjoined sentence part parallel
When coordinating or correlative conjunctions are used to join
sentence parts, the connected elements must have similar
grammatical structure. Example: He reported and edited the story
(verb + verb). I will buy a radio or television (noun + noun). He is
not only intelligent but also imaginative (adjective +adjective).

ͲϰϱͲ

 Chapter Two
Sentence Structure

For journalists to write properly and correctly or to communicate

information appropriately they must learn to express ideas and thoughts
clearly by constructing simple and grammar compliant sentences. This
requires the proper use of words as the smallest units of a language to
develop statements that are grammatically correct and semantically
meaningful.
Generally, a sentence is conceptualized as a group of words that
expresses a complete thought. For example: The chief editor is a Nigerian.
The reporter has travelled to Abuja. The radio station is own by
government.

Types of Sentence
However, there is variety of ways by which sentences in English
could be classified. Conventionally sentences are categorized on the basis
of structure and function. Structure refers to the form in which a sentence is
expressed (minor or major) while function denotes the aim for which the
sentence is used for.

Types of Sentence by Structure

Structurally we can make a distinction between major and minor
sentences. Major sentences are expressions that are complete in thought
and contain the major components of a sentence (subject and predicate).
For example: The journalist has visited the scene of the accident. The story
was published on the cover page. The reporter interviewed all the parties in
the dispute. In all these sentences the idea is complete and the structure

ͲϰϲͲ

adequate because the sentences have subject and predicate with nouns and
verbs.
A minor sentence on the other hand is meaningful and complete in
thought but lacks one or both of the important components of a major
sentence. For example: Thank you. Go ahead. Well done. In these
sentences the idea is complete in relation to the context of engagement,
however the sentences do not have subjects which is a fundamental
structure of a major sentence.
Major sentences are further classified into four in respect of the
sophistication of their structure. They are simple, compound, complex and
compound-complex as explained below:
a) Simple sentence is usually a short expression with single statement.
It contains one main clause and one finite verb. Example: The editor
is in the newsroom. The newspaper is biased. I am a journalist.
b) Compound sentence is an expression that contains two or more
main clauses and a corresponding number of finite verbs and the
clauses are linked by coordinating conjunctions. Example: He
reported the story and the newspaper published it. He will edit the
story orwrite a new one. The editor left on time but the governor
was late.
c) Complex sentence has one main clause and one or more dependent
clauses that are linked to the main clause by subordinating
conjunction. Example: The editor has been sadsince the reporter left.
The reporter cannot go to the location unless the editor gives
permission.
d) Compound-Complex sentence has two or more main clauses and at
least one subordinate clause. Example: The reporter wrote the story
and the editor edited it while the newspaper published it.

ͲϰϳͲ

Sentence Type by Function
Function denotes an anticipated goal that is intended or wished to be
accomplished. On this basis English sentences are classified into four:
a) Declarative sentence is a sentence that establishes the veracity,
truthfulness or accuracy of an assertion or anticipated likelihood. In
other words, it states fact or possibility and is basically used to make
statement or provide information. For example: The editor approves
the story. The reporter will attend the press conference. The radio
station is popular.
b) Interrogative sentence is a sentence that question or challenges the
accuracy, veracity or truthfulness of an assertion. It is traditionally
used to ask question or seek information of some kind.
c) Imperative sentence is an expression that gives command,
instruction, order or makes polite request. The verb in this sentence
is mostly in the imperative mood hence in infinitive or basic form.
Example: Publish the story on the cover page. Interview the eye
witness please. Have a successful presentation.
d) Exclamatory sentence is rarely use in journalistic contents. It is a
sentence that expresses a sudden, frightening or intense emotion. It
ends conventionally with an exclamation mark to symbolize
emphatic or emotional outcry. For example: What a horrible story!
This is poor editing! I am disappointed in your performance!

Elements of sentence
Basically a sentence is a combination of two fundamental
grammatical elements known as subject and predicate.

ͲϰϴͲ

 a) Subject:The subject of a sentence refers to what the sentence is all
about which structurally identifies the person or thing that performs
or carries the action of the verb. Thus the subject of a sentence could
be a noun, noun phrase, pronoun or infinitive. For example: The
editor is in the newsroom (noun as subject). Many anxious
reporters were denied access to the venue (noun phrase as subject).
He is a journalist (pronoun as subject). Toexcel as a journalist is her
ambition (infinitive as subject).
b) Predicate: refers to the part of a sentence or clause that gives
information about the subject. It essentially consists of all the parts
of a sentence that is not in the subject. Thus the predicate could be a
verb or a number of elements. Example: The news reporter left. The
news editor arrived late.
Very often the predicate contains object and compliment. The object
of a sentence denotes the element that is acted upon or is affected by
the action of the verb. It usually follows the verb to which it relates.
There are basically two types of objects (direct and indirect). The
direct object is the person or thing that is apparently affected by the
action described by the verb in the sentence. Example: The editor
dislikes dogs. He stolemobile phone. While the indirect object is the
person or thing that benefits from the action of the verb. Example:
We should tell the public the sad story. The reporter gave the editor
the book.
The compliment is an element that is connected to the subject by a
linking verb such as is, became, seem. Example: She became a
newspaper journalist. He is a news reporter. He seems an
excellent news editor.

ͲϰϵͲ

 Essentially there are five elements of a sentence which include
subject, verb, object, compliment and adverbial.

ͲϱϬͲ

 Chapter Three
Punctuation and its Conventions

Introduction
In the world of teachers, schools and education, academics are often
accused of being pedantic about punctuation, but all the seemingly endless
rules are actually about effective communication, expressing oneself
clearly, accurately and precisely. It is true that language is dynamic, so
conventional rules about punctuation change all the time. It is also true that
experts often disagree amongst about correct spelling and punctuation. The
fact is that there are different conventions about some things, and the
variations are reflection of ideological, intellectual or perceptual
orientation.
Some of the errors found in journalistic writing are usually
straightforward.However, journalists may be criticised, or even lose news
credibility, because they have neglected some basic rules. Effective
journalistic writing requires good punctuation marks. This is because it
guides the reader in the course of reading and making meaning out of the
write-up. Therefore, journalists must pay proper attention on how to use
punctuation marks and at the same time to be conversant with the rules of
punctuation marks.
Knowing the rules of punctuation is one step towards understanding
the dynamism of what proper writing entails. It is an aspect that enhances
the potentiality of a good journalist/writer, meaning that the ability to
assemble words together in a form of a sentence does not transform into a
good writing. The ability of a journalist to make an informed and
meaningful communication is his or her ability to have a good command of
language. As such, good command of language entails the adaptation of

ͲϱϭͲ

proper punctuation marks to enable the free-flow of morphological and the
syntaxes of linguistics usage.
Punctuation marks are not only limited to writings alone. They are
also feature in communication and speech presentation. The ability of a
speaker to table before the audience a good speech is automatically routed
into how he or she observes some pause in form short pause which are in
form of comma and long pause in form of full-stop. By this, one can see
that the rules of punctuations are carefully followed and observed.
Suppose you are presenting a speech. If you speak too quickly, your
audience will not be able to understand what you are saying. It is important
to stop and take a breath a few times as you read from your notes or as you
speak offhand. But how do you know where to pause, where to change
your voice, and where to stop? The answer is easy. You can use the
punctuation marks you encounter in the chapter of this book as a guide for
your pacing. Punctuation marks provide visual clues to readers, telling
them how they should read the sentence. Some punctuation marks tell you
that you are reading a list of items while other marks tell you that a
sentence contains two independent ideas.
Thus, in journalistic writing, punctuation marks tell you not only
when a sentence ends but also what kind of sentence you have written or
read. This chapter covers different types of punctuation and the meanings
they convey. For proper understanding, it is imperative at this point to
situate the discussion on punctuation into some working definitions as
established thus:
3XQFWXDWLRQ PDUNV DUH WKH ³WUDIILF VLJQDOV´ RI D ODQJXDJH :KHQ
correctly used, they guide the reader throughthe text and makes
comprehension easier. However, when incorrectly placed, they can also
change themeaning of a sentence. Punctuation is simply the logical

ͲϱϮͲ

presentation of sounds or words usually made by the writer in the course of
writing. It is simply about a series of conventions that make it easier
forreaders to follow your train of thought. A complete sentence (one
thought oridea) is indicated by a full stop (.) A pause in the flow of thought,
which in turn allowsall the additional information, indicated by a comma (,)
a semicolon (;) which is also used to indicate a fuller pause than a comma,
but not the final end of the sentence and thus, a colon (:) which is used to
indicate the beginning of a list.

Importance of Punctuation Marks

Punctuation marks play a very important role in giving intended
meaning to the language of journalistic writing. Use of wrong placement of
punctuation marks can change the meaning of the sentence completely and
sometimes convert the interpretation of the sentence into something
different. Therefore, journalists must be very careful of how and where
they place their punctuation marks in the sentence so as to maintain the
original meaning of the sentence as contained in their report. Look at how
Czar Alexander the third had once sentenced man to certain death by
writing on the Warrant-Pardon impossible, to be sent to Siberia. His wife,
Czarina Maria, save the life of this man, by changing position of comma
which makes the authorities to set the man free as demonstrated here.
Pardon Impossible, to be sent to Siberia.
Pardon, impossible to be sent to Siberia.
Therefore, journalists must be conversant with the rules of
punctuation marks. The use of comma may appear to be very insignificant,
but it is considered a real villain among marks of punctuation. Wrong
placement of comma can give different meaning to sentence depending
upon where it is placed. Let us consider the following sentences:

ͲϱϯͲ

 Let us eat, Mummy.
Let us eat Mummy.
In the first sentence mummy is being called for dinner. However, in
the second sentence, mummy herself has become an item to be eaten. Thus,
the omission of a comma in a sentence like the case of let us eat mummy
can completely transform the interpretation of the sentence into a different
context.
Hang him, not let him free.
Hang him not, let him free.
In the above sentences, just a shift of comma by one position has
completely changed the usage and meaning of the sentence. This however
necessitated the interest of this chapter as it calls for the attention of
journalists to showcase their understanding of punctuation and its game
rules while gathering and writing their reports. This is very fundamental
because the negligent or lack of appropriate punctuation marks in news
writing can jeopardized the whole news content and subject it to different
interpretation.
Back in history around 1872, wrong placement of comma cost
millions of dollars in import duties to US government. In a Tariff Act pass
LQ  OLVW RI GXW\ IUHH LWHPV LQFOXGLQJ ³IUXLW SODQWV WURSLFDO DQG VHPL
WURSLFDO´ 7KH LPSRUWHUV VXFFHVVIXOO\ FRQWHVWHG LQ WKH FRXUWV WKDW WKH
passage as written meant for all tropical and semitropical plants were
exempted from payment of duty.
Also, the use of pairs in sentences can also convince anybody
regarding correct use of punctuation marks. Let us consider another set of
cases where lack of appropriate punctuation marks has misinformed the
intended meaning of the original writing.

ͲϱϰͲ

 The murderer protested his innocence an hour after he was
hanged.
The murderer protested his innocence. An hour after, he was
hanged.
The first sentence without comma is completely a language that has
no meaning and it is absolutely untrue and apostrophic in nature. This is
because; it means that the murderer protested his innocence after he was
hanged!
Again, let us consider these two sentences below:
Private- No swimming allowed.
Private? No. Swimming allowed.
Looking at the two sentences, specifically in the second sentence,
addition of a question mark and full stop has converted a private property
to public property. Thus, one can see that the application of punctuation
rules has become what journalist and beyond must inculcate in order to
develop a fantastic form of writing that addresses the intended meaning of
the writer and not the irony of it. Once more, look at the following
sentences:
The criminal, says the judge, should be hanged.
The criminal says, the judge should be hanged.
Now, if one observes the two sentences critically, one will see that
shifting the comma by just once place has completely changed the meaning
of the sentence. In the second sentence, it is not the criminal but the judge
who should be hanged.
Therefore, the above sentences are enough to be proven that
punctuation marks are very important in the way and manner a sentence is
develop and to the extent to which a meaningful utterance can be infer in a

ͲϱϱͲ

given sentence. However, in the same group of words, punctuation can still
give different meanings without changing their sequence.

Basic Punctuation Rules

Punctuation can make an enormous difference in the meaning of
whatever you are writing. Proper punctuation can make or break the impact
of an otherwise well-constructed sentence. These basic rules can strengthen
your sentences with the punctuation they deserve, so that the quality of
your ideas is communicated with precision and clarity.Below is a
discussion on the uses of different punctuation marks such as the comma,
apostrophe, semicolon, colon, hyphen, quotation, and ellipses.

Uses of a Comma
A comma indicates a separation of ideas or elements within the
structure of a sentence. Comma is used to separate three or more words,
phrases, or clauses (sentence parts) in a series. It is also used after an
introductory dependent clause (a group of words before the subject of a
sentence that do not form a complete sentence).
Comma indicates that introductory words and phrases moved from
the end of the sentence. Commacan also befeatured between independent
clauses (complete sentences) joined by a coordinating conjunction: for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Again, it can set off nonessential phrases or
clauses (phrases that can be removed without changing the seQWHQFH¶V
overall meaning) or appositives (words or phrases that rename a noun).
Another uses of a comma can be attributed to the separating of
paired adjectives that describe a noun. You need a comma between ad-
MHFWLYHV WKDW FRXOG JR LQ DQ\ RUGHU WKH\¶Ue not cumulative and could be

ͲϱϲͲ

VHSDUDWHGE\WKHZRUG³DQG´'RQRWXVHDFRPPDEHWZHHQDGMHFWLYHVWKDW
need to be in a particular order.
The following uses of punctuation marks are established by Rosella,
(2011) as follows:
1. In a List
The use of comma EHIRUH³DQG´RU³RU´LQDVHULHVRILWHPV
Example: Ham, eggs, and chips
2. Before Dialogue
Example: Mark said, ³*RRGPRUQLQJ´
3. Mark out Additional Information
Example: The girl, who is wearing a pink shirt, is my sister.
4. Before a Conjunction (e.g. and but orfor while yet) introducing
an independent clause
Example: The boys wanted to stay up until midnight, but they grew tired
and fell asleep.
5. Enclose Parenthetic Expressions (additional information)
between commas
Example: The best way to see a country, unleVV\RX¶UHSUHVVHGIRUWLPHLV
to travel on foot.
Note: When in doubt over where to use a comma, try reading the sentence
out loud and, generally speaking,commas should be used where you pause
for clarification or breath.

Uses of the Apostrophe

Apostrophes show possession and also indicate where a letter has
been omitted to form a contraction.To show possession, add an apostrophe
and an s to singular nouns or indefinite pronouns that end in one or body.
Add only an apostrophe for plural possessive nouns ending in. Remember

ͲϱϳͲ

that the apostrophe placement depends on whether there is more than one
noun: stuGHQW¶V ERRNV RQH VWXGHQW VWXGHQWV¶ ERRNV PRUH WKDQ RQH
student).
a. Indicates a Possessive in a Singular Noun
Example: 7KHFDIH¶VPHQX
But when WKHSRVVHVVRULVDUHJXODUSOXUDOWKHDSRVWURSKHIROORZVWKH³V´
Example: 7KHFDIHV¶PHQXV
Note: :LWKPRGHUQQDPHVHQGLQJLQ³V´LQFOXGLQJELEOLFDOQDPHVDQGDQ\
IRUHLJQQDPHZLWKDQXQSURQRXQFHGILQDO³V´WKH³V´LVUHTXLUHGDIWHUWKH
apostrophe.
KeatV¶VSRHPV
6W-DPHV¶V6TXDUH
&KDUOHV¶VFRIIHHPXJ
With names from the ancient world, it is not.
$FKLOOHV¶KHHO
$UFKLPHGHV¶VFUHZ
,IWKHQDPHHQGVLQDQ³L]´VRXQGDQH[FHSWLRQLVPDGH
%ULGJHV¶VFRUH
0RVHV¶WDEOHWV
-HVXV¶GLVFLSOHV
b. Indicates Time or Quantity.
Two Week¶s Notice
7KH&DIHZLOORSHQLQWZRPRQWK¶VWLPH
c. Indicates the Omission of Figures in Dates
Example: %DWFK¶LVVRH[FLWHGWRJUDGXDWH
d. Indicates the Omission of Letters
Examples: 7KHWUDLQLQJVWDUWVDW2¶FORFNHYHU\GD\
7KH*RY¶WLV set to battle the insurgents in Maiduguri.

ͲϱϴͲ

,W¶VLWLV\RXUWXUQ
,W¶VEHHQVHYHUDO\HDUV,WKDVEHHQVHYHUDO\HDUV
e. Indicates the Plural of Words
7KHGR¶VDQGGRQ¶WVRIVSHDNLQJ
6KHGLGQ¶WZHOFRPHKLVEXW¶VDQGDQG¶V
Note: 7KHDSRVWURSKHGRHVQ¶WKDYH to appear in the plurals of abbreviations
HJ'9'¶VRUSOXUDOGDWHVHJ¶V
Remember: Possessive pronouns do not require an apostrophe
Possessive Pronouns
Mine Ours

Yours Yours

His Theirs

Hers Theirs

Its Theirs

Uses of Semicolon
Semicolons separate clauses or phrases that are related and that
receive equal emphasis. In writing, you can impress your readers by using
them correctly. Semicolons join two independent clauses (complete
sentences) that are closely related if no coordinating conjunction is used.
They also signal to a reader that the information in both sentences should

ͲϱϵͲ

be taken together. Semicolons again help avoid confusion between items in
lists where there are already commas.
i. Separate Two Related Sentences Where There is No Conjunction
VXFK DV ³DQG´ RU ³EXW´ DQG :KHUH 8VLQJ 2QO\ D &RPPD
would be Ungrammatical.
Example: She is a good writer; she has published several books.
ii. Organizes Syntax Thought Where Many Commas are Used
Example: We bought dairy products like milk, butter, and cheese;
vegetables such as carrots, potatoes and spinach; and some fruits like
bananas and mangoes.
iii. /LQNLQJ :RUGV 6XFK DV ³KRZHYHU´ ³QHYHUWKHOHVV´ ³DOVR´
³FRQVHTXHQWO\´DQG³KHQFH´5HTXLUHD6HPLFRORQ
Example: He spent a lot for the campaign; however, the majority of the
public saw through his pretenseand did not vote for him.

Uses of Colon:
Colons follow independent clauses and call attention to the
information that comes after.They come after the independent clause
(complete sentence) and before the word, phrase, sentence, quotation, or
list they are introducing. Never use a colon after a verb that directly
introduces a list.
1) 6HSDUDWHV6WDWHPHQWV³SODFHGEDOGO\LQGUDPDWLFRSSRVLWLRQ´
a. Lawrence could not speak: he was drunk.
b. Man proposes: God disposes.
It is also used when the second statement reaffirms, explains or illustrates
the first.

ͲϲϬͲ

 2) Starts lists
a. Please purchase the following: furniture, glassware, ingredients, and
linen.
3) Sets Off Book and Film Subtitlesfrom the Main Titles
a. Gandhi II: The Mahatma Strikes Back
4) Separates Dramatic Characters Forming a Dialogue:
Philip: How do you get to Cebu?
O Anne: You can go there by plane, by ship, or by bus.

Uses of the Hyphen

Hyphens are used to form compound words or join word units. They
are also used to join prefixes, suffixes, and letters to words. Use hyphens
with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions
used as modifiers (adjectives). Use hyphens in a compound adjective only
when it comes before the word it modifies. There are exceptions; look up
compound adjectives in the dictionary if you are unsure whether or not to
hyphenate them. Writers should also use a hyphen with the prefixes ex-,
self-, and all-; with the suffix elect-; and with all prefixes before a proper
noun or proper adjective. A hyphen should also be use with compound
phrases.
Note: When describing ages, phrases that function as adjectives will use
hyphens, while numbers as adjectives will not use hyphens. Also, note how
hyphens can change meaning, and use them accordingly.
a) Use a Hyphen to Join Two or More Words Serving as a Single
Adjective before a Noun:
Examples: a one-waystreet
Chocolate-coveredpeanuts
Well-knownauthor

ͲϲϭͲ

However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not
hyphenated:
Examples: The peanuts were chocolate covered.
The author was well known.
b) Use a Hyphen with Compound Numbers:
Examples: forty-six
Sixty-three
Our much-lovedteacher was sixty-threeyears old.
c) Use a Hyphen to Avoid Confusion or an Awkward Combination
of Letters:
Examples: re-signa petition (vs. resign from a job)
Semi-independent (but semiconscious)
Shell-like (but childlike)
d) Use a Hyphen with the Prefixes ex (meaning former), self, all;
with the Suffix elect; between a Prefix and a Capitalized Word;
and with Figures or Letters:
Examples: ex-husband anti-American
Self-assured T-shirt
Mid-September Pre-CivilWar
All-inclusive mid-1980s
Mayor-elect
e) use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary,
and make the break only between syllables:
Examples: Pref-er-ence
Sell-ing
In-di-vid-u-al-ist
f) For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the
hyphen:

ͲϲϮͲ

Examples: mass- self-
Produced conscious
g) For line breaks in words ending in ing, if a single final consonant
in the root word is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between
the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself:
Examples: plan-ning
Run-ning
Driv-ing
Call-ing
h) Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning
of a line, and don't put twolettersuffixes at the beginning of a
new line:
Examples: lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)
Eval-u-ate(Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial
eatthe end of a line.)

Uses of the Dash

Usually, the dash separates words in the middle or at the end of a
sentence.In the middle of a sentence, a dash can put special emphasis on a
group of words or make them stands out from the rest of the sentence. At
the end of a sentence, a dash separates information from the rest of the
sentence. Thus, when you type two hyphens together (--), most word
processors automatically combine theminto a single dash. The dash (or em-
dash) should be used for a specific reason, and not be overused inacademic
writing.
1. Use a dash to take the place of the more formal colon,
particularly when you want to emphasize a point:

ͲϲϯͲ

Example: Students were asked to bring their own supplies²paper, pencils,
and calculator.
2. Use a pair of dashes in place of parentheses when you want to
place more emphasis on the content:
Example: The participants²two from group A and two from group B²
tested negatively.
3. Use a dash at the beginning and end of a series separated by
commas:
Example: The students²Eric, Marla, and Sara²were told they could
leave.
4. Use a dash to mean namely, in other words, or that is before an
explanation:
Example: The man²the one with his hand in the air²looks desperate.
5. Use a dash to indicate an abrupt break in thought:
Example: The professor was unwilling to change the due date²even for a
candy bar!
6. If the sentence resumes after the break, use a second dash:
Examples: The professor was unwilling²even for a candy bar!²to change
the due date.
After the professor made her statement²³,¶OOH[WHQGWKHGXHGDWHEXWMXVW
WKLVRQHWLPH´²we applauded.
7. Use a dash to interrupt the main idea in a sentence to insert
another, related, idea:
Example: The student²the one dressed in black, sitting in the corner²let
out a cry.
The en dash is used between equal weighted words in a compound
adjective. It is made by typing the first adjective,followed by a space, a
hyphen, another space, and the second adjective:

ͲϲϰͲ

Examples: The Yankee ± Red Sox rivalry
The New York ± Beijing flight
Most often the en dash is used to express a range:
Examples: pages 10 ± 23
100 ± 300 participants
January ± May 2009.
It can also stand for the words and, to, or versus between two words of
equal weight:
Example: The Israeli ± Palestinian Peace Conference.

Uses of Quotations
The primary functions of quotation marks are to set off and represent
exact language (either spoken or written) that has come from somebody
else. The quotation mark is also used to designate speech acts in fiction
andsometimes poetry. Since you will often use them when working with
outside sources, successful use of quotation marks is a practical defense
against accidental plagiarism and an excellent practice in academichonesty.
A direct quotation is the inFOXVLRQ RI DQRWKHU SHUVRQ¶V H[DFW ZRUGV
into your own writing. On the other hand, indirect quotation has to do with
SDUDSKUDVLQJDQRWKHUDXWKRU¶VZRUGVZKLOHPDNLQJVXUHWKDWWKHPHDQLQJRI
such words remains same. The following aresome general rules on the use
of quotations as given in the Purdue Online Writing (2011) as viz:
a). Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail
to close it at the end of the quotedmaterial.
([DPSOH0DUWKDUHSOLHG³,ZLOOWU\WREHWKHUHEHIRUHQRRQ´
b). Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a
complete sentence.

ͲϲϱͲ

 Example: Mr. Aondover, who was working in his field that morning,
VDLG³7KHDOLHQVSDFHVKLSDSSHDUHGULJKWEHIRUHP\RZQWZRH\HV´
c). Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or
RQO\DSLHFHRIWKHRULJLQDOPDWHULDO¶VFRPSOHWHVHQWHQFH
Example: Although Mr. Aondover has seen odd happenings on the
IDUPKHVWDWHGWKDWWKHVSDFHVKLS³FHUWDLQO\WDNHVWKHFDNH´ZKHQLW
comes to unexplainable activity.
d). If a direct quotation is interrupted midsentence,do not capitalize the
second part of the quotation.
([DPSOH ³, GLGQ¶W VHH DQ DFWXDO DOLHQ EHLQJ´ 0U $RQGRYHU VDLG
³EXW,VXUHZLVK,KDG´
e). Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them
relatively short. Too many quotationsin a news stories, editorial writing and
opinion articles will get you accused of not producing original thought or
material.

Chapter Summary

This chapter discusses punctuation and its game rules. It also

considered the imperativeness of punctuation marks in giving the intended
meaning to the language of journalistic writing. It is articulated in this
chapter that wrong placement of punctuation marks can change the
meaning of a sentence completely, which may again convert the
interpretation of the sentence into something different. The basic
punctuation rules are carefully followed, such as the use of comma,
apostrophe, semicolon, colon, hyphen, dash and quotations. The chapter
concluded that knowing the game rules of punctuation is one step towards
understanding the dynamism of what proper writing connotes.

ͲϲϲͲ

 Chapter Four
The Necessity of Correct Spelling

Introduction
Correct spelling, like correct speaking, is more than a sign of a
SHUVRQ¶VHGXFDWLRQ,WKHOSVWKHSHUVRQFRPPXQLFDWHWKRXJKWVLQZULWLQJVR
others will know quickly and easily what is meant. But the historical
development of the English language has resulted in many spellings that do
not follow the way the words are pronounced. The difference between good
spellers and poor spellers can often be traced to one problem: an effect
method of learning to spell. Good spellers have some method for studying
words they want to spell correctly. Spelling is believed to be a more
difficult task than reading. The ability to spell has been recognized as
complex and multifaceted process. Lerner (1985) pointed out that the
students may use a contextual, structural or configuration clues in reading.
Whereas in spellings there is no opportunity to draw such clues in
reproducing a word. There are four factors that greatly affect the spellings.

1. The ability to spell words that are phonetic.

2. The ability to spell words that involve roots, prefixes, suffixes and
roles of combining.
3. The ability to look at word and reproduce it later.
4. The ability to spell demons

Spelling and reading build and rely on the same mental

representation of a word. Knowing the spelling of a word makes the
representation of it strong and accessible for fluent reading (Snow, 2005).
Teachers who have been taught about phonics have typically received

ͲϲϳͲ

information about (spelling) as lists of rules about letter sequence
constraints. Such lists are unmotivated, unappealing, and difficult to learn.
Lists without a logical framework or set of principles must be learned by
rote rather than reason. In fact, Ehri (1998) found that the ability to read
ZRUGV³E\VLJKW´LHDXWRPDWLFDOO\UHVWVRQWKHDELOLW\WRPDSOHWWHUVDQG
letter combinations to sounds. Because words are not very visually
distinctive (for example, car, can, cane), it is impossible for children to
memorize more than a few dozen words unless they have developed
insights into how letters and sounds correspond. Learning to spell requires
instruction and gradual integration of information about print, speech
sounds, and meaning these, in turn, support memory for whole words,
which is used in both spelling and sight reading.
Therefore, correct spelling of vocabulary is essential to convey the
intended meaning. Journalistic writing is an aspect of writing where
journalists as well as aspiring journalists must demonstrate high level of
competence. Thus, this chapter exhaustively identifies some of the correct
word and misspelt words which are examined in the tables below:

$
Correct Word Misspelt Words
abandon abanden
abatement abetment
abbreviation abbrevation
aberration aberration
abattoir abbatoir
abhor abbor

ͲϲϴͲ

 abhorrence aborence
abhorrent abhorent
ability abality
abject Object/abjet
abnormality abnormalty
abolition abbolition
abrasion abbrasion
abscess absess
absence absense
absorb absorp
absorbent absorbant
absurd abserd
absurdity abserdity
abundance abundence
abyss abbys
academically academicly
academy acedemy/academi
accede aceede
accelerate acelerate
accelerator accelater
accension accention
accent acsent/acksent
acceptable acceptible
acceptance acceptence
access ackess
accessible accessable
accession ackession

ͲϲϵͲ

 accident axident/acident
accidentally accidently
acclimatisation acclamitisation
accommodate accomodate
accompanying acompaning
accordion accordian
accountancy accountency
accrual accruel
accrue acrew
accumulate accumalate
accuracy accurecy
accuse ackews/accues
accustom accustem
achieve acheive
aching acking
acknowledgement aknowlegment
acme ackme
acne ackne
acquiesce acquise
Acre acker
across accross
adaptable adaptible
adherent adherant
adjudicate ajudicate
administration adminstration
admission admishan
adolescent adolesent

ͲϳϬͲ

 adorable adoreable
adulteration adultration
advantageous advantagous
adventurous adventrous
adversary adversery
advertisement advertisment
aerial areal/arial
aerodrome areodrome/airodrome
affection afection
affliction afliction
affluent afflunt
agency ajency
agglomerate aglomrate
aggravate agravate
aggravation agravation
aggressor agressor
aggrieved aggreived
agitation ajitation
agnostic agnostick
agreeable agreable
agricultural aggriculture
aisle ail
alchemy alkemi
alignment alinement
all right alright
allegation aligation
alleged alledged

ͲϳϭͲ

 alleviate aliviate
alliance alience
allopathy alopathy
allotted alloted
allowance alouwence/allowence
ally alley
almost allmost
aloud alowd
alphabetically alphabeticaly
already all ready
aluminum alluminium
amateur amature
ambassador ambasador
ambiguity ambiguty
ambiguous ambigous
ambitious ambitous
amendment emendment
anaesthetic anesthetick
analyse/analyze Analise, analize
analysis analisis
ancestor ancester
ancient anshent
ancillary anciliary
anecdote anakdote
angel angle
angle angel
angular anguler

ͲϳϮͲ

 ankle ankel
annihilate annilate
annihilation annilation
anniversary aniversary/anniversery
announcement anouncement
annoyance annoyence
anoint annoint
anomalous annomalous
answer anser
antecedent anticedent
anticipate antecipate
antique antik
anxiety anxity
anxiously anxously
apiece apeace
apology apologee
apostle aposel
apparatus aparatus
apparel aparrel
appendicitis apendicitus
appetite apetite
appraisal appraisel
appreciate apprecate
apprehensible apprehensable
apprehension apprension
approachable approchable
appropriate approprate

ͲϳϯͲ

 appurtenance appertinence
arbitrary arbitry/arbitery
architect arkitect
arctic artic
arduous ardous
argument arguement
arithmetic arithmatic
armour armer
arrangement arrangment
arrear arear/arrier
arrival arrivel
arrived arived
arrogance arrogence
arrow arow/arrou
article artical
artillery artillary
artistically artisticly
ascendancy ascendency
asparagus aspargus
assassin assasin
assassinate assasinate
assimilate asimmilate
assistance assistence
assistant assistent
astronomical astronomicle
attachment attchement
attempt attemt

ͲϳϰͲ

 attendance attendence
attention attension
audible audable
auspicious auspicous
authenticity authencity
author auther
automatically automaticly
autumn autum
auxiliary auxillary
average avrage/averaje
aviator aviater
awkward awkard/aukward
axe ax

%
Correct Word Misspelt Word
bachelor bacheler
bacteria bactria
ballistic balistic
balloon baloon
banquet bankuet
barbarian barberian
barometer barometre
baron barron
barrel barell
barren baren

ͲϳϱͲ

 basically basicly
basin bassin
battalion batallion
battery battrey
beam beem
beautiful beutiful/butiful
beggar begger
beginning begining
behaviour behavour
beige biege
believable believeable
believe beleive
beneath beneeth
beneficial benefical/benificial
benefit benifit
benefited benefitted
benefiting benefitting
beseech beseach
besiege beseige
bibliography biblography
bilateral bilatral
biscuit biscit/bisket
bitten bittin/biten
blister blisster
blockade blocade
board bord
booster buster

ͲϳϲͲ

 bougainvillea bogainvilla
boundary boundry
bourgeois bourja
bowl boul
bracket braket
bray brey
breast brest
brewery brewry
bridge brige
brief breif
bristle brisle
broccoli brocolli
bruise bruse
brought bought
buckle buckel
budget buget
build bild
bugle bulge/bugal
bulge bulje
bulletin bulettin
bungalow bunglow
buoyancy bouyancy
bureau beauro
bureaucracy burocracy
burglar burgler
buried burried
business bussiness/bisiness

ͲϳϳͲ

Note: :RUGVHQGLQJLQ³DEOH´DQG³LEOH´DUHVSHOOLQJQLJKWPDUHVDVWKH\
sound alike. Remember this: if an adjective is closely related to a noun that
HQGVLQ³DWLRQ´WKHDGMHFWLYHLVPRVWFHUWDLQWREH³DEOH´)RULQVWDQFH

demonstration consideration application

demonstrable considerable applicable

&
Correct Word Misspelt Word
Cabbage cabage
Cacophony caccophony
Cadence cadense
Caffeine cafein
Calculus calculas
Calculator calculater
Calendar calender
Calibre callibre
Calligraphy caligraphy
Calm cam
Calorimeter callorimeter
Camouflage camoflazh/camoflagj
Campaign campane
Campus campuss
Cancellation canselation

ͲϳϴͲ

 Candidate candidet
Candle candel
Capability capabilty
Capillary cappilary
Capitalism capatalism
Capricious capricous
Caprine capreen
Captain capten
Captor capter
carburetor carburretor
care cair
career carreer
carnage carnaje
carpentry carpentary
carried carryed
castigate castiget
castle casle
casually casualy
catalogue cattalog
catalyst catalist
cataract catract
catch cach
category catagory
caught cot
causerie causery
cavalry cavalary
cavalier cavaleer

ͲϳϵͲ

 cease ceas/ceez
ceiling sealing/cieling
celery cellery
celibacy celibasy
cement sement
cemetery cemetry
census sensus
centenary centinary
centralize centeralize
century cenchury
ceramics ceramicks
ceremonial cerimonial
certainty certenty
certificate certifickate
cessation sessation
challenge chalenge
chameleon cameleon
champagne shampain
champion champian
chancellor chanceller
chandelier shandiliar
changeable changable
changeling changling
changing changeing
character caracter
chauvinist chavanist
chestnut chesnut

ͲϴϬͲ

 chief cheif
chimney chimny
chivalry shivlry
chlorophyll clorofil/clorophyl
cholera colera
choose chooze/chooce/chose
chow mein Chou meen
christmas chrismas
chronicle cronical
chrysanthemum crysanthium
church cherch
cinema cinima
circle circal
circular circuler
circumference circumfrence
citation sitation
clarity clarty
classical clasical
claustrophobia claustrofobia
cleanser clenser
clearance clearence
clearing clearrying
cleavage clevage
clemency clemancy
cleric clerick
clerical clericle
cloud clowd

ͲϴϭͲ

 coat cote
cockroach cockroche
coffee cofee
cognizance cognisense
coherence coherance
cohesion cohision
coincidence coincidense
colicky colicy
collapse colapse
collapsible collapseable
collar coller
colleague coleague
collector collecter
college collage
collegiate collejiate
colloquial coloqual
colonel kernel/cornel
colony colny/coloney
columnist colemunist
combustible combustable
coming comming
commandant comandant
commemorate comemorate
commentary commentry
commentator commentater
commission comission
committee committee/comittee

ͲϴϮͲ

 commotion comotion
communal comunal
company compny
comparable compareable/comprable
comparison comparisen
compatible compatable
competence compitence
competent compitent
competition compitition
competitor compititor
complacency complasensy
complexion complexon/comleshun
comprehensible comprehensable
comptroller comtroller
concede conceed/consede
conceit conceet/conciet
conceivable concievable
condemn condem
conductor conducter
confectionery confictionary
confessor confesser
connoisseur connoiseur
conqueror conquerer
conscientious consentious
conscious conscous
consciousness consiousness
consistence consistance

ͲϴϯͲ

 constancy constency
contemporary contemprary
contingency continjency
contributor contributer
convalesce convaese
convenient convenent
convertible convertable
coolly cooly
corollary corrolary
correspondence corespondence
corruptible corruptable
cortege corteje/corteez
council counsel
counterfeit counterfeet
courageous couragous
credible credable
creditor crediter
cried cryed
critically criticly
criticize critisize
crystal chrystle
cutlery cutlary

ͲϴϰͲ

 '
Correct Word Misspelt Word
dabble dabbel
dachshund dashund
dacoit dacait
daddy dady
daffodil dafoddil
dahlia daliah
daily dailey
dais dias
damage damaje
damned dammed
dandelion dandilion
danger danjer
dangerous dangrous
dapple dappel
dastard dasterd
dawdle daudle
dawn don
dead ded
Deaf deff
deal deel
dean deen
debacle debakel
debate dibate
debenture debencher
debris debri

ͲϴϱͲ

 debtor debter
decade dekade
decay dekay/dicay
decease decese
deceit deciet
deceivable decieveable
deceive decieve
decelerate decilirate
decency decensy
decent desent
decibel decible
decide deside
deciduous desidous
decimal decimel
decipher decifer
decision dicision
declamation declaimation
decor deckor
decorator decorater
decorum decoram
decrease decrees
deductible deductable
deem deam
deficient deficent
definite definate
definitive definative
degenerate dejenerate

ͲϴϲͲ

 deify defy
deign dein
deity daity
delete deleet
deliberate delibrate
delicacy delicasy
delicious dilicious
delight delite
delineate deliniate
delinquent delinkuent
delirious dilirious
delirium dilirium
deliver diliver
deliverance dlivrance
delivery dilivery
deluge deluje
deluxe delux
demagogue demagog
demand dimand
demarcation demarkation
demeanour demeaner
dementia demenshia
demise demice
democracy democrasy
demon demen
demoniac demonic
demonically demonicly

ͲϴϳͲ

 demonstrator demonstrater
demur demer
demurrage demorrage
denial deniel
denominate dinominate
denominator denominater
dense dence
dental dentel/dentle
deodorant deoderent
dependent dipendant
depilatory depilatary
depletion deplesion
deplorable deploreable
depositor depositer
depot depo
depreciate deprishiate
depressant depressent
depressor depresser
derelict derilict
dermatitis dermititis
descend desend
descendant descendent
describe discribe
description discription
descriptive discriptive
desecrate desicrate
desiccate dessicate

ͲϴϴͲ

 design desine
desirable desireable
desolate dessolate
despair dispair
despatch dispach
desperate desparate
despicable dispicable
despondent despondant
dessert desert
destitution destution
destroy destory
detector detecter
detention detension
detergent deterjent
deteriorate detererate
determinant determinent
deuce duce
develop develope
deviate diviate
device devise
dexterous dextrous
diabetes dibetes
diacritical decritical
diadem didem
diagnose dignose
diagonal diognal
diagram digram

ͲϴϵͲ

 dial diel/dile
dialect dilect
dialogue dilogue
diameter diametre
diamond daimond
dictator dictater
dictionary dictionery
didactic didatic
diesel deisel
difference diffrence
differentiation differenciation
diffuse difuse
digestible digestable
digit dijit
dilapidated dillapidated
dilatory dilatary
dilemma dillema
diligent deligent
dining dinning
diphtheria diptheria
Diphthong dipthong
diplomacy diplomasy
diptych diptick
director directer
directory directry/directary
dirge dirje
disappear dissappear

ͲϵϬͲ

 disappoint dissappoint
disapprobation disaproation
disapprove dissapprove
disburse disbers
discern dissern
disciple dissipal
disciplinary disciplinery
discipline dissiplin
discotheque discothick
discriminate discrimanate
disguise disgise
dishevelled dissevelled
disintegrate disintergrate
dispense dispence
dispensable dispensible
dispense dispence
dissatisfaction disatisfaction
dissect disect
dissension disension
dissidence disiddence
dissident disident
dissimilar dissimiler
dissipate disipate
dissociate disocciate
dissolve desolve
dissuade disuade
distillery distilry

ͲϵϭͲ

 distributor distributer
disturbance disturbence
ditch dich
diurnal diurinal
diversion divertion
divine devine
divisible divisable
doctor docter
doctrine doctrin
documentary documentry
dodge doje/doge
dollar doller
Dolphin dolfin
domicile domisile
dominance dominence
dominant dominent
donation donasion
donkey donky
donor doner
dormant dorment
dormitory dormitary
dormouse doormouse
double dubble
Dough dout
dough dow
dowdy doudy
drawl draul

ͲϵϮͲ

 dredge drege
drunkenness drunkeness
dual duel
ducat ducket
duchess dutchess
dulcet dulset
dumbstruck dumstruck
dungeon dunjen
dutch duch
duteous dutious
dyarchy diarchy
dying dieing
dynasty dinasty/dinesty
dysentery dysentry
dyspepsia dispepsia

(
Correct Word Misspelt Word
eager eagre
eagle eagel
earnest ernest
earthen earthern
ease eese
easily easyly
eatable eatible
ebony ebeny

ͲϵϯͲ

 ebullient ebulient
eccentric eckentric
ecclesiastic ecclisiastic
echelon ekelon
echo ecko
eclair eclare
eclat ecklat
eclectic eletic
economically economicly
ecotoplasm ectoplasam
ecstasy ecstacy
eczema ecsema
edelweiss edelwise
edge ejj
editor editer
editorial editoral/editoreal
educate ejucate
educator educater
eerie Earie
effervescent effervesent
efficacy efficasy
efficiency eficiency
efficient effishient
efflorescence efflorisence
effluence effluance
effort effert
effrontery effrontry

ͲϵϰͲ

 egress eggress
eight eigth
eject egect
ejector ejecter
elaborate elabrate
elasticity ellasticity
elector electer
electric electrick
electrolyte electrolite
elegant elegent
elemental elementle
elementary elementery/elementry
elephant elephent/elefant
elevator elevater
ellipse elipse
elliptical eleptical
emancipate emancipet
embarrass embarass
embassy embasy
embellish embelish
embezzlement embezlement
emblem embelem
emboss embos
embroidery embroidry
embrace embrase
emerald emarald
emergency emerjency

ͲϵϱͲ

 emeritus emiritus
emigration emmigration
eminence emminence
emission emision
emolument emmolument
emperor emperer
emphatic emfatic
emphysema emphesema
en masse En mass
enamel enamal
enamour enamer
encumbrance encumberance
endeavour endevour
endocrine endocrin
endorse endorce
endorsement endorcement
endurance endurence
enema enima
enforceable enforcable
engagement engajement
enlightenment enlightment
enmity enemity
enough enuf
ensconce enconse
enterprising enterpricing
enthusiasm enthusasm
entrance enterance

ͲϵϲͲ

 entrepreneur enterreneur
enumeration ennumeration
envelope envelop
envious envius
environment enviroment
ephemeral efemeral
episode episod
equally eqally/equaly
equatorial equitorial
equilibrium equalibrium
equipped equiped/eckuiped
errand errend
erratic erattic
erroneous esofagus
escalator escalater
escape eskape
esophagus esofagus
especially especally
esprit espirit
essence essense
essential essenshial
estuary eschury
etcetera etcetra
eternal eternel
ethereal ethirial
eucalyptus eucaliptis
eugenic euginic

ͲϵϳͲ

 eunuch unuck
European Europian
evacuation evaquation
evanesce evanese
evangel evangle
evaporation evapouration
evening evenning
everything evrything
evidence evidense
evince evinse
evolution evalution
exaggerate exagerate
exalted egaslted
examinee examini
exceed excede
excellency excelency
excellent exellent
exception exeption
excessive exessive
exchequer exchecker
excise exise
excitement exitement
excrete excreet
excusable excuseable
executive execative
executor executer
exemplary exemplery

ͲϵϴͲ

 exercise excercise
exhaust exaust
exhibition exibition
exhibitor exhibiter
exhilarate exhlarate
exhortation exortation
exhume exume
existence existance
exonerate exonarate
exorbitant exhorbitant
expansible expansable
expatriate expatrate
expectant expectent
expediency expediensy/expedency
expedient expident
expense expence
experience experence
expertise experties
explicit explisit
exquisite exquisit
exterior exterier
extinction extintion
extinguish extingwish
extracurricular extracaricular
extraneous extranous
extravagance extravagence
extravagant extragent

ͲϵϵͲ

 extreme extreem
exuberant exuberent

)
Correct Word Misspelt Word
fable fabel/fabal
fabulous fabalous
facade fasad
facial faciel
facility facilty
factor facter
factory factry/factery
faculty facalty
fahrenheit farenhiet
failure falier
falcon falken
fallacy fallasy
fallible falible
fallow fallou
false flase
familiarity familarity
fanatic fanatick
fancy fansy
fantasize fanticise
fantastically fantasticly

ͲϭϬϬͲ

 farce farse
fascinate fasinate
fashionable fashonable
fastidious festidious
fatal fatel
fatigue fateeg
favour faver
favourite favarite
fawn faun
fear feer
feasible feasable
feast feest
feature feeture/feacher
February Febrary
federal fedral
feeble feable
feel feal
feign fain
feint faint
felicitate falicitate
felony feleny
feminine faminine
fence fense
feral ferel
festal festel
fetish fettish
feud fude

ͲϭϬϭͲ

 feverish fevearish
few feu
fictitious fictitous
fidget figit
fief feif
field feild
fiend feind
fierce feirce
figure figer
filament filiment
filing filling
film filum
final finel
finally finaly
financer Financier
finesse finnese
finish finnish
fiscal fisical/fiscle
fission fishin
fissure fisher
fixture fikscher
flabbergast flabergast
flagrant flagrent
flair flare
flammable flameable
flannel flanel
flatten flaten

ͲϭϬϮͲ

 flexible flexable
flirt flurt
floor flore
flotilla flottila
flourish flarish
flower flour
fluctuate flucktuate
fluorescence fluroscence
fluorine flourine
focus fokus
foetal fetal
foliage folliage
folk foke
forebode forbode
forecast forcast
forego forgo
foreign foren
foresee forsee
foreword Forward/foreward
forfeit forfeat
forgery forjery
forlorn forelon
formality formalty
forty fourty
forum forrum
foundry foundary
fountain founten

ͲϭϬϯͲ

 fourteen forteen
fourth forth
fracture frakcher
fragrant fragrent
fraternity fraternty
freak freek
freight frait/frate
frequency frekuency/frequensy
friar frier
fricassee fricasee
friend freind
frieze freize
frivolous frivalous
frolicked froliced
fruit froot
frustration frustation
fuchsia fushia
fudge fuge/fuj
fuel fual
fugitive fujitive
fulfil fullfill
fumble fumbal
funeral funreal
furniture furnicher
further furthur
fuselage fusilage
future fucher

ͲϭϬϰͲ

 *
Correct Word Misspelt Word
gable gabel
gadget gadjet
galaxy galaksy
gallant galant
gallantry galantry
galleon gallion
gallery gally
gallop gallup
gallows galloes
gamble gambel
gamma gama
gammon gamon
gangrene gangreen
garage garaje
garbage garbaje
garden gardun
garish garrish
garland garlend
garrison garison
garrulous garulous
gaseous gasious
gasify gassify
gasoline gassolin
gate gait

ͲϭϬϱͲ

 gauche gosh
gauge gaje
gavel gaval
gawky gauky
gazette gazzete
gel jell
gelatinous jelatinous
gem jem
gendarme jendarm
genealogy geneology
general genral
generation genaration
genesis jenesis/genisis
genetics genitics
genial geneal
genius genious
genocide genoside
genteel gentile
gentleman gentelman/jentleman
genuine jenuin
genus genous
geography gography
geometry jometry
georgette jorjet
geranium jeranium
germ jerm
germinal germinel

ͲϭϬϲͲ

 gerund jerund
gesture jesture
geyser geeser
giant jiant
gibber jibber
gibe jibe
gimmick gimic
gin jin
ginger jinger
gingivitis jingivitis
giraffe girrafe
girdle girdel
glacial glaciel
glacier glaciar
glamorous glamerous
glossary glossery
glutton glutten
glycerine glicerin
gnarl narl
gnash nash
gnat Nat
gnaw naw
gnome nome
gnostic nostic
gnu un
goal gole
goddess godess

ͲϭϬϳͲ

 golden goldan
gone gon
gonorrhea gonorea
gorge gorje
gorgeous gorgious
gorilla gorrila
gosling goosling
gospel gosple
government goverment
governor governer
gracious gracous
gradient gradent
gradual grajual
gradually grajualy
graduate grajuate
grammar grammer
granary granery
grandeur grandure
gratification gratificashen
gratuitous gratutous
gratuity grachuity
grease greece
grievance greivance
grieve greive
grocery grosery
ground grownd
grown groun, grone

ͲϭϬϴͲ

 guarantee garanty
guarantor garanter
guidance guidence
gunnery gunery
gymkhana gimkana/jimkana
gynecology ginacology

+
Correct Word Misspelt Word
habilitate hablitate
habitat habitet, habitate
habitual hibichual
hackney hackny
haddock hadack/haduck
haggard hagerd
hair hare
halibut halibat
hallucination halucination
hamburger hamberger
hammock hamuck
handkerchiefs handkerchieves
happened happend
happily hapily
happiness happyness
harass harrass

ͲϭϬϵͲ

 harbinger harbinjer
harum-scarum harem-scarem
hassle hasle
hatchet hachet
hatred hatered
haughty hauty
havoc hauk
Hawk hauk
hazel hazle
healthy helthy
heavily heavyly
heinous hemous
heir hier
hemorrhage hemmorage
herbal herble
herculean herculian
hereditary heriditery/heriditery
hesitate hessitate
hesitation hessitation
heterogeneity hetrogeneity
heterogeneous heterogenious
heyday hayday
hiccup hickup
hideous hidious
hiding hidding
hierarchy heirarchy
hindsight hindsite

ͲϭϭϬͲ

 hindrance hinderance
hinge hinj
hippopotamus hipopotamus
hoarse horce
hockey hocky
holiday holliday
homogeneous homogenous
honest onest
honorarium honariam
honorary honrary
hoodlum hudlum
horizon horrizon/horaizon
horoscope horroscope
horrendous horendous
horrible horible
horror horrer
hostess hosstess
hover hower
howsoever howsover
humanitarian humanitrean
humble humbel
humanitarian humanitrean
humiliation humilation
humour humer
hundred hunred
hurdle herdle
hybrid hibrid

ͲϭϭϭͲ

 hyena heyna
hygiene hygeine
hypertension hipertension
hypnotism hipnotism
hypocrisy hypocricy
hypocrite hyppocrit
hypothetical hippotetical
hysteria histeria

Silent Letters
Some words are misspelled because they are mispronounced, like
accidentally being pronounced as accidently. Silent letters are a problem.
They are necessary for correct spelling, but not pronounced, e.g. in gnat, b
in climb. Reign, receipt, column, almond, aisle, wrestle, corps, viscount,
parliamentetc.

,
Correct Word Misspelt Word
ice cream Ice creem/ice creme
iceberg iceburge
icon ikon
identical identicle
identity identy
idiom idium
idiosyncrasy ideosyncracy

ͲϭϭϮͲ

 idle idel
idyll idyl
igneous ignious
ignition ignision
ignominious ignominous
ignorant ignorent
ileum ilium
illegible ill-legible
illuminate iliuminate
illusory illusary
imaginary imaginery
imagine imagin
imbecile imbacile
immaculate imaculate
immanent imminent
immediate immidiate
immemorial imemorial
immense immence
immersion imersion
immigrant imigrant
imminence iminence
imminent iminent
impasse impass
impedance impedence
imperative imperitive
imperceptible imperceptable
imperial imperiel

ͲϭϭϯͲ

 imperishable imperishible
impersonal impersonel
impertinent impertinant
impervious impervius
impetuous impetous
impetus impetous
implausible implausable
implement impliment
implicate impliccate
implicit implisit
importance importence
impossibility impossibality
impotent impotant
impropriety improprity
imprudent imprudant
impugn impune
inaccurate innacurate
inadmissible inadmissable
inaudible inaudable
inaugural inaugral
inauspicious inauspicous
incandescent incandesent
incessant incessent
inchoate incoate
incidence incidance
incidental incidentel
incompetent incompitent

ͲϭϭϰͲ

 inconceivable inconcievable
inconsistent inconsistant
increment incriment
incumbent incumbant
indebted indetted
indemnity indeminity
independence independance
indicator indicater
indigenous indiginous
indignant indignent
inductance inductence
indulgence innductence
inertia inershia
infant infent
inflammable inflamable
influence influance
infringement infringment
ingenious injenious/inginious
ingenuity ingenuty
ingredient ingrdent
inhabitant inhabitent
inherent inherant
inheritance inheritence
inherited inheritted
inhibition inhibation
inhospitable inhospitible
initiate inishiate

ͲϭϭϱͲ

 injure injer
innocence inocence/innosence
innumerable inumerable
inquisitor inquisiter
insensitive insenstive
insistent insistant
insouciant insousient
inspector inspecter
instantaneous instantanious
instinct instint
institute instutute
instrumental instrumentle
insular insuler
insurgency insurjency
insurance insurence
insurgency insurjency
integer intejer/intiger
integral integrel
intelligence intelligens
intelligentsia intelligensia
intemperance intemperence
intense intence
intercede interseed
intercept intersept
interesting intersting
interfere interfear
interior interier

ͲϭϭϲͲ

 intermediary intermidiary
intermediate intermidiate
intermittent intermittant
internment interment
interpretation interpretion
interrelated interelated
interrogate interogate
interrupt interupt
interval intervel
intervene interveen
interview interveiw
intimacy intimasy
intimate intimet
intolerable intollerable
intolerant intolerent
intravenous intraveinous
intrigue intreeg
intuition intution
invariant invarient
inveigle invigil
inventory inventary
invincible invinsible
irony ironey
irradiate iradiate
irrational irational
irrelevant irrelevent
irritability iritibility

ͲϭϭϳͲ

 irritation iritation
island ilend
issuance issuence
isthmus isthamus
italicise italacise
itinerary itenary/itinary/itenerary
ivory ivery

-
Correct Word Misspelt Word
jackal jackel
jaguar jagaur
jalopy jalapy
jamboree jamborrie
janitor janiter
January Janury
jargon jargen
jasmine jasmin
jaundice jaundise
javelin javlin
jazz jaz
jealous jelous
jealousy jelousy
jeopardise jepardise
jersey jersy

ͲϭϭϴͲ

 jewellery jewelery
jinx jincks
jockey jocky
jocular jokular
jocund jokund
journalism jourelism
journey journy
jubilant jubilent
jubilation jubilent
jubilee jubily
judge juj
jugglery jugglary
jugular juguler
juice juce
juncture junture
junior junier
junkie junky
juror jurer
justice justise
justiciable justicible

The Golden Rule

Spelling is a skill that can be learned. The ability to spell is not an
inborn talent, nor is it inherited. English is not an easy language to spell.
We have 26 letters in our alphabet as against about 45 basic sounds; the
letters seldom match the sounds! A single letter may represent numerous

ͲϭϭϵͲ

VRXQGV OLNH µD¶ LQ ED\ EDW EDOO 0DWFKLQJ D OHWWHU RI WKH DOSKDEHW ZLWK D
familiar sound can sometimes stump even the best of spellers. So a golden
rule to follow when in doubt, never fail to look up a dictionary. This
chapter serves the purpose of a dictionary, giving you only those words that
are most commonly misspelled. A few examples and tips on how to master
individual words that are your spelling demons. You will find that it is fun
to test yourself, your friends, and other members of your family.

.
Correct Word Misspelt Word
kaleidoscope kalaidoscope
kangaroo kangroo
kapok capok
kedge kej
kerchief kercheif
kernel kernal
kerosene kerosin
ketchup kechup
kettle kettel
khaki khakhi
kidney kidny
kindergarten kindergarden
kindred kinred
kinetic kinitic
kinsman kingsman
kitchen kichen

ͲϭϮϬͲ

 kleptomania cleptomania
knapsack napsack
knave nave
knead need
knee nee
knell nell
knelt nelt
knick-knack nick-nack
knickers nickers
knife nife
knight night
knitting kniting/nitting
knob nob
knock nock
knoll noll
knot not
knotty knoty
know no
knowledge knowlege
knuckle nuckle
kookaburra cuckoobara
krait crait/crate

ͲϭϮϭͲ

 /
Correct Word Misspelt Word
label lable
laboratory laboratry
labour laber
labyrinth labrinth
lacerate lacerrate
lachrymose lacrimose
lackadaisical lacadesical
lackey lacky
lacklustre lackluster
laconically laconicly
lacquer lacuar
lacrosse lackrose
lacuna lackuna
lacy lacey
ladle ladel
laggard lagard
laid layed
lair lare/liar
laissez faire laisez fair
laity layity
lamaism lamsim
lambaste lambast
landau lando
langsyne langsign

ͲϭϮϮͲ

 language langwage
languid langwid
languish langwish
languor langour
lanky lankey
lantern lanten
lapel laple
larceny larseny
Lariat lariet
larkspur larksper
larynx larinks
lascivious lassivious
lassitude lasitude
lateral latrel
latitude lattitude
latrine letrine
latter later
lattice latice
laudable laudible
laudatory laudatry
laugh laf
laughter lafter
laundry laundery
laureate lauriate
laurel laural
lavatory lavatry
lavender lavendar

ͲϭϮϯͲ

 lawn laun
lawyer lawer
laziness lazziness
league leegue
learned lerned
lease leese
leash leesh
leather lether
lecher leacher
ledger lejjer
legacy legasy
legend lejend
leisure liesure
leitmotif lietmotif
length lenth
lense lence
leopard lepard
leper lepper
leprosy lepracy
lesion lession
lethal lethel
lethargy letharjy/letharjee
lettuce lettuse
leukemia lukamia
level levell
leviathan leviathen
lewd lude/leud

ͲϭϮϰͲ

 liability liabality
liaison laison
liar lier
libel lible
liberal libral
library librery/liberary
lice lise
licentiate licenciate
lichen litchen
licorice lickorice
lieu lew
lieutenant leftinant
lightning lightening
likelihood likelyhood
lilac lilack
lily lilly
limousine limosine
linear liniar
linguist lingwist
linoleum linolium
linseed linsid
lintel lintle
liquefy liquify
liqueur liquer
liquid liqwid
liquor licker/lickor
lissome lissum

ͲϭϮϱͲ

 litany liteny
literacy litracy
literally Litrally
literary litrary
lithe lith
littoral litteral
lizard lizzard
liturgy litergy
loaves loafs
lodestar loadstar
loin cloth Lion cloth
longevity longivity
loony looney
lorgnette lornet
lottery lotery
loud lowd
lounge lounj
lovable loveable
loyalty loyality
lucrative lucretive
lucre lucer
luminary luminery
luncheon lunchen
luscious lushous
lustrous lusterous
luxury luckshury
lymph limf

ͲϭϮϲͲ

 lynch linch
lyre lire
lyric lirick

0
Correct Word Misspelt Word
macaroni maccaroni
machete machet
machiavellian machivellian
machine mashine
machinery machinary
mackerel macarel
mackintosh macintosh
madeira madiera
maelstrom malestrom
maestro mestro
magazine magzine
magenta majenta
magistrate magisterate
magnanimity magnanmity
magnate magnet
magnesia magneshia
magnificent mgnificient
mahogany mahagony
maiden maidan
maintenance maintainance

ͲϭϮϳͲ

 majestic magestic
majority majorty
malaise malace
malapropism malappropism
malleable malliable
malediction malidiction
malefactor malifactor
malefic malific
malevolent malivolent
malice mallice
malign maline
maligning malining
manageable managable
mandarin mandirin
mandatory mandatry
manganese mangnese
manger manjer
manifold manyfold
manipulate manupilate
manipulator manipulater
mannequin maneqiun
manoeuvre manouver
mantelpiece mantlepiece
mantle mantel
manual manuel
manuscript maniscript
maple mapel

ͲϭϮϴͲ

 marble marbel
margarine marjarin
margin marjin
marijuana marizhuana
marinate marrinate
marital martial
maroon marroon
marriage marrage
marrying marring
marsupial marsupiel
martial marshial
martyr martiar
marzipan marsipan
mascot masket
massage message/massege
masseur massure
mastiff mastif
matador mattador
material matireal/matreal/meterial
mathematics mathmetics
matinee matnee
matrimony matrimany
matron matren
mattress matress
mausoleum mosolium
mayonnaise mayonaise
meadow medow

ͲϭϮϵͲ

 meagre meeger
meander meandre
meant ment
meany meeny
measles measels
measly measely
mechanical mechanicle
mechanics meckanics
medal medle
medallion meddalion
media midia
medical medicle
medicine medisin
medieval medeival
mediterranean meditteranean
medium mediam
medley medly
melancholy meloncloy
melange melanje
melody melady
melon mellon
memento momento
memorabilia mamoribilia
memorandum memorandem
menagerie menajery
meningitis meninjitis
menopause menopass

ͲϭϯϬͲ

 menses mensus
mentally mentaly
mentor menter
mere mear
meredian meridien
merger merjer
meringue mering
meritorious merritorious
merriment meriment
metallic mettalic
metallurgy mettalirgy
metaphor metafer
meteor metior
meteorology meterology
methodology methodolgy
meticulous metticulous
mezzanine mezanine
mien mean/meen
might mite
migraine migrain
migratory migratary
mileage milage
mileau milew
military militry
millennium millenium
milligram miligram
millionaire millionnaire

ͲϭϯϭͲ

 mimic mimick
mimicked mimiced
mineral minarel
minestrone ministrone
mingle mingal
miniature miniture/minature
minion minnion
minority minorty
minstrel ministrel
minuscule miniscule
miracle miracal
mirage miraj
mirth merth
miscellaneous miscellanious
mischief mischeif
mischievous mischievious
missionary missionery
mnemonic nemonic
moccasin mocassin
modus operandi Modus operendi
molar mollar
molasses mollasses
molecular molicular
molecule molicule
mollify molify
momentarily momentrily
momentary momentry

ͲϭϯϮͲ

 monetary monitary
monitor moniter
monitory monitery
monotonous monotenous
monstrous monsterous
monumental monumentle
morass morrass
morgue morg
morsel morsal
mortal mortel
mortuary mortury
mosaic mosake
mosque mosk
mosquito musquito
motley motly
mountain mounten
moustache mustache
muscle mussle
musical musicle
mustard musterd
mutagen mutajen
mystery mistry
myth mith

ͲϭϯϯͲ

 1
Correct Word Misspelt Word
naive nive
naivete naivety
nanny nanie
napalm napam
naphtha naptha
naphthalene napthalene
narrate narate
nasal nasel
nascent nasent
nasturtium nastershium
natal natle/natel
naturally naturaly
naughty notty
naught not
nausea nausia
necessary necessery
necessarily necesserly
nectar necter
negligible negligable
negotiable negoshiable
negotiation negociation
neighbour neighber
neither niether
nemesis nemisis

ͲϭϯϰͲ

 nephew nevew/nefew
nephritis nefritis
nervous nervus
nestle nessle
neuralgia nuralgia
neuritis nuritis
neutral nutral
newsstand newstand
niche nich
nineteenth ninteenth
ninety ninty
noble nobel
nocturnal nocternal
nominee nominy
nonchalant nonchalent
nondescript nondiscript
none nun
nonpareil nonparale
nonsense nonsence
normal normel
normalcy normalsy
nostalgia nostaljia
nosy nosey
notable noteable
notice notise
noticeable noticable
notoriety notriety

ͲϭϯϱͲ

 nourishment nurishment
novice novise
novitiate noviciate
nuance nuence
nuclear neuclear
nuisance nuisence
numbskull numskull
numerator numerater
numerical numericle
numerology numeralogy
nurture nerture
nylon nilon
nymph nimph/nimf

2
Correct Word Misspelt Word
oaf off
oarsman orsman
obedience obidience
obeisance obessance
obese obees
obituary obitury
REMHWG¶DUW REMHFWG¶DUW
obligatory obligatry
oblige oblije
obliquely oblickly

ͲϭϯϲͲ

 obliterate oblitrate
oblivion oblivian
obscene obsene
obscenity obsenity
obscurant obscurent
observance observence
observant observent
observatory observatry
obsess obcess
obsolescence obsolecence
obstructor obstructer
occasion occassion
occipital occipitle
occupancy occupency
occur occer
occurred occured
ochre oker/ocker
octogenarian octigenerian
octogon octagon
ocular oculer/occular
oculist occulist
odourant odourent
odyssey oddysey
ogre oger
ohm om
ohmmeter ohmeter
oleander oliander

ͲϭϯϳͲ

 omelette omlette
omission omision/ommission
ommiscience omniscene
omnibus ominibus
opal opel
opalescent opalesent
operate opperate
operator operater
ophthalmic opthalmic
ophthalmology opthalmology
opinion oppinion
opium opiem
opportunity oppertunity
opposite opposit
oppression oppresion/opression
oppressor oppresser
opulent opulant
oracle oracal
orally oraly
orange orang/orenge
orator orater
oratory oratary
orchard orcherd
orchid orkid
ordinal ordinle
ordinance ordinence
ordinary ordinery

ͲϭϯϴͲ

 orgy orjy
orifice orifis
origami origamy
originality orignialty
originator originater
orphan orfan
oscillate ossillate
oscillatory ossilatory
osier ossier
ossify osify
overwhelm overwelm
oyster oister

ͲϭϯϵͲ

 3
Correct Word Misspelt Word
pace pase
pacifier pacifer
pacify pasiffy/passify
paddle padle
paddock padock
padre paddre
pagan pagen
pageant pajent
paid payed
palanquin palenquin
palate palet
paleothic paliotithic
palisade pallisade
pallid palid
pallor paller
palm pam
palmistry pamistry
palsy palcy
pamphlet pamplet
panacea panacia
panelist panellist
panic panick

ͲϭϰϬͲ

 panicked paniced
panorama pannorama
pansy pancy
pantheon panthion
papier mache Paper mesh
papyrus papirus
parachute parashute
paradigm paradigam
paradisiacal paradisical
paradox paradocks
paraffin parrafin
paragon paragone
pariah paraya
parallel paralel/parralel
paralysis paralisis
parameter parametre
paramountcy paramountsy
paranoia paranoya
paraphernalia parafernalia
paraphrase parafrase
parasite paracite
parcel parsel
parish parrish
parley parle
parliament parliment
parliamentary parliamentry
parlour parler

ͲϭϰϭͲ

 parochial parokial
parody parady
parole paroll
parrot parret
parsimony parshimoney
parsley parsly
participator participater
participle participal
particularly particulerly
partisan partisen
partner partener
partridge partrige
Passé pass
pastel pastle
pasteurize pascherize
pastime past time
pastor paster
pasture pascher
patriarch patriark
patrician patrishian
patricide patriside
patriot patriet
patrol patrole
patron paterun/patrun
pattern patern
paucity pausity
pauper popper

ͲϭϰϮͲ

 pavilion pavillion
pawn paun/pon
peaceable peacable
peacock pecock
pearl Purl
pecan peecan
peccadillo piccadillo
pedestrian pedestrain
pedicure peddicure
pekingese pekinese
pelican peliccan
pell-mell pelmel
pellagra pelagra
penance penence
pence pens
pendant pendent
penetrate penitrate
penicillin pencillin
peninsular penisuler
penitent penitant
pennant pennent
pension penshen
peon pion
people peeple
perceive percieve
percussion percushion
peremptory peremptary

ͲϭϰϯͲ

 perennial perrenial
perfunctory peremptary
perimeter perrimeter
permanent permanant
permeate permiate
perpendicular perpendiculer
perquisite perquisit
persevere persivere
persistence persistance
personnel personel
perspective purspective
perturb purturb
pessimism pesimism
petroleum petrolium
petulant peulent
pewter peuter
phantasy fantasy
phantom fantom
pharaoh pharoh
pharmacy pharmasy
phenomenon phenominon
philanthropy philantropy
philately philatelly
phlegm flem
phoenix fenix/phenix
physiology phisiology
physique physic

ͲϭϰϰͲ

 piecemeal peacemeal
piety pity/piaty
pillar piller
pilloried pillaried
pinafore pinnafore
pinnacle pinnacal
pious pius
pipette pippet
pique peek
pistachio pistashio
pistol pistel

4
Correct Word Misspelt Word
quackery quakery
quadrant quadrent
quadrilateral quadrilatral
quaff kof
quagmire kwagmire
quail kwail
quaint kwaint
qualify quallify
quality qualaty
qualm calm

ͲϭϰϱͲ

 quantum quantam
quarantine quarentine
quarrel quarell
quarry quary
query querry
quay key
questionnaire questionaire
queue que
quibble quible
quietude quietitude
quinine quineen
quizzes quizes
quoit koit/coit
quorum qorum
quota kota
quotation cotation
quote cote
quotient coshent

Useful Tip
7KHILQDOOHWWHUµH¶LVVLOHQWLQPDQ\ZRUGVDVLQDFKHEHFRPHKRSH
HWFWKHILQDOµH¶LVSUHFHGHGE\DFRQVRQDQW7KHDGGHGVXIIL[EHJLQVZLWKD
vowel, e.g., -able, -al, -er. As in blame blam(e)able, confuse confus(e)ion,
hope ho(e)ing among others. One of the best-known rules in English
spelling is: Write I before E, Except after C, or when sounded like A as in
neighbour and weigh.

ͲϭϰϲͲ

 5
Correct Word Misspelt Word
rabbit rabit
rabies rabbies
radial radiel
radiance radience
radiator radiater
radium radiem
raffle rafle
raid rade
rallying ralling
rancid ransid
rancour ranker
random randem
range ranje
ransom ransem
rapprochement rapproachment
rarefy rarify
rascal rascel/raskel
raspberry rasberry
rational rationel
rattan ratten
razor razer
reactor reacter
readymade readimade
realistically realisticly

ͲϭϰϳͲ

 really realy
realm relm
reaper reeper
rebellion rebelion
rebuttal rebutal
recede receed/resede
receipt reciept
receive recieve
receptacle receptical
recess resess
recipe recipi
recipient recepient
reciprocal reciporcle
recital resital
reckon recken
recommend recomend
recompense recompence
reconciliation reconcilation
redundant redundent
referee refree
reformatory reformatry
refrigerator refrijerater
refugee refujy
regatta regetta
regiment rejiment
register registar
regulator regulater

ͲϭϰϴͲ

 rehabilitate rehabilatate
rehearse reherse
reign rein
rhyme ryme
rhythm rythm
ricochet reccoshe
riddle ridle
rigorous rigourous
risen rissen
ritual richual
riviera rivera
robin robbin
robot robbot
rogue rouge
roller roler
Rude rood
rudimentary rudimentry
rummage rumage
rupture rupcher

6
Correct Word Misspelt Word
sabbath sabath
sable sabal/sabel
sabotage sabotaj
saccharine sacharin

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 sacrifice sacrifise
sacrilege sacrilage
sallow sallo
salmon salmen
samovar samover
sanctuary sanchuary
sandwich sanchwitch
sanguinary sanguinery
sanitary sanitry
sapling sappling
sarcastically sarcasticly
sardine sardeen
sarsaparilla sarsaparila
satanic satenic
satisfactory satisfactry
saturnine saternine
savanna savana
savant savent
scandalous scandulous
scathe skathe
scenario Scenario
schedule shedule/skedule
schema skema
sciatica shiatica
sibilant sibilent
sickle sickel
siege seige

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 soaking soking
snorkel snorkle
soap sope
sobriety sobrity
stupor stuper
subconscious subconsious
symmetry symetry
sympathy sympethy

7
Correct Word Misspelt Word
tabernacle tabernakel
tablet tabelet
taboo tabboo
tabulate tabullate
tailor tailer
tamarind tamirind
tandem tandom
tantamount tantemount
tariff tarrif
tartan tarten
tattoo tatoo
teammate teamate
tease teese
technical tecnical
technocracy technocrasy

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 telecommunication telicommunication
telegram teligram
teleology teliology
telephone teliphone
temperature temprature
temporary temprary
tenderloin tenderlion
thunderous thundrous
tiara taira
tigress tigeress
tincture tinture
tomorrow tommorow
travail travale
treasure tressure
trespass tresspass
tribal trible
triumph triumf
trivial triviel
trolley trolly
trophy trofy
trough truff
troupe troop
trousers troussers
trousseau trusso
trowel trovel
truant truent
trustee trusty

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 tuition tution
tunnel tunell
turbid terbid
turbulent terbulent
turkey turky
turmeric termeric
turmoil termoil
turpitude terpitude
turquoise tercois
turtle turtel
tweak tweek
tweed twead
twelfth twelth
twelve twell
twiddle twidle
tycoon traicoon
tympanic timpanic
typical tipical
tyrannical tyrranical
tyranny trianny
tyrant tirent

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 8
Correct Word Misspelt Word
ubiquity ubequity
ukulele ukelele
ulceration ulcerration
ulterior ulterier
ultimatum ultimatem
umbilical umbilcal
umpire empire/umpyre
undoubting undouting
undulatory undulatry
unevenness uneveness
unforgettable unforgetable
unforgivable unforgiveable
unguent unguant
unison unision
universal universel
unleash unleesh
unmistakably unmistakeably
unsuitable unsutable
unveil unvale
unwieldy unwildy
unwrap unrap
unyielding unyeilding
upbraid upbrade
upheaval upheevel

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 upholstery upholstry
uproar uprore
urgent urjent
usurp userp
utensil utencil
utility utality
utterance utterence

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 9
Correct Word Misspelt Word
vacancy cacansy
vacation vaccation
vaccinate vacinnate
vaccine vaxine
vacillate vacilate
vacillator vacillater
vacuum vaccum
vagabond vaggabond
vague vaig
valuing valueing
vandal vandel
vandalism vandelism
vantage vantaje
variety varity
vascular vasculer
vaseline vasiline
vein vien/vain
venal venel
vellum vellam
ventilate ventillate
veranda verranda
verbal verble/verbel
vernacular vernaculer
view veiw
vigilance vigilence
vintage intiji

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 violence vilence/voilence
voice voise
vitriol vitriole
vocabulary vocabulery
volatile vollatile
volcano volcanoe
volley volly
volte-face volta-face
voluntary voluntery
voluntaryism voluntrism
volunteer voluntear
voluptuous voluptous
vulcanise vulkenise
vulgar vulger
Vulture vulcher

:
Correct Word Misspelt Word
wad wadd
waddle woddle
wafer waffer
wage waje
waggle wagle
wagon waggon

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 wainscot wanescot
wallaby walabby
warbler warbeler
warehouse wearhouse
warrior warrier
watt wat
weapon weapen
wear ware
wearisome wearisum
welcome wellcome
whatsoever whatsover
wheel weel
wheeze weeze
whole hole
wholly holy
whopper wopper
wintry wintery
wisdom wisdem
witch wich
withal withall
withhold withold
woebegone wobegone
wonder wunder
woolly wooly
wrack rack
wreath reath
wreckage reckage

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 wrest rest
wring ring
wrinkle rinkle
wrist rist
writ rit
write rite
writhe rithe
wrong rong
wrought rot
wry rye

;
Correct Word Misspelt Word
x-ray x-rey
xanthate xanthet
xanthoma zanthoma
xanthophyll xanthofil
xebec zebec
xenogamy xenogomy
xenophobia zenophobia
xeranthemum xeranthium
xerography zoography
xerox zerox
xiphoid xifoid
xoanon zoanon

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 xylem zylam
xylography ziloid/xiloid
xylonite zylonight
xylophone zylophone
xystus xistus

<
Correct Word Misspelt Word
yacht yatch
yankee yanky
yawn yaun
year yeer
yearn earn
yellow yelow/yellou
yelp elp
yeoman yoeman
yield yeild
yodel yoddel
yokkel yolkel
youghurt/yogurt yogert
young yung
yours yores
yuletide yuletide

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 =
Correct Word Misspelt Word
Zany zaney
zealot zealet
zealous zelous
zebra zeebra/zebera
zenith zennith
zephyr zefir
zinc zink
zinnia zinia
zirconium zirconiem
zodiac zodiack
zombie zomby
zonal zonel
zucchini zuccini
zygote zygot

Some Basic Rules

Correct spelling with mnemonics (by means of association) will
forever fix that correct spelling in your memory.
1. Stationary: This is a word meaning paper (notice the ±er in paper).
Stationery: This word eans standing (notice the ±a in stand).
2. All right: Two words (remember it is the opposite of all wrong).
3. Coolly: Spell cool and add the adverbial ly.
4. Supersede: The only word in the language ending in ±sede.

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 5. Succeed, proceed, exceed: The only three words in the entire
language ending in ±ceed. The initial letters of the three words form
the beginning of speed.
6. Cede, precede, secede, etc: All other words with a similar sounding
final syllable end in ±cede.
7. Separate, comparative: Look for a rat in both words.
8. Ecstasy: to sy with ecstasy.
9. Repetition: The first four letters are the same as its root word repeat.
10.Irritable, inimitable: Think of allied forms irritate and imitate.
11.Absence: :RUGIRUPHGDEVHQWVRGRQ¶WJRVSHOOLQJDEVFHQFH
12.Superintendent: The superintendent in an apartment house collects
the rent.
13.Conscience:Science + prefix con.
14.Anoint: Think of an ointment, hence no double nt.
15.Ridiculous: :RUGIURPULGLFXOHVRGRQ¶WZrite ridiculous.
16.Despair: 'RQ¶WJHWdesSHUDWHGRQ¶Wdespair
17.Indispensable:able people are indispensable.

When words ending in ±ant, -ent, -ance, -ence, -ancy and ±ency,
spellers find few rules which can guide them to accuracy. It follows that
words ending in ±ent, will have related words ending in ±ency and ±ence,
and likewise. With words ending in ±ant, only practice can make a man
perfect. So get familiar with the correct spelling.
E.g. abundant abundance abundancy
Assistant assistance assistancy
Proficient proficience proficiency
Permanent permanence permanency

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-al, -el, or ±le: Again no good rules have been devised to help you judge the
FRUUHFWVXIIL[WRFHUWDLQZRUGV<RXFDQ¶WJRE\SURQXQFLDWLRQDVWKH\DOO
sound alike. So, once again practise, practise, practise and go for
perfection.
E.g. Farm farmer
Run runner
Give giver
The equivalent Latin ending is ±or. Since many Latin words have
been absorbed into English language, we keep the Latin spelling ±or, as in
collector or editor.
Words ending in ±ar are very few. So take a tip and master the fun.
Examples are liar, scholar, beggar.
Most word in English end in ±ary. Very few end in ±ery. So learn
these few ±ery ending words and you will not go wrong for sure.
If a word enGVLQFGRQ¶WIRUJHWWRDGGDNEHIRUHDGGLQJ±ed, -ing or ±y
E.g. frolic frolicked frolicking
Panic panicked panicking panicky
Most words end ±cy and very few in ±sy. The most common words ending
in ±cy and ±sy are
Accuracy ecstasy
Fallacy fantasy
Secrecy hypocrisy
Literacy heresy

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 Chapter Summary

This chapter is a lexicon of commonly misspelled words, along with

their collect spellings, provides useful tips and easy-to-learn rules that will
make students and teachers as well as journalists a competent speller. The
chapter has been designed with a purpose to help you master the spelling of
English words that are simple, yet seem to stump so many people! This
chapter serves the purpose of a dictionary, giving you only those words that
are most commonly misspelled. So a golden rule to follow when in doubt,
never fail to look up a dictionary.

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 Chapter Five
Grammar and the Radio Copy

Radio remains an essential medium of effective mass communication

in Africa. Its simplicity, immediacy, low cost of transmission and operation
as well as efficient reach to the large, heterogeneous and amorphous
audienceare some of the relative advantages it has over other media of
mass communication.
In writing a radio copy, grammatical conventions as highlighted in
the preceding chapters are frequently compromised to suit the peculiarities
of the technology and the audience. This compromise does not in any way
render grammatical rules insignificant or irrelevant for radio copy but
guarantees the dissemination of effective information with high fidelity to
the audience.
Consequently, corresponding professional techniques are developed to
ensure compliance with the grammatical conventions by radio copy writers
and other broadcast journalists. These techniques include:

Simplicity
Simplicity of a broadcast copy connotes how plain, straightforward
and uncomplicated the content as well as its structure are presented to the
audience. Developing a simple broadcast copy requires some logical and
professional competence which includes the following:

Short sentences:
This demands the presentation of a single idea about an issue.
Combination of perspective or addition of varying angles to an issue may
confuse the listener. Moreover, complex and compound complex sentences

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with their structural implication should be avoided largely because of their
potential to entangle the newscaster or broadcast presenter and intricate the
listener. However, a radio copy should not be short and simple throughout,
but a mixture of short and sometimes compound sentences so as to avoid
being monotonous and intermittent.

Short paragraphs: entails the development of a unified idea using a series

of simple and compound sentences with cohesion and logical flow.
Broadcast copy should therefore contain a solid block of unbroken idea
presented in the appropriate language structure and sophistication.

Precision:a fundamental convention in broadcasting is to make every word

efficient. The message or point should be established quickly and
appropriately.

Informality:radio copy frequently deviates slightly from the conventional

or formal rules of English grammar. Consequently, words, phrases and
other incomplete thoughts that may be unacceptable in formal
correspondence and print journalism are often used. A radio copy should
have a chatty, conversational and colloquial tone and structure that will
develop and captivate the attention of the listener.
Present Tense Urgency: news preparation and presentation is made
to satisfy the curiosity of the listener meet organizational or professional
challenges. Thus, news can be written in present tense to reflect the
progressive nature of the event or issue. This will make the news tone fresh
and alive than the obvious use of past tense in newspaper. For example; the
governor is attending the convocation ceremony organized by the
university today.

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Peculiarity of Numbers:numbers are very sensitive and difficult to
manage in a radio copy presentation. In most cases exact figures are boring
and difficult to remember by the listener. Unless they are essential
component of the copy, precise or definite numbers and figures should be
avoided.
However, where necessary, the presenter should round off the figure
to specific or definite number. Example, instead of N1, 750,000 (one
million seven hundred and fifty thousand Naira) you can say (about two
million Naira). There is no hard and core rule on how to use and
manipulate numbers in a radio copy, but the more numbers used the higher
the complexity of the news or story.
Diction selection: in countries like Nigeria where English is learnt
and spoken as a second language as well as adopted as a official language,
radio English news and programmes should be presented using short and
simple words and phrases that are understood by virtually everyone. Radio
presenters and writers must be conscious and considerate of the language
maturity and sophistication of the target audience so as not to distort the
message or lose the audience. As much as possible a broadcast copy should
not integrate jargon, slang, clichés and colloquial expressions or words
because they are associated and understood by a segment of a society.

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 References

Ehri, L. C. (1998). Learning to read and learning to spell are one and the
same, almost. In C. Perfetti, L. Rieben, & M. Fayol (Eds.), Learning
to spell: Research, theory and practice across languages. 237-269.
Lerner, H.D (1985). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.
NewJersey: Prentice. Halls, Inc.
Purdue Online Writing (2011). Basic rules for punctuation and spellings
Rosella T. R. (2011).Basic online writing training.Schools ProjectVisayas
State University, Babay, Leyte
Snow, C. E., Griffin, P.& Burns, M. S. (2005). Knowledge to support the
teaching of reading: (Eds.) Preparing Teachers for a Changing
World. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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