A F I R S T B O OK

J U R I S P R U D E NC E

FOR STU D ENT S C OMMON LAW

B Y THE

R I G HT HO N SIR FR ED ER ICK ‘ OLLOC K BAR T

.

BA RI ER
R
R
W ST -
AT -
LA
, .

H ON L L. D AR AR
E D IN . , D U B LIN AND H V D

R R RF R R R C R F R
. .

L AT E C O PUS C H IS T I P O E SS O OF JU ISP U D EN E IN THE U N IV E S IT Y OF O X O D

A F
P ST E L LO W OF R C T CA R
IN IT Y O L LE G E , MB IDG E

C RR O E S P O N D E NT OF FR A C
TH E I N ST I T U T E OF N E

THIR D E D I TI ON

M A CM I LL AN AND CO .
,
ED
LI M I T

ST . MAR T I N S ’
STR EE T , LOND O N

191 1
 P R EF AC E

T HI S b o ok is n ot i n t e n d e d t o lay o u t a gen e ral

s y s t e m o f t h e phil o s o phy o f l a w ,
n o r t o giv e a

cla ssifi ed V i e w o f t h e Wh o l e c o n t en t s o f an y l egal

s y s t em a n d it d oes n o t p ro fes s t o c o mp e t e wi t h t h e
,

m a n y w o rk s w hich hav e ai me d at o n e o r b o t h o f
t h os e o bj e c t s . It is add re ss e d t o re ad e rs w h o hav e
l aid t h e fo un dat i o n o f a liberal e d u ca t i on an d are
b egin n in g t h e sp e cial s t udy o f law Su ch a re ad er
.

fi nd s in t h e n e w lit e ra t u re h e h as t o m as t e r a
, ,

n um b e r o f l e adin g c o n c ep t io n s an d di s t i n c t i o n s
w hich are a s su m e d t o b e fa miliar a n d are s o t o
,

l aw y ers b u t which for t ha t v ery re a s o n a re n o t

, , ,

o ft e n e xp re s s ly s t at e d s t ill
,
l ess o ft en di s c u ss e d
,

an d ha rdly e v er e xplai n e d . He h a s n o t o n ly t o
dis c o ver fo r him self o ft en wi t h mu ch b e w ild er
,

m en t t h e a c t u al c o nt en t o f l egal t erm s b u t t o
, ,

re ali s e t h e l e gal p o i n t o f vi e w an d t h e l egal h a bi t

o f mi n d Law s e e ms t o t h e lay m a n a t fi rs t s igh t

.
, ,

t o m ak e mu ch o f t rifl e s a n d t o d isregard g rea t e r

 FIR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

m at t ers . Agai n ,
p e c ulat iv e p ro bl ems are
so m e s

capabl e o f gi vi n g m u ch t rou bl e in t h e act u al

p rac t ic e an d ad min i s t ra t i o n o f t h e l aw whil e o t h ers
,

a re seld o m o r n e v e r h e ard o f in c o u rt ; an d it is

hard for t h e laym an o r t h e n o vic e t o di s t i ng u i s h

t h e t w o ki n d s . In t hi s as in o t h e r s cie n c e s e v ery

one mu st m ak e h is w ay t h ro ugh t h e s t age o f

c o n fu s io n an d illu s i o n in his o w n fas hi on B u t .
,

t h o u gh it is h is o w n w o rk w hich n o o n e e l s e c a n

d o for h im it is p o s s ibl e fo r t h os e w h o hav e pa s s e d

,

b e yo n d t ha t adve nt u re t o b e re ady w i t h a h elpin g

ha n d an d a w arn i ng v o ic e .

In t h e fi rs t pa rt o f t hi s b o o k I hav e t ri e d t o s e t
fo rt h in la n g u age i n t ell igibl e t o s ch o lars w h o a re
,

n ot
y e t la w y e rs s o
,
m u ch o f t h e g e n e ral id e a s

u n d erlyi n g l e gal di s c uss io n s a s app e are d n e e dfu l

for t h e re m o val o f t h e m o s t p res s i ng diffic u l t i e s
“

No t m u ch w ill b e fo u n d ab o u t c o n s t i t ut i o n al o r
c ri mi n al law ; n o t b e cau s e I u n d errat e t h e i r ac t u al
i m p o rt an c e b ut b e cau s e t h ey d o n o t as a ru l e s o
, , ,

m uch re q ui re t hi s ki n d o f e xpla n a t i o n an d t h e ir ,

e xc e p t i o n al p ro bl e ms w h e n t h e y d o o cc u r a re t o o
, ,

hard for n o vic es an d are b es t l e ft for a rip er s t ag e

, .

Q uot ati on an d c rit icism o f o t h er m o d ern w ri t e rs ’

o pi n i o n s hav e b e e n wi t h ra re e xc ep t i o n s p u rp o s e l y
, ,

av o id e d a s use l ess a n d dis t rac t i n g t o t h o s e fo r

 PREF A CE

w h om ,
I m ai n ly w ri t e . d e t ail e d a ckn o wl ed g
An y
m en t o f my o bligat i o n s w ill t h ere fo re n ot b e
e xp e c t e d A mo ng t h e aut h ors of past g en erat i o n s
.

I o w e m os t s o far a s I c a n j u dge t o Sa vig ny ;

, ,

amo n g re c en t an d livi n g o n es t o Main e J h e ri n g , ,

an d my fri e n d M r J u s t ic e H ol mes o f t h e Sup re m e

.

C ourt o f t h e U n it e d St at e s Le arn e d re ad ers an d

.

adva n c e d s t u d en t s w ill e a sily s ee t hat t h e phil o

s o phy o f t h e E n glis h o r
“ ”
an aly t ical s ch oo l is
n o t m in e ; n e v e rt h el e s s I hav e l e arn e d m u ch fro m

H o bb es an d h old acqu ain t an c e w i t h h is w o rk at

,

fi rs t h an d i n di s p en sable for all E n gli s h s p e a ki n g -

m e n w h o giv e a n y s e ri ou s c o n s id e ra t i o n t o t h e
t h eo re t ical pa rt o f e i t h er p o li t ic s o r l a w It .

m ay b e t hat I l o v e H o bb es a li t t l e t o o w ell t o
b e p erfe c t ly j us t t o h is s u cc ess ors w h o t o m y , ,

t hi nki n g hav e o ft e n g ot m o re p ra i s e t ha n t h e y
,

d es erve d for rep e at in g H o bb es s id eas in clu msi er

’

a n d re ally l e s s e xac t w o rd s B u t a s I am n o t
.
,

u n d e rt aki n g a c ri t ical e s t i m at e t hi s is b u t a m a t t e r
,

o f p ers o n al t a s t e an d o f n o
,
i mp ort a n c e t o t h e
re ad e r .

Whil e I hav e en de av ou re d t o b e a s cl ear as

p oss ibl e I hav e n ot at t e mp t e d t o m ak e fun da
,

m en t al an d di ffi c ul t p ro bl e ms l oo k e as y Th e .

ch eap facilit y t hat c om e s o f glidi n g o v er h ard

 FIR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

plac es c an on ly
fo u n d a d ea r ba rgai n in t h e
be

en d . I d o n o t p rom i s e t h e re ad er t ha t h e w ill fin d
t hi s b o o k e a s y re adi n g in e very part I d o m ak e.

b o ld t o p ro mi s e h im t hat if h e read s it wi t h
,

a t t e n t i o n h e will fin d s e v eral o t h er b ook s l es s

,

diffi c u l t an d m ore pro fi t abl e Somet im e s I hav e.

allo w e d my s e lf t o d e v o t e a fe w s en t e n c es o r eve n ‘

a paragraph t o read e rs w h o hav e t o s o me e x t e n t

m a s t e re d t h e la n gu age an d m et h o d s o f phil os o phy .

T hi s I h o p e will n o t b e u n w e lc o m e t o s u ch a s hav e
, ,

t ak en h o n o u r d e g rees in cla ss ic s e s p ecially in t h e

,

Oxfo rd Sch oo l o f [ At omi c H u ma n i ores .

T h e se c o n d part o f t h e b oo k ai ms a t a n e n d n o t

re ally diss i milar in ki n d b u t it is mo re p rac t ical

,

an d m ore e xcl us ively add re ss e d t o s t u d e n ts o f t h e

C o mmon La w t h e s y st e m acc ording t o w hich
,

j us t ic e is ad min i s t ere d in almos t e v ery part o f

t h e E n gli s h s p e aki n g w o rld e xc ep t Sc o t lan d an d
-

Lo u i s ia n a Lik e t h e R o ma n law t ha t s ys t em is
.
,

e m b o di e d in a s p e cial an d t e ch n ical li t e ra t ure

go vern e d by it s o w n a ut h o ri t a t ive c on v en t i o n s ,

acc e ss ibl e o n ly t h rough it s o wn apparat us o f

re fere n c e ,
an d availabl e for an y p rac t ical pu rp ose
o n ly o n c on di t i o n o f u n d ers t a n di n g it s p e cu liar
m et h o ds . T h e u se of law b oo k s an d t h e
app recia t i o n o f l egal au t h ori t i es c an b e fully
 PREFA CE

l e a rn e d ly by a s s id u ous prac t ic e; b u t h e re
on ,

ag ai n it
,
h as l o n g s e e me d t o m e t ha t s o m e t hi n g
c an b e d o n e t o l igh t en t h e fi rs t s tep s o f t h e
be gi nn er an d t h is is w hat I hav e t rie d t o d o No
,
.
‘

p rac t ic al a rt c a n really b e t augh t ; o n e m an c an

o n ly h e lp a n o t h er t o l e arn ; b u t it is c o mm o n

e xp e ri e n c e t ha t s u ch h e lp w ill o ft e n s av e a g re a t

d e a l o f t ro u bl e C ert ai n ly n o m an e ve r l e arn ed
.

t o s h oo t by b e i n g l e c t ure d o n t h e c o n s t ruc t i o n o f

a rifl e an d e t s u ch l e c t u re s are a re g u la r pa rt
, y
o f m u s k e t ry i n s t ruc t i o n . So far a s I k n o w t h e ,

e xp e rime n t h a s n e v er b e en m ad e ,
in t h e c a se in

ha n d fo r t h e s am e p u rp os e or in a ny v e ry s i mil ar
,

m a n n er t h o ugh di ffere n t p art s o f t h e s u bj e c t hav e

,

be e n t o uch e d u p o n by s e v eral w ri t e rs b o t h E ngli s h

,

a n d A m e rica n o n l e gal s t u di e s a n d li t era t u re a n d

, ,

n o t ably by K e n t P o s s ibly a c on n e ct ed acc ou n t o f

.

t h e s ourc es a n d a u t h ori t i e s o f E n gli s h law as t h e y

,

have c o me t o b e in mo d ern p rac t ic e may b e o f ,

i n t eres t t o s o me o f t h e C on t in e n t al s ch o lars es p e c i
,

ally F ren ch m en w h o o f la t e y e a rs hav e brou gh t

,

ad mi rabl e i n d ust ry an d i n t ellige n c e t o b ear o n o u r

m e t h o d s o f c o n d u c t i n g b o t h p o li t ical an d j u dici a l
a ffa i rs B ut I hav e w rit t e n in t h e fi rs t pl a c e fo r
.
, ,

o u r o w n l e a rn ers o f t h e C o mm o n La w o n b o t h s id es

o f t h e o c e a n a n d my w o rk s t a n d s t o b e j u dg e d by
,
 F IRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

t h ei r p ro o f in usi n g it I f t h e y fin d it u s eful I shall

.

b e w ell c o n t e n t e v e n m ore c o nt e n t t ha n if I s h o u ld
,

p erchan c e c o n vi n c e a m at ure phil o soph er o r e con o

m i s t t hat t h e s ci en c e o f law h as s o me righ t t o exi s t .

It will b e s e e n t hat t h e t w o part s o f t h e b o ok

are t o s o m e e xt e n t i n d ep en d en t o f o n e an ot h er ;
a n d a n y re ad e r w h o s o ch o o s e s c a n w i t h ou t m u ch
,

i n c on ve n i en c e di sregard t h e l ogical o rd er of gen er

,

ali t y an d t ak e t h e s ec o n d part fi rst H o w ev er t hat

.

m ay b e t h e c o m bi n a t io n o f t h e t w o in o n e v o l um e
, ,

an d t h e p re fere n c e o f E n gli s h e xa m pl e s an d ill u s t ra

t i o n s in t h e fi rs t part a re i n t e n d e d as a p ro t es t
,

“
agai n st t h e h abi t o f regardi n g j u ri s p ru d e n c e as
s o m e t hi n g a s so cia t e d wi t h a li t t l e k n o w l e dg e o f t h e

law s o f e v ery c o un t ry b u t o n e s o w n ’
.

In t h e s e c on d a n d t hi rd e di t i on s I hav e amplifi e d

a fe w pas s ag es wh ere furt h er e xplan at ion s e eme d

d es i rable Th e l a t t er p art o f t h e b oo k b ei n g m ore
.
,

v e rs e d in c urren t d eci s i on s a n d lit erat u re t ha n t h e

fo rmer h as call e d for s e v eral n e w re fere n c es a n d
,

o t h e r a m en d m e n t s d u e t o lap se o f t ime . Bo t h
in maki n g addi t i o n s an d in su pplyi n g o mi s s i o n s I
h a v e t ri e d t o av o id t h e t em p t at ion o f c ro s sin g t h e
b ou n da ry b e t w een ill us t ra t i on o f p ri n cipl e s an d
e xp o s i t i o n o f t e ch n ic a l ru l e s.
 C O NT E N T S

P AR T I

SO M E G E NE AL LE G AL NO T O R I NS

C HAP TER I
T HE N AT U RE AN D M E AN IN G

D -I F F ICU LT I E S OF D EF I N I I N
T O

RU E C I V I C CO ND
L S OF U CT

LEGA P R FE I O N N
L NE E A RY
O SS OT C SS

M R A A ND NA R A
. O L TU L LAW
LAW NA I NOF T O S

E X ENDED S EN E
T S S OF
“
LAW

LAW As
“
WI LL OF T HE ST A ET

C H AP TER II
J U ST I C E AC CO RD I N G TO LAW

CO ND I I N NE E A RY
T O S C SS F OR E XI EN EST C OF LAW
J I E
U ST C

OR DER As F ND A MEN A P R I N I P E
U T L C L

xi
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E
SI N G A R S VERE I G N A
UL O CT S

N RM A M A R
O L L W K S OF A —G ENER A L I T Y
EQ A I YU L T

C ER A I N YT T

SCI EN I F I NA RE LAW
T C TU OF

RE A I NL T OL W M RA OF A To O LS

LE GA R E P N I B I I Y W I H
L S O S L T T M R A FA
OU T O L U LT

D EVE PME N LO T OF LAW NE E A R I Y AR I F I I A

C SS L T C L

C H A P T E R I II
T H E S U B J E CT M -
AT T E R OF LAW

D U I ES S B EC
T OF U J TS

D Y P O I I VE A ND N E GA I VE
UT , S T T

N D Y WI H
O UT R I GH T OU T T

CAN H S A E HA VE D
T E T IE ?T UT S

WR N G O

A X I I A RY R E
U L LAw UL S OF

R E UL E V I DEN C E A ND P ROC ED U RE
S OF

S B A N I VE A N D AD E I VE LAW
U ST T J CT

C HA PTER IV

D I V ISIONS OF LAW

F O RM A NA RE O LE GA C A I F I CA I N
L TU F L L SS T O

I MPER N A A ND P ER N A D U I E
SO L R I GH SO L T S OR TS

P ER N A D I E DEPENDEN N WI
SO L UT PA R I E
S T O LL 0F T S

P RE SC R I BED BY LAW
P U B LI C A ND P R I V AT E LAW
T H E ST A T E A S A PA R T Y
LAW A s RE GA RD I N G P E R S O N S T H I N G S A C T I O N S , ,

EQ U A L I T Y OF P ER SO N S I N M O DERN LAW
 CO N T EN T S
C HAP T ER
P E RSON S
RE A I N L P ER N
T O TH ING
OF SO S TO S

NA R A A ND A R I F I I A P ER N
TU L T C L SO S

D I A B I I I E O NA R A P E R N
S L T S F TU L SO S

IN C A A
'
P A R I FI IA PE R N
‘
C II I E S O F
'

T C L SO S

C RP O R A E D
O I E A ND R I GH
T UT S TS

C H A P T E R VI
I N G S E VEN S A N D AC S
TH ,
T ,
T

T H I NG S B E M A ER R I GH A ND D I
S AS U J CT - TT OF TS U T ES

C RP RE A T H I N G
O O L S

I N A N G I B E E EMEN
T L WE A H L T S OF LT

T HI NG P EN I A I Y
S AS T H E R I GH OT T L T OF TS

A RY
SU MM
E EN A ND A
V TS CT S
“
A CT S OF T H E LA W A ND A CT S I N T H E LAW “

I NT EN T I O N A ND M OT I VE
E X I E R NA L M OT I VE
‘

I N T ERN A L M OT I VE
AC T I N T EN T I O N A ND C O N S E Q U EN C E S
, ,

U N I N T ENDED CO N SEQ U EN C E S
D U T I ES A S DEPENDEN T O N A CT S I N T EN T I O N A N D , CO N
S EN T 1 58, 1 59
MI ST A K E A ND IG N O R A N C E 1 60
LI A B I L I T I E S I NDEPENDEN T O F I N T EN T 1 63

E XT EN T O F LI A B I LI T Y F O R CO N S E Q U EN C E S 1 66

C H A P T E R VI I
R EL AT I O N OF P E RS O N S To I N G S P OSSE I N
TH : SS O

OWNE R H I P S

G E NER A N I N
L OT O OF P R OPE R T Y
T I E
TL
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SP RUDEN C E
O W NE R S HIP
P O SS E S S I O N OW NER S H I P R E A L R I GH T S
, ,

P O S S E S S I O N A s E V I DEN C E O F T I T L E
P O SS E SS I O N A S O R I G I N O F T I T LE
P O SS E S S I O N H I ST O R I CA LL Y P R I O R T o OW NERS H I P
P RE S C R I P T I O N A ND LI M I T A T I O N O F A C T I O N S
S E RV I T U DE S O R EA S EMEN T S
I N C O RP O RE A L E X C LU S I VE R I GH T S
D EB T S A ND OT H E R O B L I GA T I O N S A s P RO PERT Y .

C H A P T E R V II I
CL A I MS O F P E R S O N S O N P E R S O N S : R E LAT I O N

OB LI GAT I O N S T o P R O P E R T Y
_

P ER N A D I E
SO L UT S

P E R N A O B I GA I N I N EA R Y AN
SO L M DE RN
L T O S L D O LAW
C N RA S
O T SA E CT F OR L

C N RAC
O T PAYME NT S F OR T

T R A N FER A B E C N R A
S L O T CT S

N E G O I A B E I N R MEN
T L ST U TS

S HA RE A ND S KS T OC S

C N RA
O T A R I GH A P R PER Y
CT U L TS S O T

R I GH A R I I N G FR M WR N G F A
TS S O O UL CTS

P A R T II
LE G A L AU T H O R I T I ES AND T H E I R

CHAPTER I
T H E E XP RE SS F O RM S OF LAW

F RM
O S OF ST A ING
T LAW
C O MM A ND
MA I M X

I N ERPRE A I N T T T O

CA E LAW A ND
S -
H ER SY EM OT ST S OF I N E R PRE A I N
T T T O
 CO N T EN T S

C HA P TE R II
T H E S OU RC E S OF EN LG IS H LAW

WR I T T ENAND UN W R I EN LAW TT

W R I TT EN O R I G I N A A ND D E E GA ED LE G I A I N
: L L T SL T O

UN W R I EN J D I I A A ND N N J D I I A E XP I I N
. TT : U C L O -
U C L OS T O

U N W R I EN LAW A ND C
TT M U ST O

TH “
EC M H
U ST O R EA M OF T E L

EQ I Y J R I D I I N I N E N G AND
U T U S CT O L

C H A P T E R II I
SO VERE IGN TY I N EN G IS H L LAW

T H E S U PREMACY PA R I A M EN OF L T

A PA R I A MEN N J D I I A Y D I P A B E
C T S OF L T OT U C LL S UT L

S VERE I G N Y D I I N G I H ED FR M
O T I MA E P I I A
ST U S O U LT T OL T C L

P W ER O

C H A P T E R IV
C U ST O M I N EN G I H L S LAW

CU ST O M WHAT IT M EAN S

C O ND I I N
T O S OF VA I D I Y
L T

AN C I EN T : E X A M P LE S
RU L E S N OW M ER G ED I N G ENER A L LA W
T H E LA W M ER C HA N T .

LOC A L

CHAPTER V
LAW R E P O R T S

WHAT A RE R EP R O TS

O R I G I N I N E N G A ND
S L : B R AOT O N
TH E YEA R B OOK S
 ,
FI R ST B OO K O F JURI SP RUDEN C E
AN G LoF REN H A ND
-
C D E G RA D A I NIT S T O

EA R Y P R I V A E R EP O R
L T TS

C MMEN C EM N
O M DERN R EP R I N G
E T OF O O T

T H E LA W R E P OR TS

E N G I H A ND AME R I A N
L S C C AE
S -
LA W : E ST I M AT ED
B U LK
U SE OF A U T H O R IT I E S

C H A P T E R VI
C A S E LAW
-
AN D P RE C E D EN TS
A U T H O R I T Y OF D E C I S I O N S
EA R L Y ST A T EMEN T S
M O DERN U SAG E : Co O RD I N A T E A U T H O R I T Y
-

M A N I FE ST E RRO R
D E C I S I O N S C ONF I RMED BY LO N G U SAG E
COU R T S OF APPE A L
HOU S E OF LO R D s W H E T H E R B OU ND BY I T S O W N D E C I S I ONS
J U D I C I A L CO MM I T T EE O F T H E P R I VY COU N C I L
CO U R T F O R C R O W N CA S E S R E S ERVED
S U PREME CO U R T O F T H E U N I T ED S T A T E S
D E C I S I O N S I N OT H ER CO MM ON LAW J U R I SD I CT I ON S
N I SI P R I U S D E C I S I O N S
RO M A N A ND F O RE I G N LAW

C H A P T E R VI I
ANC I EN T AN D M O DE R N S T A T U T E S

AN C I EN T A CT S O F P A R LI A MEN T : H OW F R A MED
P R OFE SS I ON A L J E ALOU SY OF ST AT U T E LAW
D E G ENE R AT I O N O F WO R K M A N S H I P I N T U D O R P ER I O D
M ODE RN R EFO RM S
C R I M I N A L ST A T U T E S
CO D I F I C A T I O N

INDEX
 FI RST B OO K OF J U R ISP R U D ENCE C HA P .

e n ou gh wi t h h is an s w er if w e qu e st io n h im o n t h e
G reek o r t h e Slav o n ic v erb I f w e ask h im w hat
.

is a v erb in g en eral w e may hav e t o wai t a li tt l e ,

an d if w e a sk h im t o acc ou n t for lan g u ag e i t s e lf

w e s hall fin d o u rs e lv e s agai n in a regi o n o f d o ub t

a n d c o n t en t i o n . It is n o t s u rp ri s in g t h en t hat t h e
, ,

s t u d en t app ro achi n g t h e s ci en c e o f l a w Sh o ul d fin d

t h e fo rmal d e finit e n ess Of it s id e a s t o vary i n v e rs ely

w i t h t h e i r g en e rali t y. NO t ol erably p repare d can di

da t e in an E n gli s h or A m erican law s ch o o l w ill
h es itat e t o d e fi n e an e s t a t e in fee s i mpl e : o n t h e
o t h er han d t h e grea t er hav e b ee n a lawy er s ’

Opp o rt u n i t i es o f k n o w l e dg e a n d t h e m ore t im e h e
,

h as give n t o t h e s t u dy o f l egal p ri n cipl es t h e ,

gre at er will b e h is h e sitat i on in fac e o f t h e

apparen t ly s i m pl e qu es ti on Wh a t is La w 7
,

I n fac t a c o mpl e t e a n s w er t o t hi s qu e s t i on is
,

n o t p o s s ibl e u n l e s s an d u n t il w e hav e a c o m pl e t e

t h eo ry o f t h e n a t u re a n d fu n c t i o n s o f h u m a n

s o ci e t y . Ye t w e ca n n o t afford t o w ai t for s u ch a
t h e o ry fo r w e are b o rn i n t o a s o ci al a n d p o li t ical
,

w orld fro m w hich w e ca nn o t e s cap e . R ul e c u s t o m

, ,

a n d law b e s e t u s o n e v e ry s id e E v e n if a t t hi s o r
.

t hat p o i n t w e go ab o u t t o d e fy t h e m w e ca nn ot

ig n ore t h e m ; a n d t h e p o ss ibl e p o in t s Of re v o l t as ,

re fl e cti o n w ill S h o w ,
are re ally b u t fe w e v en in
 T HE N ATURE A ND M E A NIN G O F LAW

su ch ki n d s Of life as are cal l e d la w l es s We hav e .

t o abid e t h e l aw w h e t h e r w e w ill o r n o ; an d t o

abid e it on t h e w h o l e in o b edien c e ra t h er t ha n in
, ,

re s i s t a n c e T h e Fre n ch R e v o l u t i on s ee me d a n d in
.
,

m a n y res p e c t s w as a fun dam en t al ca t as t ro ph e : b u t

,

it a pp e are d as t hi ng s re su me d a s et t l e d fram e t h a t
, ,

a l a rg e p ro p o rt i o n O f F re n ch i n s t i t u t i o n s t radi t i o n s
,

o f p o licy a n d p o s i t iv e la w s t o o had s u rviv e d t h e

, ,

R ev olu t ion I f t h en w e are t o O b ey w i t h u n d er

.

s t a n din g ,
w e mu s t e n d e av o u r t o u n d e rs t an d SO

m u ch a s is n ee dfu l fo r t h e p urp os e in han d re lyi n g ,

o n t h e m o s t a p p ro x im fi e l
y c e rt ai n da t a t ha t w e c an

c omm an d .

M an can n o t live al o n e ; t h e i n divid u al c a n n ot

d o wi t h o u t t h e fam ily ; a n d al t h ou gh famil y grou p s

c an b e c o n c e iv e d a s in d ep en d en t an d s e lf s ufii c in g -
,

t h e family h as fro m v e ry e arly t i me s b ee n in lik e

m a n n er pa rt o f a large r s o ci et y w h et h e r it b e a
,

clan a t rib e or a n at i on w it h w hich it is b o u n d

, , ,

up . NO s o ciet y ca n c o n t i n u e Wit h o u t s o m e u n iform

prac t ic e an d habit s of life In dividu al i mp ul s e h a s
.

t o b e s ub o rdi n a t e d t o t hi s n e e d ; a n d t hi s s u b

ordi n a t i o n is a n e v er e n di n g p ro c e s s
-
H en c e t h ere
.

m u s t b e ru l e an d c on s t rai n t ; a n d n ot t h e l e s s s o
b e cau s e in o n e s e n se t h e ai ms o f t h e s o ci e t y an d
, ,
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

Of the in divid u al c o i n cide On t h e w h o le an d in

.

t h e l o n g ru n t h e i n t eres t o f t h e i n divid ual is t ha t

s o ci e t y s h o uld e xi s t
. T hi s is O bvi o u s ly t rue ; b u t

it is far from O bvi o u s ly t ru e i n d ee d it s e e m s n o t

,

t o b e t rue t ha t h is i n t eres t c o i n cid es al w ay s o r

,

e v e rywh e re wi t h t h e i n t ere s t o f t h e s o ci e t y wh e reo f

h e i s a m e mb er e i t h er as it re ally is o r a s it s ee m s
,

t o b e t o t h os e w h o c o n d uc t it s a ffa i rs . So ci e t y
c o mes in t o e xi st en c e b ecau s e it s m emb e rs c ou ld n o t
live wi t h o ut it ; b ut in c on t inui n g t o e xi s t it
fort hwi t h ai ms at a n id e al an d t ha t id eal is for t h e
,

s o ci e t y a n d n o t for t h e i n divid u al m e m b er Th e
.

n ee d for i n t ern al o rd e r is a s c o n s ta n t a s t h e n e e d

fo r e x t ern al d e fen c e . NO s o ci e t y c a n b e s t abl e in

which e ith er o f t h e s e re qu irem en t s s u b s t an t ially
fail s t o b e p ro vid e d for ; an d i nt ern al o rd er m e an s
a gre a t d e al m o re t han t h e p ro t ec t i o n o f i n dividu al s
agai n s t w ilful re v o l t o r w a n t o n lawl e ss n ess EX .

p re s s a n d d e fi n i t e form s o f a s s o ciat i o n are re q uire d

fo r t h e fu lfil m e n t o f t h e s e p urp o s es an d t h e m ai n

t e n an c e o f a p e rp e t u al su cc e s s i o n from o n e g e n e ra

t i o n O f m en livi n g in s o ci e t y t o a n o t h er .Wh e n
e s t abli s h e d
,
t h es e fo rm s e m b o dy an d p res e rv e t h e

in divid u al charac t er Of e v ery s e lf main t ain i n g

c o mm un it y In t h e s u m o f s u ch form s a s e xp re s s
.
,

in g an d d e t e rmi n i n g in e ach ca s e t h e c o n di t i o n s o f
 N AT UR E A ND M EA NIN G OF LAW
.

T HE

c o ll e c t iv e life a n d w e ll b e in g w e hav e t h e St a t e
-
, .

We s ay w ell b ein g w i t h re fere n c e t o t h e id eal an d

-

n o t w i t h re fere n c e t o t h e ac t u al s u cc e s s a t t ai n e d .

So m e St a t es hav e s e c u re d t h e w ell b e i ng o f t h e i r
-

m e mb ers m u ch b e t t e r t ha n o t h ers a n d t h e l e s s ,

su cc es s ful o n e s m ay b e c all e d re la t iv e ly bad o r in ,

so me ca se s e v e n v ery bad St ill an in fe ri or s o ci a l

.

o rga n i s a t i o n ,
t h o ugh m e as urably w ors e t han o t h e r

an d b e t t e r fo rms is i mm e a s urably b e t t er t ha n n o n e
, .

Furt her if t h e St at e is t o b e p erman en t w e

, ,

n ee d m ore t ha n t h e e xi s t en c e o f s o me ki n d o f
s o cial rul e . We c o n c e ive man y rul es t h e c ommo n ,

and fun dam en t al o n e s in mat t ers o f righ t an d

w ro n g fo r e x a m pl e t o b e bi n di n g o n m e n S i m ply
, ,

a s ra t i o n al a n d s o cial b e in g s wi t h o ut regard t o
,

an
y p o s i t iv e in s t i t u t i o n s
. B u t t hi s w il l n o t s u ffic e

fo r t h e St a t e w hich is an a s s o ciat i o n fo r livi n g

,

t o g e t h er in d e fi n i t e w ay s T h e re m us t b e rul es
.

bi n din g t h e m e m b ers Of t h e St a t e n o t m e rely as

h u man or ra t io n al b ut a s memb e rs o f t h at St a t e ;
,

a n d t hi s is n o t affe c t e d by t h e fa c t t h a t t o s o m e

e x t e n t p e rh a p s t o a larg e e x t e n t s u ch ru l e s
, ,
in cl ud e
t h e m at t er o f u n iv e rs al or m ore highly g e n e ral

d ut i e s which a re o f an t e c e d en t an d in d ep en d e n t
fo rc e Wh ere v er an y c o n s id erabl e d egre e o f civil
.

is at io n h a s b ee n re ach e d w e fin d m e an s app o i n t e d
,
 FIRS T B OO K OF J UR ISPR U D ENCE C HA P .

by p u blic a u t h orit y for d e clari ng ad min i st eri n g , ,

a n d e n forci n g ru l es o f t hi s ki n d In d e alin g wi t h
.

t h es e rul es a s wi t h all o t h e rs b o t h t h e p e rs o n s
, ,

ad mi n i s t eri n g th em an d t h o se wh o s e i n t erest s are

affe ct e d hav e t o at t en d n ot o n ly t o t h e ru l es o r
pri ncipl e s t h e ms e lv es b u t t o t h e c o n di t i on s u n d er
,

which t h e y b e c o me applicabl e t h e m o d e in w hich

,

t h e y are appli e d a n d t h e c o n s e qu en c es o f t h e i r
,

applicat ion . Th e s um Of s u ch rul e s as e xi s t i ng in

a giv en c o mmon w e al t h u n d er Wh a t e v er part ic ula r

,

forms is w ha t in c omm o n s p ee ch w e u n d e rs t a n d
,

by l aw ; t h e p u blicly app o i nt e d o r re c ogn i s e d

b o die s which ad min i st er s u ch rul e s are c o urt s O f
j u s t ic e By j us t ic e in t hi s u s ag e w e m e an n o t
.
, ,

o n ly t h e d oi n g Of righ t o r t h e d u t y t h e re o f as
, ,

b et ween man an d m an b u t t h e p urp os e an d e u

,

d eav ou r o f t h e St at e t o ca us e righ t t o b e d o n e .

In m o d ern t i m e s a n d in civili se d c o un t ri e s w e
fin d t h e w o rk o f c o urt s o f j u s t ic e ca rri e d o n by

p erm a n e n t O ffic e rs ; it is a s p e cial ki n d o f w ork ,

a nd t h e k n o w l e dg e o f law is a s p e cial ki n d o f

k n o w l e dge which c an b e acqu ired o n ly by a p ro

fess ion al t rai n i n g
. Law h as d e v e l o p e d an art an d
a s ci en c e o f it s o wn j us t as mu ch as m edici n e .

T h e s e c on di t i on s are n o w so u s u al t h a t w e migh t

e a s ily t hi n k t h e m n e c es s ary ; b u t t h e y are n o t s o .

 T HE N A T URE A ND M EA NIN G OF LAW

La w an dl egal j us t ic e c an e xi st w i t h o u t a p ro fe s s i o n
o f j u dg e s o r a dv o ca t es ; a n d w h e re a l egal p ro fe s s i o n

e xi s t s it s di vi s i o n s a n d t h e re l a t i o n o f it s b ra n ch e s
, ,

t o o n e a n o t h er hav e va ri e d an d s t ill vary t o a

,

wid e e x t e n t in highly civilis e d c oun t ri es an d d ow n

t o ou r o wn t ime s Th u s at R o m e u n d er t h e la t e r
.

R e p u bli c an d t h e e arly E m pi re t h ere w as a cl a s s

o f highly Skill e d adv o ca t es an d u n d e r t h e E m pi re

,

t h ere w a s s om e t hi n g lik e a Mi n i s t ry Of J us t ic e b u t ,

for a l o n g t i me t h e re w as n o t hin g an s w e ri n g t o t h e
o rdi n ary j u dicial es t abli s h m e n t s O f m o d ern St a t es .

I n E n gla n d it d o e s n o t app e ar t ha t b e fore t h e

No rman C on ques t t h ere w as a ny di s t in c t l ega l

p ro fe s s ion at all an d in t h e su cc ee ding A ngl o
,

N orman p eri o d t h ere w ere p rofes s io n al or at an y

ra t e s kill e d j udg es b ut n o p ro fes s i o n al adv o cat es
,
.

In I c elan d ab ou t t h e s a m e t i m e t h ere w as a highl y

, ,

t e ch n ical s y s t e m Of l aw ; 1
c ou rt s w e re reg ul arly
h e ld an d t h eir c on s t it ut i on w a s t h e s u bj e c t Of
,

min u t e rul es ; a n d t h ere w ere ge n erally t w o o r

t h re e p ers o n s t o b e fo u n d w h o had t h e rep u t a t i o n

Of b e i n g m o re s kill e d in l aw t ha n t h e i r n eighb ours .

Yet w it h all t hi s t h ere w ere n e i t h er j u dge s n o r

c ou n s e ll ors in o ur m o d ern s e n s e It is t h e ad .

1
T h ere is q uit e e n o u gh t o s u pp o rt t h is s t a t em e n t a p art fro m
t h e e l a b o ra t e pl e a d in g s s e t o u t i n t h e p re s e n t t e x t o f t h e Nj al s
Sag a , w h ich are b e li e v ed t o b e o f m u ch l a t er i n t ro d u c t io n .
 F IR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

min is t rat i on of j u s tic e wi t h s o m e so rt o f reg ulari t y

t ha t m ark s t h e e xi s t en c e o f law n o t t h e Co m pl e t e
,

n ess of t h e rul e s ad m i n i st e red n or any Offic ial,

cha rac t er of th ose w h o adminis t er th em .

C us t o m . T h e re h a s b een m u ch di s c u ss i o n a b o u t t h e
re la t i o n Of c u s t o m t o law C ust o m e xc e p t in
.
,

dis t in c t ly t e ch n ical applica t i o n s w hich are re ally

part o f a d ev el op e d l e gal s ys t em s e em s t o hav e n o ,

p ri m ary m ea n i n g b eyo n d t ha t o f a ru le or habi t o f

ac t ion w hich is in fac t use d or Ob s erv e d ( w e may
p erhap s add c o n s cio us ly u se d o r Ob serv e d ) by s o me
,

b o dy o r cla s s o f p e rs on s or e v e n by o n e p ers on It
,
.

w as t h e c u s t om O f H aml et s fat h er t o Sl e e p in h is
’

o rcha rd o f t h e aft e rn o o n I n t h e M art a d Art hu r

’
.

“ ”
w e c o n s t a n t ly re ad o f a c u s t om p e c u liar t o t hi s
o r t ha t k n igh t ; fo r e xa m pl e Sir B i n ada n had s u ch
,

a c us t o m t ha t h e l o v e d e v e ry go o d k n igh t a n d Sir ,

“ ”
G al ah al t ,
t h e ha ul t p ri n c e had a c u s t o m t hat h e
,

w o u ld e a t n o fish An d it is s t ill c o rre c t t h o ugh

.
,

l ess c o mmo n t ha n it w as t o use t h e w ord in t his

,

ma n n e r Oft en c u s t o m is t h e u s age o f s o me clas s

.

o r b o dy l e ss e x t e n s iv e t han t h e St at e s u ch as t h e ,

in h a bi t an t s o f a ci t y t h e me mb ers Of a t rad e B u t
,
.

it c an h a v e a s c o p e m uch wid e r tha n t h e li m it s o f

t h e St a t e . T h e Chu rch which O f c o u rs e is n o t
,

b ou n d e d by a n y St a t e a n d in t h e m edie val V i e w
,
 FIR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUD EN C E C HA P .

habit for o n e m ay hav e habit s Of an au t o mat ic o r

,

m echan ical kin d o f w hich o n e is barely o r n o t a t

all c on s ci o u s I t is h a rdly n ee dful t o add t ha t a
.

gre at d e al o f l a w at any rate o f m o d ern l aw h a s

, ,

n o t a n y vi s ibl e relati o n t o p re e xi s t i n g c us t o m
-
.

Pract ic e in t h e m od e rn u s age o f t h e l e gal

,
”

p ro fes s i o n s ign ifi e s a part ic ula r ki n d o f c u s t o m

, ,

n a me ly ,
t ha t by which a c ou rt o f j us t ic e re gu la t es

t h e c o urs e O f it s o wn p ro c e e di n g s .

We hav e u s e d t h e w o rd La w so far w i t h out , ,

an y e pi t h e t ,
th e s en s e in w hich w e hav e u s ed it
b ein g t hat w hich is c o mmo n ly u n d ers t o o d wh ere
n o t hi n g in t h e c on t e x t re qu i re s a diffe re n t o n e .

B ut t h e w o rd h a s o t h er u s age s m o re o r l e s s a n al o g

o u s t o t h e p ri n cipal m e a n i n g Mo ral l aw is t h e
.

s u m o f t h e rul e s o f c o n d u c t w hich w e c on c e iv e t o

b e bi n di n g o n h um an b e in g s g e n erally o r wi t h
,

re gard t o t h e ci rc u m s t a n c e s o f a pa rt ic ula r so ci e t y ,

so far fo rt h as t h e y are capabl e o f di s c ern i n g

b e t w e en righ t an d w ron g ; b u t it m ay al s o m e an
,

t h e ru l e s t o w hich t h e m e mb e rs Of a part ic u la r

s o ci e t y are ac t u ally e xp e c t e d ,
by t h e fe elin g s a n d
o pi ni o n s p re val e n t in t hat s o ci et y t o c o n form
, .

So me t i m es t h e di s t i n c t i o n b et w ee n ac t u al a n d id e al
rul es O f c o n d u c t is m ark e d by Sp ea ki n g O f m oral

“ ”
ru l es o r o f
,
p os i t iv e m oralit y wh e n w e m e an t h e
,
 T HE N AT URE A ND M E A NIN G OF LAW

l
ru es acc e p t e d in fac t at giv en t im es a n d plac es ,

“ “
b u t Of n at ural l aw l aw o f n at ure n a t u ral
’3

,
or

j ust ic e wh e n w e m e an su ch ru l es a s are u n iv e rs ally

,

acc ep t ed or in o ur o pi n i on ou gh t s o t o b e Th e
, .

“ ”
t erm l a w Of n at u re h a s a l o n g hi s t ory b egi nn i n g ,

wi t h t h e dis t i n ct io n m ade by G reek et hical phil o

s o phy fro m Ari s t o t l e d o w n w ard s b e t w ee n n a t u ral

a n d c o n v e n ti o n al j us t ic e I t cam e t o m e an s o m u ch
.

O f t h e ru l es o f j us t ic e as c an b e di s c o v e re d by m a n s
’

re a s o n apart from e i t h er s p e cific re v e la t i o n or l o cal

o r t emp orary o rdi n a n c es ; it w as id en t ifi e d wi t h t h e

l a w o f G o d ; a n d it fo ll o w e d in t h e m e di e val V i e w , ,

t hat t h e l aw o f n a t u re on c e b e i n g a s c ert ai n e d w a s
, ,

o f u n iv e rs al an d para m ou n t O bliga t i o n It n e v e r .

m e an t (as s o me lat er wri t ers hav e a s s um e d ) t h e

arbi t ra ry s p e c ulat iv e o pi n i o n O f an i n divid u al as t o

w hat is righ t an d w ro n g
1
P o s it ive moralit y m ay
.

b e an d in m an y t im es an d plac es is k n o w n t o hav e
,

b een or s t ill t o b e c on t rary t o u n ive rs al m ora li t y o r

,

n a t u ral law T h e s u pp o se d d u t y o f a H i n du w id o w
.

t o b u rn h e rs e lf w i t h h er h us ba n d s c o rp s e is a
’

s t rikin g e xam pl e .

T h e rul e s Ob s erv e d or g e n e ra lly e xp e c t e d s o t o

,

1
S ee fo r d l
et ai s
“
T h e His t o ry o f t h e La w o f a t ure, y the N b
prese n t w rit er, in t h e J ou rna l of t he S ocie t y of Co mp a ra t i ve
Leg is l a t io n , 1 900, p . 41 8 1 9 01 , p 2 04 B ryc e , S t ud i es in H i s t ory
.

a nd J u ri sp ru d enc e, E ssa y xi . vol . ii . p . 113 s qq.

 FI RST B OO K O F JURI SPRUD EN CE

b e, by g o v ern m ent s o f civili se d i nd ep en d ent

the

St at e s in t h e i r d e alin g s w i t h o n e an o t h er an d wi t h
o n e a n o t h e r s s u bj e c t s are call e d t h e Law Of N ati on s
’

or I n t ern at i on al Law . We are n ot call ed u p on t o

c on s id er h ere wh et h er t h ey are m ore n e arly an al o g
o u s t o t h e law ad mi n i s t e re d by c o u rt s o f j u st ic e

wi t hi n a St a t e or t o p u rely m oral ru l es o r t o t h o s e
, ,

c ust om s an d O b s ervan c es in an i mp erfe ctly o rgan i s e d

s o ci e t y w hich hav e n o t fully acq u i re d t h e charac t e r

o f l aw ,
b u t are o n t h e way t o b e c o m e l a w T hi s.

la st m en t i on e d Op i n i on 1 3 my o w n ; b u t I d o n ot
-

d e em t hi s a fit plac e for d w elli n g u p on it Th e .

wh o l e m at t er is mu ch d is pu t e d a n d c an n ot b e
,

e ffe c t ual l v di s c u ss e d w i t h o u t a s s u mi n g a g o o d d e al

b o t h o f l a w a n d Of t h e hi st o ry o f l aw t o b e k n o wn .

B o di e s o f ru l e o r c u s t o m e xi st i n g in a limi t e d
s ec t i on of a c o mmu n i t y a n d e n forc e d by t h e
,

o pi n i o n o f t hat s e c t i o n w i t hi n i t s elf are Oft en

,

c all e d law s : as w h en w e S p eak o f t h e la w s o f

h on ou r o r t h e law s of e t iqu et t e
, . It is t o b e

re m e mb ere d t hat in m e di e val E uro p e t h e “

l aw
”
o f arm s w as for t h e p e rs o n s a ffe c t e d by it a

t ru e an d p e rfe c t law havi n g it s c o u rts j ud g e s

, , ,

an d c omp ul sory s en t en c es In m o d ern t i mes thi s

.

u s e o f t h e w o rd s ee ms t o b e av o w e dly m e t aph o ric a l .

“ ”
So met i mes w e h e ar o f t h e c o de o f h o n ou r w hich ,
 T HE N AT URE A ND M E A NIN G O F LAW

can n o t b e j us t ifi e d e v en as a m t ph ical lic en s e e a or

'

a c o de as w e s hall s ee lat er b ei n g e ss ent ially a

, ,

c oll e c t i on of art ic u lat e an d d e fi n it e ru l es or s t at e

m en t s an d g e n erally p u rp ort i n g t o p ro c ee d fro m
,

a d e fi ni t e au t h ori t y 1
.

In E n gli s h w e u s e t h e w ord Law in a c o n

$3:a
c ret e s en s e t o m e an an y part ic u lar rul e havi n g c t ,
re e a s

d d
t h e n at ure o f l aw in t h e ab s t rac t s en se w hich is is lg
f
ba e

e xp re s s ly p re s c rib e d by t h e s u p re m e p o w e r in t h e

St at e or by s o m e p ers o n o r b o dy havi n g a u t h ori t y

,

fo r t hat p u rp o se th ou gh n o t g en e rally s u prem e

, .

A l aw in t hi s sen se is t h e e x ercis e Of a cre at ive

, ,

o r a t l e a s t fo rm a t iv e a u t h ori t y a n d di s c re t i o n ; t h e

po w er t hat mad e it migh t c o n c eivably hav e ch osen

t o m ak e it o t h erw i s e Th e ru l e is s u ch b e ca us e
.

a d e fi n i t e au t h o ri t y h as m ad e it SO ; it l ay in t h e
l aw giv e r s ha n d w hat it Sh o u ld b e Th e re is an
’
.

e l emen t at ,
l e a s t O f o rigi n at i on A pplicat i on o f
, .

e xi s t i n g p ri n cipl e s h ow ev er c arefully w o rk e d o u t
, ,

“
1
T h ere h a v e b ee n v ario u s m o d ern c o d ific a t io n s o f t h e l aw s o f
h o n o u r e nj o yin g m ore o r l e ss c o n v e n t io n a l an d l o c a l a u t h orit y
,
”
.

Su ch w e re t h e t h irt y s ix c om m a n d m e n t s
-
pro mu lg a t e d in 1 7 7 7
by t h e s o u t h ern I ris h F ire e a t ers w h ich m a y b e s een n e ar t h e
-
,
”

b eg in n ing o f t h e s e c o n d v o l um e o f Sir J o n a h B arrin gt o n s P ers on a l ’

S ket ch es . In fa c t t h ere w ere o n ly t w en t y fo ur rul es a n d t w o -

“
a d d i t io n a l G a l w a y art icl e s T h e ru l e s w ere e ffe c t iv e e n o u gh
”
.

w i t h i n t h e ir j uris d ic t io n B arrin g t o n h imse lf re l a t e s t h a t h e

.

o b e y e d t h e m by figh t in g a d u e l w i t h a m a n h e h a rd ly k n e w fo r a

c au s e w h ich ( a l s o in pu n c t il io u s a cc o rd a n c e w it h t h e ru l e s ) w a s
n e v er e xpl a in e d b u t w h ich a pp re n t ly w a s a p u re m is t a k e
, . a .
 FIR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUD EN C E C HA P .

and h o w e v er i mp ort an t it m ay b e in it s resul t s is ,

n o t w i t hi n t h e m e a n i n g T h ere fore al t h ough d e clara

.
,

tion s o f l egal prin cipl es o r i n t erp retati on s o f e xp res s

,

la w s by c ou rt s Of j u st ic e may w ell b e s aid t o fo rm

,

part o f t h e l a w a nd s o t o b e law in t h e ab strac t

,

s e n se w e can n o t s ay o f an y s u ch d e clarati o n or
,

“ ”
i n t erp ret a t i o n t hat it is a law 1
Wh en w e are .

u s i n g t h e t erm in t hi s c o n c ret e s e n se it is n o t o n ly

c orre c t e n o ugh for o rdi n ary p olit ical p u rp o se s b ut ,

c orre ct w i t h o ut qu alificat i on t o s ay t ha t Law s ,

are g e n e ral ru l e s m ad e by t h e St at e fo r it s s ub

T h e pl ural law s is a mbig uo u s an d t h e

2 ”
j ec t s .
,

c o nt ex t m u st d et erm i n e in wh ich s en se it is u s e d .

I t may c o v e r b o t h m e an i n gs a s w h en w e s p e ak of ,

t h e la w s Of E n gl a n d
”
a s i n cl u di ng t h e W h o l e

b o dy O f E n gli s h l a w b o t h w hat h a s b e e n en act e d

,

by P arliam en t an d w hat is d eriv e d from o t h er

so u rc e s I t is qu i t e p o s s ibl e fo r t h e ad mi n i s t rat i o n
.

“
a nd d ev el o p m en t o f l a w an d t h e p ro d u c t io n Of
c o n c re t e law s t o b e in t h e s a me ha n d s t o a
’

gre at er or l es s e x t en t T h us a d e ci s i o n o f a n
.

E nglis h Sup eri or C o urt is l aw u nl ess an d u n t il

1
Wh en m e p a rt o f t h e g en era l l a w h a s
so b e en d es ign a t e d by
“
the c o n t e x t , it m ay a ft erw ard s b e re fe rred t o as a l a w,
”
i . e. a

p o rt io n of l a w , w it h o u t f
re e re n e c t o it s be in g an e xp ress e na c t me n t
o r no t , as if w e sa y , Th e l a w of S l a n d er by s po k e n w ord s is n o t

a re a so n a bl e l a w .

2 Ra l eigh E l emen ta ry
,
P ol i t ic s , ch . V. init .
 THE N AT URE A ND M E A NIN G OF LAW

re ve rs e d o r o v errul e d by a h igh er C ou rt ; a rul e

o f p ro c e d u re m ad e by t h e J u dg e s u n d er t h e p o w e rs

c on fe rre d on t h e m by t h e J u dic a t u re A c t s is a
l aw t h o ugh E n gli s h sp e aki n g la w y ers d o n o t c o m
,
-

m o n l y c all it s o b e cau se it is m o re c on v en i en t
,

“ ”
t o u s e t h e app rop ria t e t erm R u l e o f C o u rt In
.

lik e m an n er an Ac t O f t h e I mp erial P arlia me nt ,

o r a n O rd e r in C o u n cil o r an O rdi n a n c e m ad e by
,

t h e Le gi s la t ure o f a C ro w n C o l on y is a law t h o u gh
, ,

al mo st al w ays calle d by t h e more s p e cific n am e .

T hi s c o n c re t e u s ag e 1 3 e x t e n d e d t o all s o rt s o f L w i a s
”
n

xt d d e en e

e xp re s s ru l e s m ad e an d re c ord e d fo r t h e gu i da n c e o f f s e n se o

p t ic l ar u ar
h u m an ac t i on I n all s o rt s o f m at t ers b ot h s e ri ou s l i
, ru es n

n on
a n d o t h e rw i s e Cl u b s an d So c i e t i e s hav e t h ei r law s ; j d ici l
0

.
u a

m tt a ers ‘
t h ere are law s o f c rick e t an d l a w s Of whi s t As .

migh t b e e xp e c t e d t h e di s t i n c t i on b e t w een t h e
,

c on c re te an d t h e ab s t rac t s en se is n ot al w ays e xac t ly

O b s e rv e d in p o p u lar u s ag e .O n e might s ay w i t h o u t
“
i mp ro p ri et y : It is a l a w Of j ou rn ali s m t hat an
e di t o r S hall n o t di s cl o se t h e a ut h ors hip Of a n u n

s ig n e d art icl e w i t h o u t t h e w ri t er s c o n se n t al t h ou gh
’

rul e or c u st om w o u ld b e m ore acc urat e .

It is p rop er t o n o t e t ha t t h e a mbig u i t y o f t h e E gl i h n s

l w a

w o rd l a w s ee ms p e c ul iar t o E ngli s h a m on g t h e i cl d n u es

d an
chi ef W es t ern lan g uag e s Law in t h e ab s t rac t t h e “it:
.
,

s u m o f ru l es o f j u s t ic e ad mi n i s t e re d in a St a t e a n d

C
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

by au t h o ri t y is ius in Lat i n d roit in Fren ch

it s , , ,

d iritt o in I t alian R ech t in G erm an ,

F or t h e e x .

p re s s rul e l aid d ow n by an o rigin at i n g a u t h ori t y

t h es e lan g u ag es hav e re s p e c t iv e ly t h e qu i t e di s t i n c t

w o rd s l est l oi
,
1
l egg e ( t h e F re n ch an d I t ali an w o rd s
, ,

b e i n g mo d ern fo rms of t h e Lat in o n e ) Ges etz ,

.

T hu s a n E n gli s h m an t e n d s c o n s ci ou s ly o r n o t , ,

t o re ga rd e n ac t e d l aw a s t h e t ypic a l fo rm ; it is

hard fo r h im n o t t o id en t ify la w s ( a s t h e pl ural o f

a l aw ) w it h Law ”
Fren ch men an d G e rm an s.
,

o n t h e o t h er ha n d a re m o re lik e ly t o re g ard l oi
,

o r Geset z as m e re ly a pa rt ic u la r fo rm O f d ro i t o r

R ech t a nd ,
n ot n e c e ss a rily t h e m o s t im p o rt a n t
form .

On t h e o t h er ha n d t h ese Lat i n an d o t h er n a m es ,

for l aw in t h e ab s t ra c t ( ius d roi t d iri t t o B ecki ) , , ,

c orre s p o n d al s o t o ou r di s t in c t En gli s h w ord rig h t

in it s su b s t an t iv e u s e T hi s l e ad s t o v e rbal a m .

bigu it ie s an d ,
giv e s o cca s i o n for c o n fu s io n s o f
I 1
m F
n so ch phe d it
re n d l i i tras e s th ro an o ru n n o one a no e r,

e g.
“
. h mm d l i o
“
eD it t lc o . d
” “
l i t ll ro n a ur e
”
an o n a u re e,
”

“ “
g en s a n d l o i d e s n a t io n s are c o n v ert ibl e t erm s
d ro it d e s
”
,
.

T h e l ik e l a x it y a s b e t we e n l ex l eg es a n d i u s i s c o mm o n in , ,

m e d i e v a l La t in ; a n d i n cl a s s ic a l La t in l ex n a t u ra l i s o r na t u ra e
o cc u rs fro m Cic ero d o w n w ard s w h ich se e m s t o in v o lv e t h e a ffi rm a
,

t io n n o t m ere ly O f o rd er b u t o f d es ig n e d o rd er In G erma n s o .
,

f r a s I k n o w R ech t a n d G es et z a re n e v er in t e rch a n g ea bl e
a , Geset z .

m e a n s a ru l e w h i ch is i n fa c t n o t o nl y by righ t o r wro n g ph il o
,
“
s o phi c c o n s t ru c t io n s et by a d e fi n it e a u t h orit y an d e v e n in
, ,

fig ura t iv e u s e s t his p rimary m e a n in g is n o t l o s t s igh t O f .

 FIRST B OOK O F JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

b e e n carri e d back i n t o t h e regi on of m oral a n d

p oli t ical s ci en c e as w h en w e s p e a k o f t h e law s o f
'

p olit ical e c o n omy o r hi st o ry We m ay e v en s ay

.
,

if w e pl e a se t h ou gh it w ou ld hardly b e e l egan t
, ,

t hat t h e law s Of hi s t ory are e x e m plifi e d in t h e

hi s t ory o f l aw t h u s u si n g t h e w o rd in t h e p rimary
,

an d t h e d e ri vat iv e s en s e in t h e s am e s en t en c e .

H e re t h e t erm h as qu i t e l os t it s e t hical as s o ciat io n s

in fac t t h ose w h o i n s i s t m o s t s tro n gly u p o n t h e

e t hical e l e m e n t O f l a w in it s p ri m ary s en s e are

p erhap s t h o s e w h o are m o st lik e ly t o obj e c t t o t hi s

u s ag e. Su ch a ph ra se a s la w s o f p oli t ical e c o n o my ,

laws o f hi st ory law s o f st at i s t ic s h as n o d e p en d

, ,

e n c e w ha t e v er o n an y c o n c e p t i o n o f a t rib u n al o r

a lawgiv er or o f d o i n g j u st ic e It s ign ifi es o n ly
, .

t h e n o rmal resu l t s a s c oll e c t e d by Ob s erva t i o n o r

,

d e du c e d by re a so n in g o f c on dit i on s an d ( w h ere
, ,

hu ma n ac t io n is c on c ern e d) habi t s an d mo t iv e s ,

a s su me d t o e xi st an d t o hav e e ffe ct Wh e t h er w e .

lik e t h o s e re s u l t s or n o t ; w h et h er an d t o w ha t
e xt e n t t h e c o n di t i o n s are wit hi n t h e c on t ro l o f
d elib era t e h u man act i on ; an d in w hat dire c t i on if ,

at all w e shall en d e av o ur t o mo dify t h e c o n d i t i on s

,

o r c o u n t e rac t t h e re s u l t s —m ay b e m a t t ers d es e rvi n g

,

t o b e m o s t care fully w e igh e d b u t t h ey b e l o n g t o

a di fferen t Ord er of c on s id erat i on s P hys icis t s hav e
.
 THE N A T URE A ND M EA NIN G O F LAW

st u di e d w hat are c a ll e d t h e law s Of el ec t rici t y t ill

it h as b e c o me p os s ibl e t o ligh t o u r h o u s es w i t h

e l e c t ric la m p s T h e o cc u pi er o f a h o u s e s o l igh t e d
.

c an t u rn t h o s e la w s t o acc o u n t w h e n ev er h e pl e a se s ,

an d fo r s o l o n g a s h e pl e a s es p ro vid e d t ha t e v e ry
,

t hin g is in ord er an d in t h a t s e n se h e c an c o n t ro l
,

t h em . B u t h is re a s o n s fo r w a n t i n g or n o t w a n t in g
t o ligh t u p a part icu lar ro o m at t hi s o r t hat h our

hav e n ot hi n g t o d o w it h el e ct ric al s ci e nc e Th e .

fac t t hat a s t o n e li es o n t h e grou n d is an e xa mpl e

“
of t h e l a w o f gravi t y My d esi re t o pick it u p ,

fo ll o w e d by t h e a c t Of picki n g it u p d o es n ot a ffe c t ,

the
“
law —in o t h er w o rds t ha t part ic ular a s pe c t
,
”
,

o f t h e u n iformit y o f n a t u re —in a n y w ay : it o n ly
,

vari e s t h e e xampl e A w ell t o d o m an g o ing ab ro ad

.
- -

l et s his h o us e t o a frien d at a n om in al rent : t h e

“
l a w s o f p o lit ical e c o n omy hav e n ot hi n g t o s ay t o
t h is : t h e t ra n s ac t ion is n o t su ch an o n e as e c o n o m i s t s
“
c on t em plat e In s h ort t h e law s o f n at ure are
.
,
”
,

fo r t h e law y er an d m orali s t m at t ers n o t o f l aw at

,

all in t h eir sen se b u t o f p ure fac t An d t hi s appli e s

, .

e qu ally t o t h e s o ca ll e d la w s o f h u m a n ac t io n in
-

s o far a s h u m a n ac t i o n is a s u bj e c t Of s ci e n t ific

O b s erva t i o n .

We m ay n o w l e av e a s id e t h e s e c o n dary an d
“ “
d e rivat ive m e an i n g s o f l aw or la w s an d at t e n d ,
”
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

on ly t o s u ch rul es as are re c ogn i s e d an d ad mi n i s t e re d

in a c o m mo n w e al t h a n d u n d er it s a u t h ori t y as
, ,

bin din g o n it s m e mb ers Th us far w e hav e s aid

.

n o t hi n g ab o u t t h e e n fo rc e m e n t O f t h e rul es In .

a mo d ern civilis e d St at e it is w e ll u n d ers t o o d t hat ,

if re s i st an c e is mad e t h e p ow e r o f t h e St a t e o r
, ,

s u ch pa rt t h e reo f as m ay b e n ee dful for t h e

pur
p o s e w ill b e p ut fo rt h t o o v erc om e it Onl y t h e
,
.

c o mm on e s t k n ow le dge o f affa irs an d e v e n t s a s t h ey ,

o cc ur day by day is re qu i re d t o a s su re u s t ha t t h e
,

c om m is s io n o f ac t s forbidd e n by l aw o r di s o b e di en c e
,

t o t h e o rd ers o f a c o urt o f j us t ic e is lik e ly t o hav e

,

u n pl e as an t c o n se q u en c es in va ri o us d egre e s an d
ki n d s acc ordi n g t o t h e n a t ure Of t h e ca s e an d t h e
,

s y s t e m O f law a n d g o v e rn m e n t e xi s t in g a t t h e t i m e

an d plac e ,
an d t ha t m u ch w o rk a n d t h o u gh t a re

s p e n t o n b e half o f t h e St a t e in m aki n g t ha t lik e

l ih oo d app ro ach as n e ar a s m ay b e t o c e rt ain t y .

C o mm o n k n o w l e dge n o l e ss i n form s u s it is t ru e , ,

t ha t t h e p u blic s e rvan t s o f e v e n t h e m os t highly

o rga n i s e d St at e d o n o t a t t ai n c o n s t a n t o r u n ifo rm

s ucc es s in t hi s e n d e av o ur So m e o ffen d ers e s cap e

.

a n d s o m e la w s are di sre gard e d B ut t h e St a t e is

.
,

o n t h e w h ol e ,
p re pare d t o c o m p e l it s m e m b ers t o
Ob e y t h e l aw ,
a n d d oe s ,
o n t h e wh o l e e x e rci s e an
,

e ffe c t iv e c o m p ul s i o n ; t ha t is t o s ay it w ill an d
,
 T HE N AT URE A ND M E A NIN G O F LAW

c an m ak e c om plian c e ih
w t t h e l awp re fe ra bl e t o
di s o be dien c e fo r mo s t men o n m o st o cca si o n s by ,

t h e applicat i o n o f fi t t i n g m e an s t h ro u gh it s Offic e rs

app o in t e d fo r t h a t purp os e I f t hi s mu ch can n o t

.

b e a ffi rme d in a giv en s o ci e t y at a giv e n t i m e (s ay

a m i n or So u t h A m eric a n re p u blic w h en a re v o l u t i o n

is at it s h e igh t ) t ha t s o ci et y is in a c on di t i o n o f
,

p olit ical an archy for t h e t im e b e in g o r at l ea s t t h e

,

fun c t io n s o f t h e St at e are Susp e n d e d I n fact w e .

fin d t h e w ill a n d p o w er t o en forc e t h e l aw by

p u bl ic aut h ori t y t o b e s t ro nge r in p rop ort io n as

t h e c o m m o n w e al t h is m o re s e tt l e d mo re p ro s p erou s
, ,

“
an d m o re refi n e d T h e m agi s t rat e b e are t h n o t
.

t h e s w o rd in vai n H e n c e it is n a t u ra l for m en
.

livin g in a c ivili se d St a t e t o regard t his p u blic w ill

a n d p o w e r Of ca u s in g t h e l aw t o b e O b serv e d a s

b el o n gin g t o t h e v ery essen c e o f l aw Th e app o i n t e d

.

c on s equ en c es o f di s o b e di en c e t h e sa nct ions of l a w

,

as t h e y a re c o mm o n ly c a ll e d b e c om e i n s eparably
,

a s s o ciat e d w i t h t h e e xi s t e n c e o f a l a w abidi n g -

c o mmun it y ; s o t hat t h e y s e e m t o b e n o t o n ly a
n orm al e l e m e n t O f civili s e d l a w b u t a n e c e s s a ry
,

c ons t it u en t La w w it h o u t a s an c t i on an d t h a t
.
,

s an c t i o n in t h e han d s o f t h e St a t e c an in t hi s , ,

w a y o f t hi n ki n g e as ily app e ar lik e a c o n t ra dic t i o n

,

i n t e rm s .
 FIRST B OOK O F J UR ISPR U D ENCE C HA P .

An y ch V i e w h o w e ve r w ill b e fo un d hard t o
su , ,

re c o n cil e w i t h t h e w i t n es s o f hi s t ory That im .

p erat ive c harac t e r o f law which in o u r m o d ern

e xp eri e n c e is it s c o n st a n t a t t rib u t e is fou n d t o b e

w a n t i n g in s o ci e t i e s w hich it w o uld b e ra s h t o call

barba rou s a n d fal se t o call lawl es s F or if w e l ook .

,

away fro m s u ch elab orat e d sy st em s a s t h o s e o f t h e

la t e r R om an e m pire a n d o f m o d ern Wes t ern g o v ern
m en t s w e s e e t h a t n o t o n ly l a w b u t l aw w i t h a
, ,

g o o d d eal o f formalit y h as e xi s t e d b e fore t h e St at e

,

had an y ad e qu at e m e an s Of c omp ellin g it s Ob ser

va n c e an d i n de e d b efore t h ere w as any reg ular
,

p ro c e ss o f e n fo rc e m en t a t all We hav e al re ady .

v o uch e d t h e I c elan dic Saga s t o Sh o w t hat law c an

d o wi t h out a l egal p ro fe s si o n w e m ay v o u ch t h e m
t o Sh o w n o l e ss cl e a rly t hat it c an d o w i t h o u t a

fo rm al s an ct i on M o re t ha n t his w e fin d pres erv e d

.
,

amon g t h e an t iquit i es o f l egal s y st ems an d n ot ably ,

in archaic fo rm s an d s o l e m n i t i es c o n s id e rabl e t rac es ,

o f a t i m e w h e n t h e j u ri s dic t i o n Of c o urt s a ro s e o n ly

fro m t h e v o l unt ary s ub mi s s ion o f t h e part i es : a n d

t hi s n o t o n ly a s b e t w ee n su bj e c t an d s ubj e c t b u t ,

1
a s b e t w e e n a s u bj e c t an d t h e St at e J h eri n g t ell s .

u s t hat t h e e a rly R o m a n j u dg e w a s a m ere day s m a n ,

1
Th e h ist ory of E gl i h c im i l p c d
n s r na ro e f
u re a f o rd s a t l eas t one

s t ri k in g i l iu s t ra t io n b t I p p
u ly v id
ur o s e a o a d ig res s io n .
 T HE NA T URE A ND M EA NIN G O F LAW

or Sp e ak e r o f t h e l aw b et w e e n t h e part i e s We .
1

n ee d n ot d o ub t t h a t e ffe c t u al m o t iv e s for s u b
m i s s i o n c o ul d b e b rou gh t s o on e r o r l at er t o b e ar o n
, ,

u n w illi n g s u bj e c t s T h e m an w h o did n o t su b mi t
.

hi m s elf t o l aw c ould n ot cl a i m t h e b en e fi t o f t h e
l a w ; t h ere w a s n o re a s o n w h y e v e ry m a n s han d
’

Sh o u ld n o t b e ag a i n st h im O ut la wry n o w al l b ut
.
,

o b s o l e t e e v e n in n a m e w as t h e form al e xp res s i o n
,

Of t h e archaic s o cial rul es by w hich l aw w a s

gra d u ally m ad e s u p reme A ga i n arch a ic pro c e d ure
.
,

Sh o w s u s a p e ri o d in w hich a s u i t o r m ay O b t ai n

j u dgm e n t b ut m us t e x e cu t e t h e j u dgm en t for h im

,

s e lf
. T h e mo s t t h e St a t e w ill d o fo r h im is t o

c o m e e v e n t u ally t o h is aid if t h e a dv e rs ary or t h e

advers ary s fri e n d s c on t i n u e t o d e n y h im righ t In
’
.

t h e m e an t i m e p riva t e fo rc e h o ld s t h e g ro un d b u t ,

t h e w i n n i n g s u i t o r s p ri va t e forc e is la w ful a n d t h e
’

l os er s is u n l a w ful
’
.

At t hi s s t ag e t h e St at e c an h a rdly b e s aid t o
p rovid e a ny s an c t i o n o f it s o w n ; it o n ly g iv es
m ora l s u pp o rt an d c o h ere n c e t o s a n c t i o n s a lre ady
e xi s t i n g in a vagu e fo rm C o n v e rs ely o n e Of t h e
.
,

fi rs t s ign s Of t h e revi vi n g p o w er an d s o lidit y o f t h e

S t a t e i n t h e e arly Middl e A g e s w a s t h e j e al o u s

res t ric t i o n o f p riv a t e fo rc e e ve n w h e n t h e claim an t

,

1
Gei s t d es rom i s ch en R ech t s , i 1 7 4 ,
. ed . 1 87 8 .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

wh o s ou gh t h is en d s by m igh t
had fu ll righ t o n h is
s id e . I n ius te an d s in e i n d iei o b e ca m e c o n v e rt ibl e

t e rms . I t is w ro n g t o d o o n es e lf righ t w i t h ou t

j u dgmen t and p u blic a ut h ori t y .

In o n e s en s e w e m ay w e ll e n o u gh s ay t ha t t h e re

is n o l aw wit h o u t a s an c t i o n F or a ru l e o f l a w
. .

mu s t a t l e a st b e a ru l e c o n c e iv e d a s bin di n g ; a n d
a ru le is n ot bin di ng w h e n an y o n e to w h om it
applie s is fre e t o o b s erv e it or n o t a s h e t hi n k s
fit . T o c on c e iv e o f an y p a rt Of h u m an c o n du c t a s

s u bj e c t t o l a w is t o c o n c e iv e t ha t t h e ac t o r s fre e d o m
’

h as b ou n d s w hich h e o v e rs t e p s at h is p eril On e .

o r m o re c o u rse s o f ac t i o n m ay b e righ t o r all o w abl e

a t l e a st o n e m u s t b e w ro n g No w w ha t is fe l t t o
.

b e w ro n g is fe l t t o call fo r re d re s s T hi s m a y b e
.

direc t or i n dire c t s w ift or t ardy ; b ut in t h e m e re

,

s e n se a n d app re h e n s i o n o f re d ress t o c o m e h o w e v e r ,

re m o t e a n d i mp ro babl e it m ay s e e m a n d h o w e v e r ,

u n c e rt ai n t h e m a n n er o f it m a y b e w e hav e alre ady

,

s o m e ki n d O f s an c t i o n a n d n o t t h e l es s a s a n c t i o n
,

b e cau s e it s e ffe c t may b e p re cario u s All t his .

applies t o m oral n o l es s than t o l egal rul e s .

T ak e n t h u s large ly t h ere are s a n c t i o n s o f i n fi n i t e

,

d e gree s from Ob s c ure m o n i t i o n s o f c o n s ci e n c e t o

g en eral an d Op en re p ro bat i o n o r e v e n ac t s Of
,

V i o l en c e p ro m p t e d by t h e i n dign a t i o n Of o n e s ’
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

m a n d s is i ly t h e m is t ak e o f a lay man as
e m n en t ,

o n e o f t h e g re a t e s t m o d ern j u ri s t s h a s hi n t e d 1
;
an d ,
w e may add o f a lay m a n w h o h a s n o t c o n
,

s id e re d t h e di ffe re n c e b e t w e e n m o d e rn a n d a rch a ic

s o ci e t i es or
,
t h e p oli t ical a n d so cial fo u n da t i o n s

of l aw . F or m o s t p rac t ical p u rp ose s t h e ci t iz e n s

o f a St a t e a n d t o a c o n s id e ra bl e
, e x t e nt t h o ugh ,

n o t al t o g e t h e r la w y e rs a n d m agi s t ra t e s al s o
, have ,

n o t t o c o n c ern t h e ms e lv e s w i t h t hi n ki ng w ha t t h o s e

fou n dat i o n s are T h e ir b us i n e ss is t o l earn an d

.

k n o w s o far a s n ee dful for t h e ir a ffai rs w ha t rul es

, ,

t h e St at e d o e s u n d e rt ak e t o e n fo rc e an d ad m i n i s t e r ,

w hat e v er t h e re al o r p ro fe s s e d re a son s for t h o s e

rul e s m a b e M o re o v e r c ri m i n al l aw w hich is
y .
, ,

e m i n e n t ly i m p era t iv e is t ha t b ra n ch o f l a w w hich
,

app e al s m os t t o t h e p o p ular im agin a t io n a n d fills

"

t h e la rg e s t plac e in p o p u lar n o t i o n s o f l e gal j u s t ic e .

Again t h e u n e xam pl e d ac t ivi t y o f t h e l egis lat ive

,

p o w er in m o d ern St at es h as larg ely in cre as e d t h e

S ph ere o f e xp re s s e n ac t m e n t A ll t h es e cau s es .

hav e m ad e it p o s s ible an d e v en plaus ibl e t o re gard

law n o t o n ly a s b ein g e m b o di e d in t h e c o mm an d s
o f a p o li t ic a l s o v e re ig n b u t as c o n s i s t in g o f s u ch
,

c o m man d s an d b ei n g n o t hin g e l s e T h ey hav e n o t

:

a l t e re d t h e fu n da me n t a l fac t s o f h um a n s o ci e t y ;

1
Jh e rin g ,
G ei s t d es ro mi s ch en R ech t s , i 3 7
. .
 T HE N AT URE A ND M E A NIN G O F LAW

a nd t h e m e re ly im p e rat iv e t h e ory o f l egal in s t it u

t i o n s rem ai n s as o n e s id e d an d u n philo s o phical as
-

it w as b e fo re La w is fo rc e d by t h e St at e
.
fl
b ecau s e it is l aw ; it is n o t l aw merely b e cau s e
t h e St at e e n forc es it B ut t h e furt h er p urs ui t o f
.

t hi s s ubj e c t s ee m s t o b el o n g t o t h e phil os o phy o f

P olit ic s rat h er t han Of La w .

On t h e w h o l e t h e s afes t d e fi n i t i o n o f l a w in t h e D fi
e n it io n .

l a w y er s s en s e app e ars t o b e a ru l e o f c o n du c t
’

bi n din g o n me mb ers o f a c o mm o nw e alt h a s su ch .

I t is hard ly c o n c e ivabl e t ha t a n y c o mmu n i t y s h o uld

re c o g n i s e s u ch ru l e s as di s t i n c t fro m ru l e s bin di n g
,

o n m an ki n d in g e n e ral w i t h o u t h a
,
vin g so me w ay O f
a d mi n i s t eri n g t h em ; b u t t ha t is a s e c o n dary p o i n t .

Wh et h er t h ere is a c omm on w e al t h an d w h o are it s

,

m emb ers are m a t t ers o f fac t acc o rdin g t o t i me a n d

,

plac e I f it b e ask e d w hat is a c ommon w e al t h in

.

ge n eral t hat is a qu e s t i o n Of p o li t ical an d n o t o f

,

l egal s ci en c e I f it b e a sk e d w h et h er t h e d efi n i t i on
.

c o v ers t h e l aw o f n at i on s t h e a n s w er is t hat it m ore

,

o r l e s s a pp ro xim a t e ly d oes s o j u s t s o far as t h e

re lat i o n s O f s o vere ign Sta t e s t o o n e a n o t h e r c a n b e

rega rd e d as a n al o g o u s t o t h os e o f ci t iz e n s in a St a t e.

A d e fi n i t i on h as n o b us i n ess t o p rej u dg e t h e
qu es t i on h o w far t hat is t h e ca s e .
 C H A P T E R II

J U ST I C E AC C O RDING To LAW

T HE on ly e s s ent ai l c o n di t i o n s for t h e e xi s t en c e o f
l a w an d l egal i n s t i t u t i o n s are t h e e xi s t en c e o f a

p oli t ical c o mm u n i t y a n d t h e re c ogn it i o n by it s

l
an o m a o us
me m b e rs o f s e t t l e d ru l es bi n di n g u p on t h e m in t ha t
capaci t y T h ose c o n di t i o n s are p res en t in a ll
.

s o ci et i es o f m e n w h o are n o t m e re s avag e s . E ve n
a mon g civili s e d men on t h e o t h er han d t h e y m ay
, ,

b e Su s p e n d e d in p art ic u lar ci rc u m s t a n c es We
.

c a n g e t o n e e xa mpl e by s u pp o s i n g a b o a t s c rew
’

fro m a w re ck e d s hip m ad e up of diffe ren t n a t i on

,

al it ie s in ab o u t e qu al p ro p o rt i o n s ,
t o la n d o n a n

i slan d in t h e high s ea s w hich is n e it h er o cc upie d

n o r clai m e d by a n y civili s e d P o w e r Su ch a pa rt y
.

w o uld it is c o n c e iv e d b e re mi t t e d t o Wh a t w as o n c e
, ,

“ ”
c a lle d t h e s t at e of n a t u re aid e d by w h a t e v er
,

c o n v e nt i o n s t h e y m igh t agre e u p o n as app ro p ria t e

30
C HA P II
. JUST I CE A CCO RDIN G TO LAW

to t h e ir s i t uat io n
. A la wy er w o u ld p ro bably
advis e t h e m t o c o n s id er t h em s e lve s a s s t il l u n d e r
t h e l a w o f t h e s hip s flag b ut it is d iffi c u l t t o say
’

t ha t t hi s o r an y o t h er l a w w oul d hav e an y rea l

a ut h ori t y apart from t h e agreeme n t o f t h e w h ol e

part y Prac t ica lly t h e l aw of n at ure o r in l ess
.
,

a mbigu ou s t erms t h e c o mm on rul es of civil i s e d

m o ral s an d t h e dic t a t es M n oy ,

w o ul d h a v e t o s u ffic e for t h e p resen t n e e d A gain

.
,

it is n o t v ery di ffic u l t fo r civili s e d m e n t o fin d

t h e ms e lv e s w i t h ou t an y V i o l e n t accid e n t in plac e s
, ,

w h ere it is hard t o s ay w h e t h er a n y a n d if a n y , ,

w ha t l a w p re vail s in t h e ordi n ary s en se T ak e

.

t h e c as e o f an E n gli s h or A merica n t rav el l er or a n ,

E n gli s h man an d an American t rav elli n g t oget h er in ,

t h e re gi o n o f t h e Khaibar P a s s b e y o n d t h e B ri t i s h

fron t ie r p os t a t F ort J amru d a n d b efore A fgh a n

t e rri t ory is re a ch e d . C ert ai n ly th ey are n o t s u bj e c t
t o t h e l aw o f B ri t i s h I n dia ; s t il l l e s s if p o s s ibl e
, ,

t o t h e l aw o f I s lam a s appli e d in A fghan is t an .

Ye t t h e p erson s a n d p ro p ert y o f t h o s e w h o go u p
t h e P a ss o n t h e app o i n t e d d ay s an d w i t h t h e

p ro per e s c ort are re ally s a fer t han t h e y w ou ld b e

in s ome pa rt s o f al m os t a n y E uro p e a n o r A m e ric an

ci t y B u t p e c uliar ph en o men a o f t hi s kin d w hich

.
,

a re t ran s i t o ry accid e n t s as c o m pa re d w i t h t h e
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

or din ary c ours e o f civili se d life d o n o t affe ct t h e,

n orm al fo rm a t i o n a n d e ffe c t s o f civili se d l a w n o r ,

t h ro w a n y ligh t o n it s o rigi n I f o n t h e o t h er
.
,

han d a n e w s o cial c o mbi n atio n whi ch at fi rs t sigh t

,

m ay hav e b een p re ca ri o u s b e c om es p erm a n en t it s ,

me m b ers acqu i re e ith er by c o n ve n t ion o r by sub

,

m i s s i o n t o a n e xi s t i n g j uri s dic t i o n s om e p erm a n e n t

,

form o f g o v ernm e n t an d law Th e i n ch o at e s ta ges

.

o f t hi s p ro c e s s ( w hich , in fact h as t ak e n plac e in

,

vario u s part s o f t h e wo rld s u ch as t h e e x t re me

,

We s tern St a t es o f A m erica w i t hi n livin g m emory)

,

a re i nt e re s t i n g in t h ei r o w n way b u t are ha rdly

,

w i t hi n t h e p ro vi n c e o f t h e la w y e r Se t t le d ru l es
.

a n d re c o g ni s e d j uri s dic t i on a re t h e lawy er s t es t s

’
.

J c
us t i e .
Law p re s u pp o ses id e a s h o w e v er ru di me n t ary o f
, ,

j ust ic e B ut law b e in g o n c e es t abli sh ed j u st in

.
, , ,

m at t ers o f t h e law d e n o t e s wha t e v e r is d o n e in

,

e xp re s s fulfil m e n t o f t h e rul e s o f l a w o r is appro v e d

,
,

a n d all o w e d by l aw . No t e v erythi n g w hich is n o t

fo rbidd e n is j us t Ma n y t hin g s are l eft al on e by
.

t h e St a t e as it w ere u n d er p ro t e s t a n d o n ly
, ,

b e cau se it is t h ou gh t t ha t i n t erferen c e w o uld d o

m o re ha rm t ha n g o o d . In s u ch t hi n g s t h e n o ti o n

o f j us t ic e h a s n o plac e : t h e m i n d o f t h e St a t e is

”
r at h e r e xp re s s e d by D an t e s gu arda e pa ss a
’
.

“ “
Th e wo rd s j us t an d j u s t ic e an d c orres p on din g
,
 J UST I C E A CCORDIN G TO LAW

w or d s in o t h ert o n g u es hav e n e ve r q ui t e l o s t e t hic a l

,

s ig n ifica n c e e v e n in t h e m os t t e ch n ical l e gal c on t e x t .

T h e rea so n o f t hi s ( u n d u ly n egl e c t e d by s om e
m o d e rn s for t h e s ak e o f a m ere ly ve rbal a n d ill us iv e
e xac t n e s s ) is t ha t in t h e d e v el o pm e n t o f t h e l aw

b o t h by l e gi sla t ive an d by j u dicial p ro c esses a pp eal

is c o n s t a n t ly m ad e t o e t hic a l re a s o n an d t h e moral

j u dgm e nt o f t h e c o mm un i t y D ou b tl e s s t h e servan t s
1
.

o f t h e l a w mu s t Ob e y t h e l a w w h e t h e r s p e ci fic ru l es
,

o f l a w b e m o ra lly j u s t in t h e i r e y e s o r n o t : t hi s ,

h o w e v er is o n ly s ayi n g t ha t t h e m o ral j udg me n t w e

,

re g ard is t h e j u dg m e n t O f t h e c o mm u n i t y an d n o t ,

t h e pa rt ic ular o pi n i o n o f t hi s o r t ha t ci t iz en .

F urt h er s om e c o nflic t be t w e e n legal a n d m oral

,

j us t ic e c an ha rdly b e av o id ed fo r morali t y a n d l aw
,

c a n n o t mo v e a t e xac t ly t h e s am e ra t e St il l in a .
,

w e ll o rd e re d S t a t e s u ch c o n flic t is e xc e p t i o n al a n d
-

s e ld o m ac u t e Le gal j u s t ic e ai ms a t re ali s i n g m oral

.

j us t ic e w i t hi n it s ra nge an d it s s t re ng t h la rg ely c on
,

s i s t s in t h e g e n e ral fe eli n g t ha t t hi s is s o Were .

t h e l e gal fo rmu l at i o n Of righ t p erm a n e n t ly e s t ra n g e d

fro m t h e m o ral j u dg men t o f goo d ci t iz e n s t h e St at e ,

w o u ld b e divid e d agai n s t i t self .

We m ay b e t t er re ali se t h e fun d am e n t al cha ra c t e r

1
Se e as p ro gress iv e im pro v e m e n t
to the of t h e l a w w it h the
ad v a n c e o f t h e m ora l s t a n d a rd J B A m e s
. .
,
“
La w a nd M l
ora s ,
”

H ar v La w Re v xx ii 9 7
. . . .
 FIR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUD EN C E C HA P .

of l aw by t ryi n g t o c on c e ive it s n ega t i o n or Opp o si t e .

T hi s w ill b e fou n d i t is s u b m i t t e d in t h e a b se n c e
, ,

o f o rd e r ra th e r t han in t h e ab s en c e o f c o m p u l s i o n .

An e x e rci s e o f m erely cap rici o u s p o w er h o w e v er ,

g re at in re la t i o n t o t hat w hich it a c t s u p on d o e s ,

n o t s at i s fy t h e g e n e ral c on c e p t i o n o f l a w w h e t h er ,

it d oes or d o es n o t fit t h e w o rd s o f an y a rt ifici al

d e fin i t io n A d es p o t ic chi e f w h o paid n o a t t e n t i o n
.

t o an y t hi n g b ut h is o w n w hi m o f t h e m om e n t c o u ld

hardly b e s aid t o ad m i nis t er j u s t ic e e v en if h e p ro

fe s se d t o d e cid e t h e di s p ut es o f h is subj e c t s Th e .

b est id eal pic t u re I k n o w in li t era t ure o f w ha t

m igh t b e call e d n a t ural i nj u s t ic e t h e m ere w a n t o n
,

n es s o f p o w e r is e xhibi t e d in t h e w ay s o f Set e b o s
,

as c o n c e iv e d by R o b ert B ro w n i n g s Ca liba n
1 ’
In t h e .

s a m e m a s t e r s P ipp a P a ss es t h e so n g o f t h e a n ci en t
’
,

ki n g w h o j ud g e d s i t t in g in t h e s u n giv e s a m ore
pl e a s i ng t h o u gh n o t a mo re p erfe c t im ag e Of n at u ral
o r ra t h e r pa t riarchal j u s t ic e A b sen ce o f d efi n e d
.

ru l e it m u s t b e re m e m b e re d is n o t t h e s a m e t hi n g
, ,

as t h e n egat io n o f o rd e r Th e pa t riarch m ay n o t d o
.

j u s t ic e acc ordin g t o a ny c on s cio u sly realis e d rul e ,

a n d y e t h is d e c re e s a re fe l t t o b e j us t a n d w ill o t
g o ,

t h e m a ki n g o f rul e s o f j us t ic e for p o s t erit y .

It is t rue t hat e v e n in highly civili s e d St a t es w e

1 “
As it l ik es m e ea ch t ime Id o so He .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

hi s t o ric a l o r c o n s t i t u ti o n al a ccid e n t So m e t imes

.
,

ag ain t h e p u rp o s e o f t h es e e x t ra o rdi n ary l egi slat iv e

,

ac t s is t o re lie v e i nn o c en t p ers o n s a nd t h os e w h o
,

m ay hav e t o d e riv e t i t l es t o p ro p e rt y fro m t h e m ,

fro m t h e c o n s e q ue n c e s o f s o me v e n ia l fail ure t o

c o m ply w i t h t h e re qu ire m e n t s o f l aw M arriage s .

b e t w ee n B ri t i s h s ubj e c t s have o ft en b e e n c el e b ra t e d
in g o o d fai t h b u t i n fa c t wi t h o u t a ut h o ri t y by
'

, ,

B rit i s h C o n su l s a n d o t h er O ffici al p ers o n s in re mo t e

part s o f t h e w o rld an d o n t h e e rro r b e i n g dis c o v e re d
,

A c t s o f P a rliam e n t hav e b e e n pa ss e d t o give validi t y

t o ma rriag es s o c e l e b ra t e d . A c t s o f i n d e mn i t y hav e
m u ch t h e s a me n a t ure s o fa r a s t h e y re l at e t o t h e
,

n e gl e c t o r o mis s io n o f re q ui re m e n t s which hav e

c o me t o b e rega rd e d as m ere ly formal Wh e n t h e .

T es t A c t s w ere i n fo rc e t h e re w as a n a n n u al Ac t o f

I n d e m n i t y fo r t h e re li e f o f t h o s e p u blic Offic ers

( b e i n g in fac t t h e g re a t m aj o ri t y ) w h o had n ot

p e rforme d an d o b s erve d all t h e c o n di t i on s w hich a t

o n e t i me had b e e n su pp o s e d an d for a t i m e p o ss ibly
,

w ere n e e dful pre ca u t i o n s fo r s e c u ri n g t h e P rot e s t a n t

,

s u cc e s s i o n t o t h e t h ro n e . Las t ly t h a t w hich in
,

fo rm is an ac t o f l egi sla t i o n m ay b e a m o re o r l e s s
t hi nly dis g ui s e d ac t o f re vo l ut i o n civil w ar or
, ,

re p ri s al a gai n s t u n s u cc e s s fu l re v o l ut i o n .Act s of
a t tai n d er are t h e b est E nglis h e xampl e in t hi s
/
 JU ST I CE A CCORDIN G T O LAW

ki n d All t h es e m a t t ers h av e t h e i r o w n hi s t orical a n d

.
l

p o li t ical i n t eres t b u t w e hav e n o t hi n g t o l e arn fro m

t h e m ab o u t t h e n o rmal c o n t e n t s a n d Op e ra t i o n o f

l egal i n s t i t u t i o ns Th e R om an n a me o f p ri ei l egia
.

m ark s t h e m o ff a s s t an di n g o ut s id e t h e p ro vi n c e o f
re g u la r a n d o rdi n a ry l a w .

Le t us pas s o n t h en t o c on s id e r w h a t are t h e N m l
, ,
or a

m k f ar s o

n o rm al a n d n e c e s s ary m ark s in a civili s e d c o m m o n

,
l w a

G l it y e n era .

w e al t h O f j u s t ic e a d mi n i s t ere d acc ordi n g t o l a w

, .

T h ey s e em capabl e o f b e i ng re d u c e d t o G e n era li t y ,

E qu alit y an d C ert ai n t y Fi rs t a s t o ge n e rali t y t h e

,
.
, ,

ru l e o f j u s t ic e is a ru l e fo r ci t iz e n s as s u ch It .

ca nn ot b e a rule me rely for t h e in divid u al : as t h e

m e di e val gl o s s a t o rs p u t it t h ere ca nn o t b e o n e l a w
,

fo r P e t e r an d a n o t h e r fo r J oh n No t t ha t ev e ry .

ru l e mu s t o r c an a pply t o all ci t iz e n s ; t h ere a re

div ers ru le s fo r divers c o n di t i on s an d cl a sse s o f me n .

An u n marri e d man is n o t u n d e r t h e d u t i e s o f a
hu s ban d n or a t rad er u n de r t h o s e o f a s o ldi er B u t
,
.

e v ery ru l e m u s t a t l e a s t h a v e regard t o a cla s s o f

m em b ers o f t h e St a t e an d b e bi n din g u p o n o r in
,

res p e c t o f t ha t cla ss a s d e t e rm i n e d by s o m e d e fi n i t e

p o sit io n in t h e c ommu n i t y T hi s w ill h old h o w e v e r

.

s mall t h e cla s s may b e an d e v en if it c o n s i s t s fo r

,

1
T h ey mu s t b e c a re fully d is t in gu is h ed fro m im p e a ch m e n t w h ich
,

is a re g u l r p ro c e s k n o w n t o t h e l a w t h o u gh a n u n u s u l o n e
a s ,
a .
 F IRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUD EN CE C HA P .

the t i me b e in g Of o n ly o n e i n divid u al a s is t h e cas e ,

w i t h Offic es h e ld by o n ly o n e p e rs o n a t a t i m e .

C ert ai n rul e s o f l aw w ill b e fou n d in al mo st e v ery ,

c o u n t ry t o apply o n ly t o t h e p ri n c e o r t it u l ar ru l er
,

o f t h e St a t e o r t o q u alify t h e applica t i o n o f t h e
,

ge n e ra l l a w t o h im In E n gla n d agai n t h e P rin c e

.
, ,

O f Wal e s a s D u k e o f C orn w all

,
is t h e s u bj e c t o f
,

ru l e s fo rmi n g a s i n gula r e xc e p t i o n t o t h e g en eral

l aw o f p ro p ert y ; an d t h e Lord Cha n c el lor h as ma n y

d ut i e s an d p o w ers p e c uliar t o h is o ffic e B ut t h es e .

ru l es a re n o t lacki n g in t h e q u ali t y o f g e n e rali t y ,

fo r in e ve ry ca se t h e y apply n o t t o t h e i n divid u al

p erso n a s s u ch b u t t o t h e h o ld er o f t h e o ffic e for t h e

,

t i me b e i ng T h e y m ay b e a n o m al o u s w i t h re gard t o
.

t h e l e g a l s y s t e m in w hich t h e y o cc u r ; an d lik e o t h er ,

ru l e s o f l a w t h e y m a o r m ay n o t b e e xp e di e n t o n
y
:

t h e part ic ula r m e ri t s o f e ach ca s e Th e y are n o t in

.

a n y n e c e s s a ry c o n flic t w i t h t h e p ri n cipl e s o f l egal

j us t ic e m erely b e cau s e t h ey a re o f li m it e d o r u n iqu e

applicat io n .

Eq ua l it y
. Ne xt t h e rul e o f g e n erali t y can no t b e fulfill e d
,

u n l e s s i t is aid e d by t h e pri n c ipl e o f e q u ali t y .

R u l es o f l aw b e i n g o n c e d e clare d t h e ru l e m u st ,

hav e t h e lik e applicat i o n t o all p ers on s an d fac t s

c om i ng w it hi n it R e sp e ct o f p ers o n s is in c o m
.

pa t ibl e w it h j us t ic e La w w hich is t h e s a me for

.
 JUST I CE A CCORDIN G TO LAW

P e t er an d for J o h n mu s t b e ad m i n i s t ere d to Joh n

an d Pet er e ve nly T h e j u dge
to . is n ot free to s h ow
favo u r t o P e t er a n d dis fav ou r to John . As t h e
m a xi m h as it ,
qu alit y is e qu i t y
e So mu ch is
.
1

O bvi o u s a n d n ee d s n o furt h er e xp o s i t i o n B u t it .

m ay b e p ro p er t o p o i n t o ut t ha t t h e rul e o f e qu ali t y
d oe s n ot e xcl ud e j u dicial di s cret io n Oft en t i mes .

la w s are p u rp os ely fram e d s o as t o giv e a c o n s id e r

a bl e ra n g e o f ch o ic e t o j u dici a l o r e x e c u t iv e Offi c ers a s

t o t h e t i m e s plac e s a n d ma n n e r o f t h e ir applicat i o n
, ,
.

It is q u i t e c o m m o n ly l e ft t o t h e j udg e t o a s s ig n u p ,

t o a p re s c rib e d li mi t t h e p u n i sh m e n t o f p ro v e d
,

o ffe n c e s : i n d e e d t h e cases in w hich t h e c ou rt is

,

d e p rive d O f dis cre t i on are e xc e p t i o n al in all m o d ern

s y s t e ms . A p art fro m capi t a l o ffe n c e s t h ere are on ly ,

o n e or t w o ca s e s in E n gli s h c ri m i n a l l aw w h ere

a mi n imu m p u n i sh m en t is i mp o sed an d n on e it , ,

is b e li e v e d w h e re t h ere is n o di s c re t i o n a t all
,
.

C e rt ai n re m e di es an d fo rm s o f reli e f in m a t t e rs o f ,

civil j uri s dic t io n a re s aid t o b e di s c re t i o n ary as

,

c o n t ras t e d w it h t h os e w hich part ies c an d e m an d as

t h e i r righ t . St ill a j u dicial di s c re t i o n h o w e v e r
, ,

w id e ,
is t o b e e x e rci se d w i t h ou t favou r an d

acc ordi n g t o t h e b es t j u dg me n t w hich t h e p ers on

i n t ru s t e d w i t h t h e di s c re t i on c an fo rm o n t h e m eri t s
1
T h e w o rk in g use of x
t h e m a i m is not q u it e s o s im pl e as t h is .
 F IRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

of ach ca se
e D iffere n c es o f p e rso n al ch arac t er
.
1

an d l o cal circu ms t an c es are o ft en qu it e pro p er

e l e me n t s in t h e form a t i o n o f s u ch a j u dg m e n t b u t ,

an y i n t ro d u c t i o n O f m ere p e rs o n al fa v o ur is a n
ab us e We s t ill a im at a ssig n i n g e qu al res u l t s t o
.

e q u al c on di t i on s J u dicial di s c re t i on is n o t an
.

e xc e p t i o n t o t h e p ri n cipl e o f e qu ali t y b u t c o mes in ,

aid o f it w h ere a n i n fl e xibl e rul e om i t t i ng t o t ak e ,

acc o unt o f c o n di t i o n s t hat can n ot b e d e fin e d b e fo re

han d wou ld re ally w o rk i n e qu ali t y T hi s i mpli e s
,
.

t hat o n ly s u ch c o n di t io n s are c o u n t e d a s are m at e ri a l

for t h e p urp o s e s o f t h e rul e t o b e appli e d O f c ou rs e .

n o t w o p e rs o n s o r e v e n t s c an b e fully alik e Wh a t .

rul es o f l aw hav e t o d o is t o s e l e c t t h o s e c o n di t i o n s

w hich are t o hav e c o n s e q u en c e s o f c ert a i n ki n d s

which b ein g d o ne it is t h e b u s i n es s o f t h e c o urt s

,

t o a t t en d t o all t h o s e c o n di t i o n s an d s avi n g , ,

j u dicial di s c re t ion w h ere it e xi s t s n o t t o a n y o t h e rs

, .

A pl ai n t iff w h o arg u e s h is case in p ers o n m ay b e

t edi o us an d Offe ns iv e b u t t h e j u dge m u s t n evert h e
,

l e s s d o h im j u st ic e as fully a s if h is a rg ume n t w e re
1
In v ario u s c as es w h ere t h e ris k o f d is c ret io n b e in g p erv e rt e d
by o u t sid e in fl uen c e o r p res s ure h as s ee m ed g rea t er t h a n t h a t o f
s p o n t a n e o u s p art ia l it y t h e h o l d e rs o f d i s c re t io n a ry p o we r o r
,

a u t h o rit y a re d e l ib era t e ly e x e m p t e d fro m b e in g c a ll e d o n t o g i v e

a n a cc o u n t o f t h e ir re a s o n s In s u ch c a s es t h e d is cre t io n is s aid
.

t o b e n o t j u d ic ia l b u t a b s o l u t e
,
E xam pl es : t h e pro t ec t o r o f a
.

s e t t l em e n t t h e g o v ern i ng b o d ie s o f s ch o o l s u n d er t h e P u bl ic
,

Sch o o l s Ac t .
 JUST I C E A CCORDIN G TO LAW

e xc ell en t Thi s m ay s ee m t o o o bvi ou s fo r st at e men t

.

in E n gla n d b u t t h e re are part s Of t h e B ri t i s h

,

E mpire w h ere it is n ot or w i t h in rec en t t i m e s w as n o t

, ,

so . Su pp ose o n t h e o t h er ha n d it w ere a ru l e O f
, ,

l a w t ha t n o m a n wh o w o re a whi t e h at b e fo re May
d ay c ou ld t ak e a l e gacy w i t hin t h e y e a r It w o u ld n o t .

b e c o mp e t e n t t o an y c o u rt SO s ay t ha t as b et w e e n ,

A and B rival clai man t s for t h e s am e l ega cy t h e

, ,

l ega cy s h ou ld b e paid t o A n o t w i t h s t an di n g t hat h e

,

had w o rn a w hit e h at i n A p ril b e cau s e h e w as a ,

p o or m an a n d m ore in w a n t of mo n e y t han B T h e .

l a w c a n n o t m ak e all me n e q u al b u t t h e y are e qu al
,

b e fo re t h e l aw in t h e s en s e t hat t h e ir righ t s are

e qu a lly t h e s u bj e c t o f p ro t e c t io n a n d t h e i r d u t i es o f

e n fo rc e m e n t
l
.

Furt h e r a s t h e re q uire m e n t o f ge n era li t y l e a d s t o C t i t y

, er a n

“
t hat o f e q u al i t y s o d oes t h e re q u i re me n t o f e qu ah t y Ziifé t ;
l I

, l a

n w o a
l e ad t o t h at o f c ert a i nt y w hich b rin g s in it s t rai n
'

t h e w h o l e s ci e n t ific d e v el o p m en t o f l a w We m u s t .

ad m i ni s t er a g e n eral rul e a n d ad m in i st er it e qu al l y
,
.

T h e re c an b e n o l aw w i t h ou t g e n erali t y ; t h ere c an b e

n o j u s t O p e ra t io n o f l a w w i t h o u t e q u ali t y B ut w e .

can n ot b e s u re o f a ru l e b ei n g e qu ally a d m i n i s t e re d
1
V a l eat qua e p arib us in c a n s is pa ria iu ra d e sid e ra t
ae q u it a s

Cic T op 23 w h ich b e c a m e c u rre n t i n t h e M id d l e Ag e s i n t h e

. .
,

form “ a e qu it a s e s t rerum c o n v e n ie n t ia qu a e i n p a rib u s e t c ,

”
.

Se e C arlyl e H i s t M d P o l i t Th eory , ii 8 qq
, . e . . . s .
 F IRST B OOK OF JURI SPRUD EN CE C HA P .

at diffe ren t t i me s an d ca s e s o f diffe re n t

in the

p ers o n s u n l e s s t h e rul e is d efi n e d a n d rec o rd e d .

J us t ic e o ugh t t o b e t h e s am e fo r all ci t iz e n s so far ,

a s t h e m a t e rial c o n diti o n s a re t h e s am e No w t o
.

carry ou t t hi s id e a t h e dis p en ser o f j u s t ic e o ugh t t o

b e ad e qu a t e ly fu rn i s h e d w i t h t w o ki n d s o f in fo r

m at i o n. He s h ou ld k n o w w hat is acc u s t o me d t o b e
d o ne in l ik e ca s es a nd wh en e v er n ew c on di t i on s
,

o cc u r h e s h ou ld k n o w o r ha v e t h e m e a n s o f fo rmi n g
,

a j u dgm e n t w hich o f t h em are mat erial w i t h a vi ew

,

t o l eg a l j u st ic e a n d w hich a re n o t
,
M o re o ve r t h e re
.
,

m u s t b e s o m e m e an s o f s e c uri n g a n app ro xi m at e
u n iform i t y o f j u d g m e n t ; o t h erw i se j u dg e s a n d
m agi s t ra t e s o f all d e g ree s w ill m ak e ev e ry o n e a l a w
o f h is o w n fo r hi ms e lf a n d t h e p ri n cipl e o f e qu ali t y
,

w ill n o t b e s a t i s fi e d J u st ic e d e al t o u t acc o rdi n g t o

.

t h e fi rs t i m p re s s i o n o f e ach part ic u l ar ca se t h e ,

“ ”
n a t u ral j u s t ic e o f a n e a s t e rn ki n g s i t t i n g in t h e

g at e is t o l e rabl e o n ly w h en t h e c o m mu n i t y is s m a ll
,

e n o u gh fo r t hi s fu n c t i o n t o b e in t h e h a n d s o f o n e

m a n or v e ry fe w a n d it s affa i rs a re s i mpl e e n o u gh
, ,

fo r o ffha n d j u dg m e n t s n ot t o p ro d u c e res ul t s o f

ma n ifes t i n e qu ali t y T hi s is a s m u ch as t o s a y t ha t
.

in a civili s e d c o mm o n w e al t h l a w m u s t i n e vi t ably

b e c o m e a s ci en c e Th e d e man d for c ert ai n t y

.

b e c o mes more e xac t i n g as m e n s affai rs b e c om e mo re

’
 FIRST B OO K O F J U R ISPR U D ENCE C HA P .

acc ordi n g t o l aw t ha t d e gre e of c ert ain t y s u ffi c es

,

w hich w ill s a t i s fy t h e ci t iz e n s t h at t h e law w o rk s o n

t h e w h o l e j u s t ly a n d w i t h o u t fa v o u r a n d in a rch a ic

s o ci e t i e s n o t o n ly is a p re t t y ro u gh ki n d o f c ert ai n t y

s u ffici e n t b u t n o o t h e r is p o ssibl e
, .

R ul e s o f l aw hav e t o b e a ppli e d t o t h e fac t s

a s c ert ain e d by t h e t rib u n al N o w t h e fac t s are Oft e n

.

in di s p ut e i n d ee d t h os e ca s es are a s m all min o ri t y

w h e re t h ere is a re al diffe re n c e b e t w e e n t h e part i e s ,

a n d t ha t d ifl e re n c e t u rn s m ere ly u p o n t h e appli c a
f

t i o n o f t h e law t o u n di s p u t e d fac t s 1
An d t h e
.

p ro c e s s o f fo rmin g a j u dg me n t as t o t h e t ru t h o f t h e
fac t s w h e re c o n flic t i n g acc ou n t s a re o ffe re d is i t se lf
, ,

a n app ro xi m a t e o n e a t b e s t fo r h u m a n fac u l t i e s In .

e a rly s t a g e s o f l e gal i n s t i t u t i on s w e fin d t h a t t h e re i s

h ardly s o m u ch a s a s e ri o u s at t e mp t in t hi s di re c t i o n ;
t h e m a t t e rs at i s s u e a re di s p o s e d o f by m e t h o d s

w hich s e e m t o u s a t t hi s day n o t o n ly a rt ifici a l a n d

i n ad e q ua t e b u t o ut of all re la t i o n t o a ny g ro un d s o f
,

re a s o n a bl e c o n cl u s i o n Th e t a s k w o u ld i n d e e d s e e m
.

t o hav e b ee n t h ou gh t ab o v e t h e p o w er o f m o rt al s .

O rd e al i n it s vari o u s forms is a di re c t app e al t o

s u p ern a t u ra l a id i n t h e s u pp o s e d i n c o m p e t e n c e o f

1
M chu of k d o n e by t h e ma ch in ery o f j u s t ic e c o n s is t s
t h e wo r
i n e n fo rc i n g j u s t cl a im s t o w h ich t h ere is n o d e fe n c e ; b u t m ere
re fu s a l o r n e gl e c t t o p ay o n e s d e b t s w i t h o u t c o m p u l s io n o f l a w
’

d o e s no t c o ns t it ut e a re a l m a t t e r in d iffe re n c e
.
 JUST I C E A CCO RDIN G T O LAW

h uma n u n d e rs t a n d ing P roo f by o a t h w h e re t h e

.
,

o a t h is c o n cl u s iv e a p roc e d ure o f w hich t h e m e di e val

,

“ ”
c omp u rg a t io n is t h e b e s t k n o w n e xampl e is t h e ,

s am e t hi n g in a m ild e r fo rm Wh e re ve r a n d s o
.

lo n g as t h e fac t s ca n n o t b e a s c e rt a i ne d w i t h a ny
p recis io n t h ere is n o o cca si o n fo r p re ci s e o r e lab ora t e
,

rul e s o f l a w . Th e l a w c a n n o t b e m o re fi n e ly

gra d ua t e d t h an t h e m e an s o f a s c ert ai ni n g fa c t s an d
t h e j u dici a l i n v e s t iga t i o n Of fac t s w i t h s o m e t hi ng

a pp ro achi n g c o mpl e t en es s an d e xac t n e s s dat es o n ly

from rela t iv e ly mo de rn t im es H en c e t h e d ev el o p
.

m e n t O f l a w is la rg ely b o u n d u p w i t h t h e d e v e l o p
me n t o f p ro c e d ure As i m pro v e d p ro c e d ure e n abl e s
.

t h e l a w t o g rappl e w i t h c o mpl e x fac t s t h e a s pi ra t i o n s

,

o f la w y e rs a n d ci t iz e n s are en la rg ed a n d t h e y a re ,

by n o m ean s c o n t en t t o a im a t t h e m in im u m o f
c ert ai n t y w hich w ill e n s u re p u blic a cqu ies c e n c e in
t h e j us t ic e o f t h e St a t e a n d a t o l e rabl e av e rag e o f
,

Ob e di e n c e . O n t h e c o n t rary t h e y w ill ai m ( a s m e n
,

d o in e ve ry s ci e n c e a n d a rt w h e n o n c e t h e y b e c o me
,

S e ri o u sly i nte re s t e d in i t ) a t a n id e a l m axi m u m .

B ut e v e n in t h e mos t adva n c e d p o li t y w e s hall fin d

n o w a n d t h e n t ha t t h e s u b t il t y o f fo ren s ic a n d

j u dicial t h o ugh t o ut run s t h e p oss ibili t i e s of e ffe c t u al

i n qu i ry an d ad min i s t rat io n Q ues t i on s are s om e
.

t i mes p u t t o j uri es w hich n o m an or t w e lv e m e n , ,

 FIRST B OO K O F JUR I SPRUDENCE C HA P .

n ot l e arn e d in t h e law c a n re a so n ably b e e xp e c t e d t o

,

u n d e rs t a n d
.

In a s s um in g a s ci e n t ific cha rac t e r l a w b e c o m es , ,

a n d m us t n e e d s b e co m e a di s t i n c t s ci e n c e Th e
, .

divi si o n o f s ci e n c e o r phil oso phy w hich c o me s

n e a re s t t o it i n T e s p e c t o f t h e su bj e c t m a t t e r d e al t
-

w i t h is E t hic s . B u t t h ou gh m uch g rou n d is

,

c o m mon t o b o t h t h e s u bj e c t m at t er o f Law a n d o f
,
-

E t hic s is n ot t h e s ame T h e fi e ld o f l egal ru l es o f

.

c on du c t d o es n o t c o in cid e wi t h t hat o f mo ra l rul es ,

a n d is n o t i n cl u d e d in it ; a n d t h e p urp o ses fo r

w hich t h e y e xi s t a re di s ti n c t Law d oe s n o t a im a t
.

p erfe c t i ng t h e i n divid ual cha rac t er o f m en b u t at ,

re g u la t i n g t h e re la t i o n s o f ci t iz e n s t o t h e c o mm o n

w e al t h an d t o o n e a n o t h e r An d i n a s mu ch as
.
,

h u man b e in g s c an c ommu n icat e w i t h o n e an o t h er

o n ly by w o rd s a n d ac t s t h e O ffic e O f l aw d oe s n o t
,

e xt e n d t o t ha t w hich li es in t h e t h ou gh t a n d

c o n s ci e n c e o f t h e i n divid u al .

T h e p os s ibl e c o i n cid e n c e o f law w i t h m o rali t y is

.

li m i t e d at al l ev e n t s by t h e ra n g e o f t hat w hi ch
, ,

t h e o l o gian s hav e n a m e d e x t e rn al m o ra l i t y Th e .

“ ”
c o mm an d m en t T h o u s hal t n o t s t eal may b e an d
, , ,

in all civili se d c ou n t rie s is l e gal a s w e ll as m oral

,

”
t h e c om ma n d m e n t ,
T h o u s h a l t n o t c o v e t m ay b e ,

o f e v e n gre a t er i mp ort a n c e a s a m o ral p re c e p t b ut ,

 JU ST I C E A CCORDIN G T O LAW

it c ann o t b e a l egal o n e Not t hat a l egis lat or migh t

.

n o t p ro fe s s t o m ak e a l a w agai n s t c o v e t o u s n ess b u t ,

it w o u ld b e i n o p e ra t ive u n le s s an e x t e rn al t es t
o f c o ve t o us n e s s w e re a s s ig n e d by a m o re o r l e s s

arbi t ra ry d e fi n it i on ; an d t h e n t h e real su bj ec t
m at t e r o f t h e l a w w ou ld b e n o t t h e pa ss i o n o f c o v e t
b u t t h e b ehavi ou r d e fi n e d as e vi n ci n g it
1
o u s n ess ,
.

T h e j u dgm e n t o f l aw h a s t o p ro c ee d u p o n w h at c an

b e m ad e m a n ife st a n d it c o mm o n ly h as t o es t i m at e
,

h u man c o n d u c t by it s c o n form it y o r o t h erw i se t o

w ha t h a s b ee n call e d an e x t ern a l s ta n da rd A c t io n .
,

a n d i n t e n t s h o w n in ac t s a n d w o rd s n o t t h e s e cre t ,

S pri n g s o f c o n d u c t in d es i re s a n d m o t iv e s a re t h e ,

n o rm al m a t e rial s in w hich c o u rt s Of j u s t ic e are

v e rs e d a nd in t h e t e rm s o f w hich t h eir c on clu s io n s

,

are w o rk e d o u t a n d d eliv ere d Wi t h rare e xc ep .

t io n s a n a c t n o t o t h e rw is e u n la w fu l in i t s elf w ill
2
,

n o t b e c o m e a n O ffe n c e or l e gal w ro n g b e ca u s e it is

d on e fro m a s i n i st er mot iv e n o r w ill it b e an y ,

e xc us e fo r an a c t c o n t rary t o t h e g en eral law or in ,

1
Th e say in g a s c rib e d ( it s e em s a p o c ryph ally ) t o D r K ea t e o f .

E t on B o y s i f y o u re n o t p ure in h e art I ll fl og y o u e x em plifi es

,
’

,
’

,
”

i n a n e a t fo rm t h e c o n fus io n o f e x t ern a l a n d in t e rn a l m ora l it y .

2
T h o s e e xc e p t io n s a re p erh a p s o f a n a cc id e n t a l a nd n o t v e ry
s u b s t a n t ia l k in d b u t a ft e r a l l c orre c t i o n s a n d a ll o w a n c e s
, ,

m a l ic e d o e s s o me t imes i n E n gl is h l a w m e a n e vi l m o t iv e s u ch ,

a s p e rs o n a l e n m i t y o r v in d ic t i v e n e s s.F o r fu rt h er c o n s id e ra t io n o f
i n t e n t io n a nd m o t iv e s e e ch v i p 1 4 4 b el o w
. . . .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

vi o l at i o n o f a n y o n e s righ t s t o Sh o w t ha t t h e m o t iv e
’

from which it p ro c e e d e d w as g o o d I f t h e a t t e mp t
.

is m ad e t o d eal wi t h ru le s o f t h e p ure ly m o ral kin d

by j udici al m achin ery o n e o f t w o t hin gs w ill happe n
, .

E it h er t h e t rib u n al w ill b e g uide d by m ere is olat ed

i mp re ss io n s o f e ach ca s e an d t h ere fore will n o t
,

ad m i n is t er j u s t ic e a t all ; o r ( w hich is m ore lik ely )

p re c e d e n t a n d u s ag e w ill b e ge t s e t t l e d ru le a n d
,

t h e t rib u n al w ill fin d i t s elf ad mi n is t e ri n g a formal

s y s t e m o f l a w w hich in t i me w ill b e a s t e ch n ic al
, ,

a n d app e al as o p en ly t o a n e x t e rn al s t a n da rd as an
, y
o t h er sys te m . T hi s p ro c e s s t o o k plac e o n a g re a t

s cal e in t h e forma t i o n o f t h e Ca n o n La w a n d o n a
,

c o nsid erable s cal e in t h e e arly hi s t ory O f E nglis h

e qu i t y j u ri s dic t i o n
.

La w c an B es id es an d b e y o n d t h e lim i t at io n o f t h e fi eld
n ot en o r e f c
al l m en u o f l a w t o e x t ern al c o n d u c t th e re are m a n y a c t i on s
,

l
ru e s , b t
u
m ay s o e m a n d ki n d s o f c o n d uc t c o n d e m ned by mo rali t y
t me s re a c
'

t
the w h i ch for vari o us re a so n s law c an e i t h e r n o t d e a l

w i t h a t all o r c a n d e al w i t h o nly in a n i n ci

d e n t al a n d i n dire c t m a nn e r It w o uld b e t h e
.

v ulg ares t o f e rro rs ( a s we hav e al re ady hi nt e d ) t o

s u pp o s e t h a t a n y ki n d o f app ro val is i mpli e d in

m a n y t hi ng s b e i n g l e ft t o t h e m o ral j udg m en t o f
t h e c o m mu ni t y a n d t o s u ch p re s s ure a s i t c a n

e x e rci se. Law d o es n o t s t a n d a s id e b e ca us e l a w

 JUST I C E A CCO RDIN G T O LAW

giv ers o r j udg es t hi nk ligh t ly o f su ch t hi n gs b u t ,

b e ca u se w h e t h er fro m p erm a n en t o r fro m t ra n s it o ry

,

caus es t h e m et h o d s o f l egal j ust ic e are n o t app ro

,

ria t e fo r d e alin g wi t h t h e m a n d t h e at t e m p t t o
p ,

apply t h o se m e t h o d s w o u ld s o far as it c o uld b e

,

Op era t iv e a t all p ro bably d o m o re harm t ha n go o d

, .

At t h e s a m e t i m e rul es o f l aw m ay w e ll h a v e in ,

part icu la r circ umst a n c e s an e ffe c t iv e i n fl u en c e in

,

m a in t ai n i ng rei n fo rci n g a n d e v e n e l e va t in g t h e
, ,

s t a n da rd of c urren t m orali t y Th e m ora l id e a l .

p res e n t t o l a w giv ers an d j u dge s if it d o es n o t alway s

,

c o me u p t o t h e high e st t ha t h a s b e en c on c e iv e d wil l ,

a t l e as t b e g en erally s p e aki n g
,
ab o v e t h e c om mo n
,

av e rage o f p ract ic e ; it w ill re p re s en t t h e s t an dard

o f t h e b e s t s o rt o f ci t iz e n s T hi s is e s p e ciall y t h e
.

c a s e in m at t e rs o f goo d fai t h w h et h er w e lo ok ,

t o c o mm erci al h o n e s t y o r t o rel a t i on s o f p e rs o n al

c o n fid e n c e Wi t h fe w e xc ep t i o ns t h e l aw h as
.
, ,

in s uch m at t ers b ee n c o n s t a n t ly ah e ad n o t o nly

,

o f t h e p rac t ic e b u t o f t h e o rdi n a ry p ro fe s s i o n s o f

b us i n ess me n We hav e s imilar resu l t s o n a

.

m ore s t rikin g s cal e w h e n a l aw w hich is n o t

in d ig en ou s b ri n gs in w it h it t h e m oral s t an dard s
o n w hich it is fo u n d e d T h us a g o o d d e al o f
.

E u rop ea n m orali t y h as be e n m ad e c u rren t in I n dia

by t h e A ngl o I n dian c o d es ; t h e Euro p e a n mo ral i t y
-

E
 FIR ST B OO K O F J U R ISP R UD ENCE C HA P .

i t s elf h as b e en l arg e ly m o u ld e d n ot on ly by t h e
t e achi n g o f t h e Ch ri s t ian Ch u rch b u t by t h e form al
,

e m b o di m e n t o f t h a t t e achi n g in b o t h e ccl e s ia s t ical

a n d s e c u lar l a w s T h e t re a t m e n t o f h o m ici d e by
.

e a rly E n gli s h c ri m i n al l a w w a s fo u n d e d o n t h e

e x t re m ely s t ric t vi e w t ak e n by t h e Ch u rch o f t h e

gu il t o f bl o o d s h e ddi n g ; an d t h e e x t i n c t i on o f
d i i el l in g in t hi s c o u n t ry s e em s t o b e d u e in n o ,

s m all pa rt t o t h e s t e ady re fu s al o f E n gli s h l aw

,

t o re ga rd killi n g in a d u e l e v e n w i t h o u t a n y
,

circ u ms t an c es of t re ach ery o r u n fa irn es s a s an y ,

t hi n g e l s e t h a n m urd e r We are n o t Sp e akin g

.

h ere o f t h e m ere fac t t ha t p ers o n s ab s t ain from

u n l a w ful c o n du c t t h ro ugh d re ad o f t h e l e gal c o n

s e q u en c e s a fa c t
,
w hich t ak e n by i t s e lf h a s n o
, ,

m oral s ig n ific a n c e at all .

A ga i n rule s o f l aw differ fro m rul e s of m orali t y

,

in e xc e s s as w ell as in d e fe c t It is n e e dful for t h e

.

p e ac e a n d o rd er of s o ci e t y t o hav e d efi n i t e rules fo r
a g re at m an y c o m mo n o ccas i on s Of life al t h o ugh n o ,

guid an c e c an b e fou n d in e t hical re ason in g for

a d o p t i n g o n e ru l e m o re t ha n a n o t h er T h ere is n o
.

l a w o f n a t u re t ha t p re s c rib e s d rivi n g o n e i t h er t h e

righ t or t h e l e ft ha n d s id e o f t h e ro a d a s is plai n ly
-
,

s h o wn by t h e fact t ha t o u r E n gli s h c u s t o m t o t ak e

t h e l e ft ha n d Sid e is t h e re v e rs e o f t hat w hich is

-
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

Le ga l g o q uit a nyt hi n g t h e law c an d o s o in m a n y cas es

of , ,
re p o n s i
s

b il it y o n t h e o t h e r ha n d p ers o n s a re e xp o se d for re a s o n s
, ,

Wit h tou

m o ra l f lt o f p u blic e xp e dien cy t o l e gal res p o n s ibili t i e s w hich

au ,

i c t i
n er a n

cas e s . m ay o r m ay n o t b e a s s o cia t e d w i t h m oral fau l t a n d ,

w hich ca n n o t b e av o id e d e v e n by t h e fu ll e s t p ro o f

t ha t in t h e part ic u lar ca s e t h e p e rs o n w h o is an s w er

abl e b e fo re t h e l aw w as mo rally blam e l es s A m a n .

m ay o f c o urs e m ak e hi ms elf a n s w erabl e by h is o w n

, ,

p ro m i se fo r m a n y t hi ng s in d e p en d e n t o f h is m ora l
d e s ert s o r e v en w h o lly b ey o n d h is c ont ro l : b u t w e
are h e re s p e aki n g Of liabili t y n ot a s s u m e d by t h e

p art y s o w n a c t a n d c on sen t b ut i mp os e d by a ru l e
’

o f l a w w hich d o e s n o t d e p en d o n an y o n e s a s s e n t
’

fo r it s Op e ra t i o n T h u s a m an is li a bl e in m o s t
.

civili se d c oun t ri e s for t h e w ron gful ac t s an d d e fault s

o f h is s e rva n t s i n t h e c o u rs e o f t h e i r em pl o y m e n t ,

w hat e v er pai n s h e m ay hav e t ak e n in ch o o s i n g

c omp e t e n t s ervan t s a n d givin g t h e m p ro p er in

s t ruc t io n s O bvi ou s ly t hi s is a ha rd ru l e fo r t h e
.

e m pl o y e r in m a n y ca s es b ut it s e xi s t en c e in e v ery
s y s t e m o f l aw s h o w s t ha t in t h e mai n it is fe l t t o

b e j us t A g ai n b o t h R om an an d En gli s h l a w hav e
.
,

m ad e o w n ers o f b u ildi n g s res p o n s ibl e in v ari o u s

1
,

d e grees for t h eir s afe c on dit io n as regard s pa ssers

,

1
T h is is by n o m e a n s t h e fu ll m e a su re o f t h e ru l e in ou r l aw
s im pl ic it y s s a k e o n ly p a rt o f it is n o w s t a t e d
’

F or .
 JUST I CE A CCORDIN G TO LAW

by in t h e high w a y o r p e rso n s e nt eri ng t h e m in t h e

,

c ou rs e o f la w fu l b u s in es s ; an d t hi s Wi t h ou t regard
t o t h e a m o u n t o f t h e o w n er s p ers o n al dilig e n c e in
’

t h e m at t e r. Aga in qu e s t i on s o ft en ari s e b et w e en
,

t w o i n n o c e n t p ers o n s o f w h om o n e o r o t h er m u s t
,

b ea r t h e lo s s o ccas i o n e d by t h e w ron gfu l a c t o f s o m e

o n e fro m w h o m re d re s s ca nn o t b e o b t ai n e d ; a s
w h en a m an w h o h a s o b t ai n e d g o o d s by fra u d fro m

t h e i r o w n e r se ll s t h e m t o an u n s u s p e c t i n g t hi rd

p ers o n a n d t h e n ab s c o n d s le avin g n o t hi n g b e hin d

, ,

h im . H ere t h e o rigi n al o w n er an d t h e b uy e r m ay
b e e qu ally fre e fro m fau l t b ut t h e y can n o t b o t h
,

hav e t h e go o d s an d t h e p ric e can n o t b e re c o vere d

,
.

H ard s hip t o o n e o r t h e o t h e r is in e vi t abl e .

In all t h e s e ca s es t h e l oss o r dam ag e a s b e t w ee n ,

t h e t w o i nn o c e n t p art i es w h o a re l e ft fac e t o fa c e ,

m ay b e c o n s id ere d as accid en t al T h e rul e o f l aw

.

h as t o d e t e rmi n e a s b est it c an o n w hich s id e t h e

l o s s shall fall ; an d s i n c e by t h e hyp o t h e s i s n e it h e r

,

part y h as i n c urre d m oral blam e an d t hi s is t h e ,

v ery cau s e o f t h e di ffic ul t y it is pl a in t ha t t h e rul es

,

o f ordi n ary s o cial m o ral it y will a fford n o g u ida n c e .

We hav e t o res ort e i t h er t o c on s id erat io n s Of gen e ral

p ublic e xp edi en cy or if n o Obvi o us bal an c e o f
, ,

c o n ve ni en c e app e ars e i t h er w a y t o t h e p u rely ,

t e ch n ic a l a ppli c a t i o n o f rul es al re ady s e t t l e d i n l e ss

 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

o b s c u re m at t ers An d t h is la s t m e t h o d is n o t a
.

m e re e va s i o n o f t h e p ro bl em b u t is a re a s o n abl e
,

g
s o l u t i o n s o fa r a s n o s t ro n g e r re a s o n c a n b e a s s i n e d

t o t h e c o n t ra ry . F o r t h e p ri n cipl e o f c e rt a i n t y

re q u i re s t h a t a ru l e o n c e s e t t l e d s h a ll b e c arri e d

o u t t o it s c o n s e q u e n c es w h e n n o di s t in c t c au s e is

s h o w n fo r m aki n g a n e xc e p t i o n o r re vi s i n g t h e ru l e

i t s elf I f an y s en se o f hard s hip t o t h e i n divid u al

.

ci t iz e n rem ai n s a ft e r t h e s e c on s id e ra t i on s h a v e b e en
w eigh e d a n d it h a s al s o b e en o b s e rv e d t hat ci t iz e n s
,

h a v e an e qu al ch an c e o f b e ne fi t a s w ell as b u rd en
u n d e r S p e cial ru l e s o f t hi s ki n d it m a b e s aid
, y
t ha t e xp o s ure t o t hi s ki n d o f li a bili t y is p art a n d ,

n o t a larg e part o f t h e p ric e w hich t h e i n divid u al

,

h a s t o p ay t h e St at e for t h e g e n era l p ro t e c t i o n

affo rd e d by it s p o w e r a n d t h e ge n e ra l b e n e fi t o f it s
,

i n s t it u t io n s
.

Th u s n e i t h er t h e w o rk n o r t h e fi eld o f l e gal

s ci e n c e c a n b e s aid t o c o i n cid e w i t h t h os e o f a n y

o t h er s ci e n c e . An d t h e d e v e l o p m en t o f t hi s as o f
,

all o t h e r di s t i n c t b ran ch es o f s ci e n c e c a n b e carri e d

,

o n o n ly by t h e c o n t i n u o u s e ffo rt Of p e rs o n s w h o

m ak e it t h e chi e f o bj e c t o f t h e i r a t t e n t i o n i n
s u cc es s iv e g e n e ra t i o n s T hi s h as b e e n re c o g n i s e d
.

in t h e i ns t i t ut i o n s b o t h p ra c t ical a n d acad e m ical

, ,

o f a ll civili s e d n a t i o n s A civilis e d s ys t e m o f l aw
.
 JUST I C E AC CORDIN G TO LAW

can n ot b e m ai nt a i n e d w i t h o u t
a l e arn e d p ro fe ss io n
of th e l aw Th e fo rmat i o n a n d c o n t i n u an c e o f
.

s u ch a l e a rn e d cla ss c a n b e a n d h as b e e n p ro vid e d

fo r at di ffere n t t i m e s an d in diffe re n t lan d s in va ri o us

, ,

w ay s w hich it d o es n o t n o w c o n c e rn u s t o m e n t i o n

in d e t ail . I t is n o t n e c ess a ry fo r t hi s p u rp o se

t ha t t h e act u al ad mi ni s t ra t i o n o f j u s t ic e S h o u ld b e

wh olly or wi t h i n sig nifican t e xc e p t ion s in t h e

, ,

ha n d s o f p ers o n s le arn e d in t h e law t h ou gh su ch is ,

t h e p re va i l in g t e n d e n cy o f m o d e rn j u dicial s y s t e m s .

I t is e n o u gh t ha t t h e l e arn e d p ro fes s i o n e xi s t s a n d ,

t ha t k n o wl e dg e o f t h e l a w h a s t o b e s o u gh t dire c t ly ,

o r in dire c t ly in t h e d e lib e ra t e a n d m a t ure d o pi n i o n

,

o f it s m os t capabl e m e mb e rs An d t h e ac t ivi t y o f
.

m o d ern l egi s la t io n mak es li t t l e o r n o d ifl ere n c e t o

‘

t his : for w e are n o t n o w Sp e a ki n g o f t h e g e n e ral

'

p o licy o f t h e law giv er w hich in a fre e c ou n t ry is

,
’

a n d m us t b e d e t e rm i ne d n o t by an y o n e cla s s b u t ,

by t h e p e o ple t h rou gh t h e ir re p res ent at iv es Th e .

o ffi ce o f t h e l a wy e r is fi rs t t o in f orm t h e l e gi s la t u re

h o w t h e law s t a n d s a n d t h en if cha n g e is d e s i re d
, ,

as t o which h e is e n t i t l e d t o h is Opi n i o n a n d v o ic e
(
lik e an y o t h er cit iz e n) t o advi s e h o w t h e chan ge
,

m ay b es t b e effec t e d E ve ry m o de rn l egis lat ure is

.

c o n st a n t ly an d larg e ly d e p en de n t o n e xp e rt a id o f
t his kin d A w e ll fra me d Ac t o f P arlia m en t
.
-
,
 FIR ST B OO K OF J U R ISP R U D ENCE C HA P II
.

w ha t ev er a mou nt of n o velt y it may c o n tain is as ,

m u ch a n applica t i o n o f l egal s ci en c e a s t h e c o n
s id ere d j u dg m e n t o f a c o u rt. Le gi s la t i o n u n d er

t ak en wi t h ou t l egal k n o w l edge is n o tori o u sly

i n effe ct u al o r if n ot i n effe c t u al ap t t o c re at e n e w
, , ,

t ro u bl es gre a t e r t ha n a n y which it c u re s . T h ere is

n o wa
y by w hich m o d e rn law c an e s cap e fro m
s ci e n t ific a n d a rt ificial cha rac t er i m p ose d o n it by

t h e d e m an d o f m o d ern s o ci et i e s fo r fu ll e qu al an d
, ,

e xac t j u s t ic e
.
 C H A P T E R III

T HE S UB JECT MAT T ER
-
OF LAw

R ULES of l aw b ei n g t h e rul es w hich are d e e m e d C t t on e n s

fl w
o a :

bi nd i n g o n m emb ers of t h e St at e a s s u ch an d are d t i f

,
u es o

bj m
su ec
ad m in i s t e red as an d b e ca u s e t h u s bi n di n g by
, ,

c o urt s o f j u s t ic e w e hav e n ex t t o s e e o f w hat kin d

,

a re t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h ose ru l es . I t s e e ms t ha t w e

m ay d e s c rib e t h e m in t h e m o s t ge n eral t erm s a s

, ,

t h e d u t i es o f s u bj e c t s u n d er t h e c o m mo n a u t h ori t y

o f t h e St a t e t o g e t h er wi t h t h e c o n di t i o n s by w hich
,

t h o s e d ut i e s a re d e fi n e d a n d m ad e capabl e o f

applicat i o n We s p e ak h ere o f su bj ec t s n ot cit iz en s

.
,
.

F o r t h ere are m e m b ers Of t h e St at e w h o by re a s on o f

n a t u ral o r c o n v e n t i o n al di s abili t y hich m

( w a y b e

t e mp orary o r p e rm a n e n t ) d o n o t e nj o y fu ll p o li t ical

righ t s : and t h ere are s t ra n g e rs w h o d w e ll fo r a

l o n g er o r s h ort er t im e in t h e j u ri s dic t ion o f t h e

St at e w i t h o u t b e i n g o r b e c o mi n g m e m b e rs o f it .

P ers on s in e it h er O f t h es e p o si t i on s as t h ey are
,

57
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

ad m i t t e d t o t h e b e n efi t a n d p ro t e ct i o n o f t h e l aw s ,

a n d li k e w i s e e xp e c t e d t o c o n fo rm t o t h e m : t ha t is t o

s ay t h e y a re n o t t h e l e s s s ubj e c t s b e cau se t h e y a re
,

n o t o r ca n n o t b e ci t iz en s . It w o u ld n ot b e c orre c t ,

h o w e v er t o s ay t hat ali en re s id e n t s w it hi n a St a t e
,

a re al t o ge t h er s u bj e c t t o t h e s a me d ut ie s as
ci t ize n s ; for t h ey m ay b e a n d o ft en are e x em p t from
s o m e d u t i e s o n p art ic u la r g rou n d s o f p o licy ,
an d

from o t h ers b e cau s e t he y are n o t cap abl e o f t h e

O ffic e or s t a t i o n t o w hich t h o s e d u t i es a re a n n e x e d .

H ere aft er w e s hall fin d it c o n v e n i e n t t o u s e t h e

t e rm ci t iz e n a s i n cl u din g all s ubj e c t s u nl es s
t h e s t ric t er m e an i n g is i n dic a t e d.

We a s c rib e d ut y t o any o n e w h o is b o u n d by a
ru l e E v e ry s u ch p ers o n s d u t y is t o c o n form t o t h e
’
.

ru l e . I f t h e rul e is o n e w hich c o urt s o f j u st ic e

ad m i ni s t er t h e d ut y is a l egal o n e Su ch d u t i e s
,
.

al o ne b e i n g wi t hi n ou r p res e n t s c o p e it will b e
,

u n d e rs t o o d t ha t o t h e rs are n o t i n cl u d e d in t h e t e rm

un l e s s it is e xp res s ly q u alifi e d : s i m ila rly o f righ t s .

Du t y may b e ac t iv e o r p o s i t iv e —t hat is t h e ru l e
,

m ay re q u i re a p e rs o n b o un d by it t o d o s o m e t hin g
in t h e w ay e it h e r o f so m e d e fi n i t e ac t i o n o r o f a
c on t in ue d c ou rse o f ac t i on A paren t is b ou n d t o
.

m ai nt ai n h is child re n a d e b t o r t o pay h is d e b t a t t h e
,

p ro p er t i m e o r w h e n d e ma n d e d Or it may b e a
,
.
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUD EN CE C HA P .

i
s on of law ,
can n o t re ally b e c omp elle d t o
but h e
ac t . Wh e re t h e p erfo rm an c e c o n s i s t s in t h e pay

m e n t o f m o n e y w hich t h e part y b o un d h as s u ffi ci e n t

m e an s t o pay o r in t h e d eliv ery o f s p e cific p ro p ert y
,

w hich is in h is p o s s es s i o n it m ay b e wi t hi n t h e
,

p o w er o f t h e law t o d o what h e o ugh t t o hav e d o n e

—t ha t is t o t ak e fro m t h e d e b t or s p ro p ert y t h e
,
’

am ou nt d u e a n d t o pay it t o t h e c re dit o r or t o p ut ,

a p urcha s er in p o s s e ssi o n o f t h e p ro p ert y t o w hich

h e is e n t i t l e d o r o t h e rw i se a s t h e ca se may b e
,
.

Ho w far t hi s c an b e d on e in an y part icu la r sys t em

o f law d e p en d s n o t o n ly o n w ha t is phy s ically
p o ss ible b u t o n t h e au t h o ri se d m et h o d s o f p ro c e d ure
,

an d e x e c u t i o n Si m ilarly t h e re m ay b e p o w er ( an d
.

t h ere is n o w in E n gla n d ) t o app o i n t s om e o n e t o d o

an y fo rmal ac t which o ugh t t o b e d on e by t h e

part y an d which h e re fus e s t o d o B ut a p erform
,
.

an c e re quiri n g p e rs o n al s kill s u ch a s t h e s in gin g o f

,

a part in an o p e ra o r t h e pai nt i n g o f a pict ure

, ,

O bvi o u sly ca nn o t b e c o m p e ll e d by a n y n o rm al h u m a n

p o w er A gain t h e o b servan c e o f a n egat ive d u t y

.

can n ot b e c ome i m p oss ibl e e xc ep t by a n ac t u al

b re ach w hich m ay o r m ay n o t ren d er su b se qu en t
,

o b s e rva n c e i m p o s s ibl e acc o rdi n g t o t h e n a t u re o f t h e

fac t s : b ut t h e p o s s ibilit y o f an ac t iv e d ut y b e in g
p erform e d is s u bj e c t t o m a n y accide nt s which m ore ,
 T HE S U B JE CT M AT TER
-
OF LAW

o v er m ay b e b ey o n d t h e part ie s c o n t rol I f a m an
’
.

h a s p ro mi s e d t o pay a t h o u s an d p ou n d s s ix m o n t h s
h e n c e a n d h as l o s t all h is prop ert y Wi t h or w i t h o u t
, ,

h is o w n fa ul t b e fore t h e day c o m es it is plai n t hat

, ,

h is c re di t o r can n o t b e paid . E a: n ihil o n ih il fit .

Agai n t h e p erform an c e o f any dut y t hat i n volv e s

,

p ers on al skill or at t en ti on m ay b e fru s t rat e d by

ill n es s o r o t h er m i s adv e n t ure di s ablin g t h e part y .

Th e se m a t t ers h o w e v er b e l o n g t o t h e m achi n e ry o f
, ,

l a w an d t h e adj u s t me n t o f re m e di e s ra t h e r t h a n t o

t h e el e m en t a ry s ub s t a n c e o f d u t i es a n d righ t s .

R igh t is t h e c o rre lat iv e Of d u t y AS d ut y is a Righ t

.

i d t n e er
b urd e n i m p o s e d by l aw s o righ t is fre e d om a llo w e d m i t
, n a e as

f d m ree o
or p o w e r c o n fe rre d by l a w . E v ery righ t i mpli e s d t or e er
,

mi t n a e as
d ut y s o m ew h ere : b u t it mu st b e n ot e d t hat w e cl im a or

p w o er.
s p e ak o f righ t s o m e t i m e s in a d et erm i n at e an d
s om e t i m e s in an i n d e t erm i n a t e s en s e F or it is.

c o mmo nly s aid t hat a m an h a s a righ t t o b e free

from a s s au l t an d u n w arran t e d i mp ri s o n m en t t o d e al ,

w i t h t hi n g s b el o n gi n g t o hi m ( w i t hi n c ert ain li m i t s )

a s h e w ill ,
an d s o fort h : a n d w ha t e v e r t e n d s t o

a b ridg e l e gal fre e d o m o r i n t e rfe re w i t h it s e x e rci s e is

s aid t o d i mi n i s h a m a n s righ t s o r t o b e a n i n va s i o n
’

o f t h em . T h es e righ t s hav e n o t a n s w eri n g t o t h e m

an y pa rt ic u lar d et erm i n at e d u t y o f t hi s o r t h at
c i t iz e n n e v e rt h e l e s s t h e y are m ore t han ba re lib e rt y
 FI RST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

or p o w er Th e fac t t hat I c a n d o a s I pl e as e u n t il
.

s o m e s u p e ri o r fo rc e o r i rre m o vabl e o b s t acl e hi n d e rs

m e is a m erely n at ural fa c t a nd l aw h as n o t hi n g t o
,

s a y t o it . So far a s ac t ual p o w e r o r fre e d o m fro m

re s t rai n t in d o i n g t hi s o r t ha t a c t is c o n c e rn e d
( s ay ,

t aki n g fish in a p art ic ul ar m o n t h or t rav e ll i n g t o

,

Lo n d o n t o giv e e vid e n c e b e fore a R o yal C o mm i s s i o n ) ,

it is all o n e w h e t h e r t h e re is n o l a w b e ari n g o n t h e

m a t t e r o r a l aw w hich di s all o w s t h e a c t if d o n e in
,

s o m e o t h er w a y o r at s om e o t h er t i m e b u t all o w s,

it n o w a n d t h u s or a l aw w hich e n c o urag es it a s
, ,

by au t h o ri si n g p a ym en t o f a w i t n es s s t rav ellin g
’

e xp e n s e s .T h e ac t m ay b e righ t in t h e p o p ula r

a n d ru di m e n t ary s e n s e o f n o t b e i n g forbidd e n b u t ,

fre e d om h as n o t t h e charac t e r o f l egal righ t u n t il w e

c o n sid er t h e ri s k o f u n au t h o ri se d i n t erfe re n c e It is
.

t h e d u t y o f all o f u s n o t t o i n t erfe re w i t h o u r n e igh

b our s law ful fre e d o m T hi s b ri n gs t h e so call e d

’
.
-

p ri m i t iv e righ t s i n t o t h e s ph ere o f l eg al rul e a n d

p ro t e c t i on So met i m e s it is t h o u gh t t hat la w fu l
.

p o w e r or lib ert y is di ffere n t from t h e righ t n o t t o

b e i n t erfe re d w i t h ; b u t fo r t h e re a s o n j u s t giv en
t hi s o pi n i o n t h o u gh pla u s ibl e d oe s n ot s e e m c orre c t
, , .

T h ere i s m ore t h an t hi s w h e n an y s u bj e c t w ro n gfully

m e ddl es wi t h a n o t h er s p e rs o n or p ro p ert y ; h e fort h

’

w i t h i n c urs t h e s p e cific d u t y o f m aki n g j us t c o m

 T HE S U B JE CT M A TT ER
-
O F LAW

p e n s at io n ,
and h er a cqu i res t h e s p e cific righ t
the ot

o f c a lli n g for t h e s a me Th is right is n o t m e re ly

.

free d o m b ut a d e fi n i t e cl aim t h e p o w er o f g et t i n g
, ,

o n e s d ue by p ro c e s s o f l a w : it is w ha t o u r l a w c a ll s
’

a righ t o f ac t i o n O n t h e o t h er Sid e t h e d u t y is n o
.

l o n ger g en eral b ut h a s regard t o a d e te rm i n at e clai m

,

o f s om e o n e i n t ere s t e d in it s p erform a n c e ; it l os e s in

e x t e n s i on b u t gai n s in i n t e n s i o n T h e re is n o t o n ly
.

a righ t b ut a clai m n ot o n ly d ut y b ut li abili t y

, .

G en e rall y t h e p o w er o f e n forci n g a rul e of l aw

b el o ng s t o t h o s e for w h os e s ak e it e xi s t s a n d a s ,

a g a i n s t w h o m it h a s b ee n b ro k e n B u t t h e p o w er
.

a n d t h e b e n e fi t n e e d n o t b e c o e x t e n s iv e -
In m a n y .

b ra n ch es o f l aw t h e St at e t h ro ugh it s p u blic Offic ers

, ,

a ss u m e s t h e p o w e r o f s e t t i n g t h e l a w in m o t i o n ,

s o me t i m e s e xcl u s iv e ly s o me t i me s c o n c u rre n t ly w i t h
,

t h e p e rs o n agg ri e v e d : s o m e t i m es a n y ci t iz e n w hat

e v e r is a u t h o ri s e d t o t ak e p ro c ee di n g s o f h is o w n

mo t io n . It w o uld n o t b e c orre c t h o w e v e r t o s ay , ,

t ha t righ t is m ore e x t en s iv e t ha n d u t y in s u ch ca ses :

ra t h er t h e s a m e fac t s ma y p ro d u c e s e v e ral d u t i es o r

liabilit ie s T h e re s e e ms t o b e n o valid rea son

.

a gai n s t as cribi n g right s t o t h e St at e in all ca ses

w h e re it s o ffic e rs are e nj o i n e d o r au t h o ri s e d t o t a k e

s t ep s for ca u s i n g t h e l aw t o b e o b s erv e d a n d b re ak e rs
,

o f t h e l a w t o b e p un i s h e d .
 FIRST B OO K O F J UR ISP R U D ENCE

I f thi s la s t at emen t is acc e pte d t h ere will b e n o

st ,

o cca s i o n t o s ay as is o ft e n s aid t ha t t h e re are d u t i es

, ,

wi t h o u t an y c orrela t iv e righ t s D o ub t l es s t h ere are

.

d ut i es w it h ou t any d et ermi n at e righ t s c orres p on di n g

t o t h em i n d ee d t hi s is t h e ca se in an y V i e w wi t h
, , ,

t h e n e ga t iv e d ut i e s which w e o w e t o t h e c omm u n i t y

a t larg e F or my d u t y n o t t o da m ag e o t h e r p eo pl e s
’
.

go o d s fo r e xa mpl e is o n e d u t y n o t m illio n s O f
, , ,

s e pa ra t e d u t i es o w e d t o e v ery o n e w h o h as a n y t hi n g

t o b e da m ag e d o r in res p e c t o f e v e ry s e pa ra t e cha t t e l
,

o f a n y val u e P o s i t ive d ut i e s Of a pu blic ki nd su ch

.
,

as t h e d u t y o f p a yi n g t a x e s o r s e rvi n g o n a j ury o r
, ,

a idi n g t o k e e p t h e p e ac e w h e n call e d o n by an
‘
o fl ice r o f j u s t ic e a re in t h e s a me pligh t
, So are .

d u t ies t o w a rd s o r rat h e r in re s p e c t O f i rrat io n al

,

a n i mals in a s m u ch a s t h e y ca nn o t e x ercis e righ t s

,
1

an d s o w e re d u t i es in res p e c t o f s lav es in s y s t e m s o f

l a w w hich re c og n i s e d s lav e ry U n d er a n y o f t h e s e
.

c o n dit i o n s it s e e m s m ore re a s o n abl e a n d mo re in

acc ordan c e w it h t h e c u rre n t u s age o f s p e e ch t o say
t hat t h e righ t c o rre lat iv e t o t h e d u t y is in t h e h an d s

o f t h e St a t e t ha n t o s ay t ha t th e re is n o n e Wh e re .

1 If t h e re w ere p u rp o s e t o b e s erv e d by it t h e re w o u ld b e n o
an
y ,

m o re d iffic ul t y in e n a bl in g p ro c e e d in g s t o b e t ak e n by a l e g a l
,

fic t io n in t h e n am e o f a n a n im a l s pla in t iff o r pro s e c ut o r t h a n

,
a

t h ere w a s i n t a k in g fo rm a l c rim i n a l p ro c e e d in g s a g a i n s t a n im a l s ,

o f w h ich t h e re a re m a n y m e d ie v a l e x a m pl e s .
 T HE S U B JE CT M ATT ER
-
O F LAW

t h e St a t e ac t s in t h e man n e r o f a c re di t or a n d
fo r t h e dire c t b en e fi t o f t h e p u blic re v e n u e ; as in

c oll e ct in g t ax e s s t ill mo re w h e re i t acqu i re s a n d

, ,

d e al s w i t h s p e cific p ro p ert y in t h e w ay O f b u yi ng ,

h o ldi ng an d s e lli ng it s ee ms t hat t h e St a t e h as righ t s

, ,

i n t h e ful l est s e n se . B ut t hi s can n o t b e ad e qu a t ely

c o n s id ere d w i t h o ut re feren c e t o t h e d o c t ri n e o f l egal

p ers o n ali t y.

Wh e t h er t h e St at e c an h a v e d u t i e s h as b ee n C t h an e

St t h v
a e a e

a po i n t fru i t ful o f di s cuss i o n t h ough t h e p o i n t d t i

, u es

is p e rhap s o f n o gre at p rac t ical i m p o rt a n c e . It

is cl e a r t hat t h e p ers o n o r b o dy h o ldi ng s u p re m e
po li t ical p o w er in a c o mmon w e al t h ( a s s u mi n g
t hat t h e re is s u ch a p e rso n or b o dy ) h as o n ly

t o u se t ha t p o w e r t o b e l egally free . NO l es s
cl e ar is it by e xp eri en c e t hat w hil e claim s again s t
t h e Sta t e a re m ad e in vari ou s w ay s m o re diffic u l t

t o m ai n t ai n t ha n clai m s agai n s t p riva t e m e m b ers

o f t h e St a t e y e t i n t h e p rac t ic e o f civili s e d n a t i o n s
,

clai ms w hich are in s ub s t a n c e again st t h e St a t e

a re d e al t w i t h by c o urt s o f j u s t ic e an d l e ad if t h e
, ,

clai m is m ad e g o o d t o re d re s s b ein g g ran t e d o u t

,

o f p u blic fu n d s . B u t t hi s is c o mpat ibl e w i t h t h e

V i e w t hat t h e St a t e s u b mit s t h e s e ques t i o n s t o

it s o w n t rib u n al s o n ly as a m at t er o f g rac e an d

favo ur t h ou gh t h e grac e m ay b e s o c u s t om ary t ha t

,
 FI RST B OO K OF JURI SPRUD EN CE C HAP .

ci t iz en s lo o k o n it a s a p o litical a n d moral righ t .

An d t ha t is c e rt a in ly t h e vi ew w hich t h e fo rm s
a n d ru l e s o f o u r o w n l a w hav e e mb o di e d . M ore
ove r ,
w e s aid t ha t t h e p ri mary m a rk o f rul es o f

l a w is t o b e bi n di n g o n ci t iz e n s a s s u ch . T h e St a t e
is n o t a ci t iz e n n o r an agg re ga t i o n o f ci t iz en s ,

a n d a s y s t e m o f l a w c a n q u i t e w e ll e xi s t w i t h o u t

t h e St a t e e v e r b e i n g c o n s ide re d t o b e l e gally b o u n d

t o w a rd s a ci t iz e n . All j u ri s dic t i o n n e ve rt he l es s
, ,

a pp e ars t o hav e b e g u n in c o n s e n t ,
a n d all g o v e rn

m e n t u l t i m a t e ly res t s o n c o n s e n t ; n o t in t h e
s e n s e t ha t it w a s e v e r fo u n d e d by e xp re ss c o n

v e n t io n
,
b ut t hat n o g o v ern m e nt c an in t h e l o n g
ru n b e c a rri e d o n a gai n s t t h e di sse n t o f a n e ffe c t iv e

m aj ori t y . T h e re fore it s eem s hard t o s ay t ha t t h e

St at e c a nn o t by it s o w n c o n s e n t b e re all y s ubj e c t
t o rul e s o f l a w s o l o n g a s t hat c o n s en t is in fo rc e .

I n p rac t ic e i n divid u al ci t iz e n s may c o u n t o n t h e

s u b m i ss i o n of t h e S t a t e t o it s o wn t rib un al s

( w ha t e ver t h e e x t e n t o f it m a
y b e) n o t b e in g

arbi t ra rily re v o k e d . T h e s e c uri t y is t h e s a me in

‘

t h e la s t re s o rt t h a t w e hav e fo r t h e d ue ad mi n i s t ra
,

t i o n a n d e n forc e m e n t o f t h e o rdi n a ry l a w bi n di n g

o n s u bj e c t s . M ore o ver p e rso n s a n d b o di es rep re

,

s e n t in g t h e St at e in va ri o u s d e pa rt m e n t s o f it s

fu n c t io n s m ay we ll c o m e b e fo re t h e l aw in a
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

ma n m ay i n t h e e x erci s e of la w ful free d om

h is

c o n fer m an y righ t s o n o t h ers w hich lim i t t hat

e x erci s e in va ri o u s w ay s a n d for p eri o d s o f va r i n g
y
d ura t io n ; b u t t h e d u t i es are bi n di n g o n h im j u s t
b e ca u s e t h e righ t s are n o t in h is o w n c o n t ro l b ut
b el o ng t o t h e o t h e r part i e s Ye t it is c o n c e ivabl e
.

a n d p o ss ibl e t hat a m a n s h ou ld i n i t i a t e c o m p u l s o ry

p ro c e e di ngs agai ns t hi ms elf : as w h e n as t h e l a w ,

o f s o m e c o un t ri e s n o w all o w s a d run ka rd e n t e rs
,

o f h is free w ill a lic en s e d i n s t itu t i o n for t h e

t re a t me n t o f dip s o m a n ia a n d havi n g SO e n t e re d
, ,

it m ay la w fu lly b e d e t ai n e d for a c e rtai n t i me

,

n o t w i t h s t an di n g a n y a t t em p t e d re v o ca t i o n o f h is
c on s en t In s u ch a ca se t h e pa t i e n t is a ft er a
.

so rt h is o w n acc u s er an d j u dg e ; an d as t hi s
p o w er o f s elf re s t rai n t is c o n ferre d for h is o w n
-

b en e fi t w e c ann ot b u t all o w t hat h e e x erci s es a

,

righ t . B o t h t h e righ t a n d t h e c orresp on di ng d ut y

of s u b m it t i n g t o t h e s elf i mp o s e d res t rai n t a re
-

call e d i n t o e xi st en c e by t h e part y s o wn Op t i o n ’
.

Fro m t h e m ora l p o in t o f V i ew w e sh ould say

t ha t a m an in t hi s c o n di t i o n is re ally divid e d

agai n st hi m s e lf an d t hat t h e l aw t aki n g n o t ic e

, ,

Of t hi s ab n o rm al fac t e n abl es h im t o s t re ng t h e n
,

h is b e t t e r agai n s t h is w o rse r s e lf I n e t hic s a l l

.

d u ti e s hav e regard t o o n es elf in so me sen s e As .

 T HE S U B JE CT M A TT ER
-
O F LAW

t h ere is no c
a y ques t io n o f a n e x t ern a l
n e e ss r

t rib un al e v e n t h e mos t in fo rm al or o f e xt ern a l

, ,

ac t s or c on se qu en c e s t h ere is n o re al difficu l t y
,

“
ab o ut t his I f w e s p eak o f d ut y t o w ard s G o d
.
,

w e i n t ro d u c e a n app ro ach t o t h e l e g a l c o n c e p t i o n

o f d u t y ; t h e Su p re m e B ei n g ( or in p oly t h e i s t ic
,

re ligi o n s a s u p eri o r b e i n g d e t erm i n e d as app ro p ria t e

,

t o t h e o cca s i o n by part ic ul ar fu n c t i o n s o r a t t rib u t e s )

t ak in g t h e plac e o f a n e x t ern al h u m an la w giv er ,

o r o f t h e St at e An d in fac t it m ay b e Ob s e rv e d
.

t ha t m o ral ru l e s which b el on g e xcl us iv e ly o r

e m i n e n t ly t o d e fi n i t e religi o us s y s t e m s hav e e v er

t e n d e d t o a s s um e a form al an d l egal charac t e r .

Et hical fe eli n g ( w h ere it su rviv es t hi s tre at m e n t )

h as t o b e s a t i s fi e d a n d re in fo rc e d by c o un sel s o f

p e rfe ct i on a n d o t h er fo rms o f a spirat io n t o an

id e al b ey on d an d o u t s id e t h e rul es .

Wron g is in m o ral s t h e c on t rary o f righ t W g . ro n .

R igh t ac t i o n is t hat which m oral rul es p res c rib e

or c o mmen d wron g ac t i on is t hat w hich t h ey
,

forbid . F or l ega l p u rp os es an y t hi n g is w ro n g

whi ch is forbidd en by law ; t h ere is w ro n g d o n e

wh en e v er a legal d ut y is b rok en A w ron g may
’

b e d e s c rib e d in t h e la rg e s t s e n s e as a n y t hi n g
, ,

d on e or o m it t e d c o nt rary t o l egal d u t y c on s id e re d ,

in s o far a s it giv e s ri s e t o liabili t y H en ce t h e

.
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUD EN CE C HA P .

e xi s ten c e o f d u t y as it i n v olve s right i n v o lv es

, ,

al so t h e p ossibili t y Of w ro n g ; l ogically n o m ore

t ha n t h e p os s ibili t y t h o u gh w e k n o w t oo w e ll t ha t
,

all ru l e s are in fac t s om et i mes b rok en D ut y .

,

righ t ,
a n d w ro n g are n ot s epa ra t e or divi sibl e
h e ad s o f l egal rul es o r o f t he i r su bj e ct m at t er -
,

b u t di ffe ren t l e gal a s p e c t s o f t h e s am e ru l es an d

e v e nt s . T h e re m ay b e d u t i es an d righ t s w i t h ou t

an
y w ro n g ; t hi s happ e n s w h en e v e r l egal d uti e s
are j us t ly a n d t ru ly fu lfill e d T h e re can n o t o f
.
,

c o urs e b e a w ro n g wit h o ut a d ut y al re ady e xi s t i n g

, ,

b u t w ro n g s al s o c re a t e n e w d u t i e s a n d l i a bili t i es .

St ric t ly s p e aki n g t h e re fore t h e re c an b e n o s u ch

, ,

t hi ng as a di s t i n c t l a w o f wro n g s By t h e l a w o f
.

wron gs w e c an m e an o n ly t h e law o f d u t i e s o r ,

so m e cla s s o f d u t i e s c o n s id ere d a s e xp os e d t o in
,

fracti o n a n d t h e Sp e cial rul e s for a w ardin g re d ress

,

o r p u n i s hm e n t which c om e i n t o play w h en in frac

t i o n h a s t ak e n plac e T h e re is n ot o n e law o f
.

righ t s o r d u t i e s a n d a n o t h er l a w o f w ro n g s N e v er .

t h el es s t h ere are s o m e ki n d s o f d u ti es which are

m o re c o n spic u ou s in t h e b re ach t han i n t h e Oh

s e rva n c e Th e n a t ural e n d o f a p o si t ive d u t y is
.

p erfo rma n c e A t hi n g h as t o b e d o n e an d wh en
.
,

it is d uly d o n e t h e d u t y is as w e s ay di s charg e d ;
, ,

t h e m a n w h o w as l a w fully b o u n d is law fully fre e .

 T HE S U B JE CT MATT ER
-
OF LAW

We c o n t emp l a t e p erfo rm an c e n o t b re ach A pp o i n t

,
.

m en t s t o o ffic e s are m a d e o r o ugh t t o b e i n

, ,

t h e e xp e c t a t i o n t hat t h e p ers o n s app o i n t e d w ill

a d e qu a t e ly fu lfil t h e i r O fficial d u t i e s Wh e n I t ak e
.

a t ick et from Lo n d o n t o O xfo rd I h o p e an d e xp e c t

,

t hat t h e railway c om pa n y will c o n v e y m e s afe ly a n d

p u n c t ually t o O xfo rd Th e s am e may b e s aid o f

.

n e ga t iv e d ut i es w hich are an n e x e d t o p os i t iv e
o r hav e b e e n as s u m e d by t h e part y s o w n
’
o n es,

u n d e rt aki n g. B ut wh en w e c o me t o n egat iv e
d ut i es i m p o s e d by t h e gen eral l aw w e fin d o ur ,

a t t e n t i o n di re c t e d t o t h e e v en t o f t h e i r V i o la t io n .

F or t h e e l em e n t ary d ut i e s w e o w e t o all m en

hav e n o n a t ural e n d s h ort o f life s e n d i t s elf ’

.

An h o n es t m an is al w ay s Ob s ervi n g t h e d u t y o f
n o t s t e a li n g
,
a n d h a s n e v e r d o n e o b servi n g it s o

l o n g a s h e liv es h o n est ly Th ere is n o t hi ng t o

.

fix t h e m i n d s ey e t o o n e m o ment o f n egat iv e
’

o b s e rva n c e m ore t ha n a n o t h e r D ra m at ic i n cid en t s

.

o f re s i s t a n c e t o t e m p t a t i o n m ak e n o di ffe re n c e in

t h e l eg a l V i e w . A m an c an d o n o m ore t han
o b s e rv e t h e rul e a n d o u gh t t o d o n o l e s s w ha t e v er
, ,

t h e addit i o n al m o ral m eri t o f res i st i n g t em p t a t i o n

m ay b e . T h ere fo re it is t h e b re a ch o f s u ch d u t i es

t hat giv es u s a d e fi n e d p o i n t o f c o n c e n t ra t i o n an d ,

in p rac t ic e w e app ro ach t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e d u t y

 FIRST B OOK OF JURI SPRUD EN CE C HA P .

t h ro u gh t h e fac t o f t h e wron g d on e Agai n t h e .

,

t e rm w rong s u gg es t s n o t o n ly a righ t vi ola t e d b u t ,

s o m e o n e s righ t in t h e fu ll an d d e t e rmi n ate se n s e

’

o f t ha t w o rd t o re d re s s ; al t h o u gh w ha t is re ally
,

c o rrela t e d t o t h e i nj ure d p ers on s righ t t o re d re ss

’

is n o t t h e w ro n g i t s elf b u t t h e n ew d u t y an d
,

liabili t y a ri sin g fro m it T h u s w e hav e in E n glis h

.

u s ag e a t e n d e n cy fi rs t t o li mi t t h e w o rd w rong
,
in ,

l e gal s p e e ch t o ca ses w h ere a ge n eral d u t y is

,

b ro k en an d fu rth er t o u se it by p re fe ren c e in
, , ,

ca ses w h ere t h e e n fo rc e m en t o f t h e law re st s w i t h

t h e i nj u re d p e rs o n in t h e fi rs t i n s t a n c e or al t o ,

g et h er an d n o t wi t h t h e Offi c e rs o f t h e St at e
, .

G re a t a ut h o rs in ou r law H a l e a n d Black s t o n e ,
,

hav e Sp ok e n o f P u blic Wro n g s b ut it is m ore

“
,

us u al t o s p e ak o f c ri m e s o r o ffen c e s .

We m ay s h o rt ly s um u p t h e res ult o f t h e p re
c edin g di s c uss i o n by s ayi n g t hat t h ere is n o harm
in taki n g t h e c o n c ep t i on o f D ut y for o u r cl u e or

b as i s o f class ifica t i on in d e ali ng wit h s o me grou p s

o f l e gal ru l es t ha t o f R igh t in d e ali n g wi t h o t h ers
, ,

an d for o t h e rs agai n t ha t o f W ro n g d e t e rm i n e d by ,

re fere n c e e i t h er t o t h e d u t y di s re gard e d o r t o t h e

righ t vio lat e d Th e m at t er is es s en t ially o n e o f

.

c on v e n i e n c e On ly w e m u st remem b er t ha t in t hi s
.

w e a re n o t dividi n g t h e act u al c on t e n t s o f l egal

 T HE S U B JECT M ATT ER
-
OF LAW

l
ru e s , b ut di s t i ng ui shin g as p e c t s an d maki n g ,

s o m e t i m e s o n e an d s o me t im e s a n o t h e r p ro m i n e n t a s

it s u it s u s D u t y a n d R igh t are n o t re ally m ore

.

divi s ible in l a w t ha n ac t i o n a nd re ac t ion in

m e cha n ic s H en c e it w ou ld se e m t hat s u ch t o pic s
.

o f di s c u s s i on a s wh e t h e r a s y st e m o f l aw s h ou ld

b e a rra n ge d u n d e r h e ad s o f d u t i es o r h e ad s o f righ t s
are a t b es t o f s e c o n dary i m p o rt a n c e an d ca n n o t l e ad
,

t o c o n cl us i o n s o f a n y u n iv e rs al validi t y Th e
.

p rac t ical la w y er s i n s t i n c t is t o regard a n xi ou s

’

d w e lli n g o n t h e s e t o pic s wi t h a c ert ai n i m p at i e n c e ,

an im p at i e n c e t hat m ay b e s aid t o b ord e r o n

c o n t em p t I f h e is p re s se d for rea s on s a n d
.
,

v en t ure s t o giv e t h e m o ffha n d h is re as on s are ,

p e rhap s more lik ely t o b e b ad t ha n go o d Ye t .

re fl e c t i o n app e a rs t o Sh o w t ha t in t hi s a s in m a n y

o t h e r ca s es t h e p rac t ical i n s t i n c t is in t h e m ai n

j u s t ifie d al t h o ugh it m ay b e l on g b e fore t h e

,

j u s t ificat i on is m ad e e xplici t in a form t ha t w ill

s a t i s fy phil os o ph ers E xp eri en c e b uild s b e t t er t ha n
.

it k n o w s .

So far a s it is w ort h while t o i n dic at e a n y g e n era l

2:33?
1 e

p re fere n c e in cla s sificat io n an d o t h er t hin g s b e i n g l w

,
a .

e q u al , d ut i es app e ar t o c o me in t h e n at u ra l a n d
l o gic a l o rd er b e fo re righ t s for it is o f t h e essen c e o f
,

l aw t o a ss ign rul e s Of c o n d u c t an d a ru l e o f c on d u c t
,
 I
F R ST B OOK OF JURI SPR UDEN CE C HA P .

w hich did n o t a ffi rm s o m e ki n d o f d ut y w o uld n o t

b e a rul e . T hi s is m ore cl e arly s e en in t h e ca s e

o f m oral ru l e s N 0 o n e w ou ld t hi nk of t re at i ng
.

m o rali t y a s a s y s t em of righ t s H o w e v e r t hat m ay

.

b e t h ere is m o re tha n d ut i e s an d Tigh t s t o b e t ak en

,

i n t o acc o un t b e fore w e hav e c o v ere d t h e s u bj ec t

m at t er o f j uri sp ru d e n c e : an d t hi s is t o s u ch an
e x t e n t that w e s h o u ld s t ill b e l e ft v ei f ar from a
y
c o mpl et e s ys t em o f law if w e w ere fu rn i sh e d wi t h an
e xhau s t iv e li s t o f al l t h e l e gal ru l e s which c an b e

s aid in a n n at u al t d cla d t i s or a ffi rm
y r se n s e o e re u e

righ t s . D u t i es an d righ t s are m e re d i sj o i n t e d part s

o f a n o rga n i s m s o t o s p e ak u n t il w e k n o w h o w t h e y
, ,

are c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e ac t s a n d e v e n ts o f h u m a n

l ife . Th e y are a t t ach e d t o c ert ai n p ers o n s ; t h e y

hav e t h e i r m o d es o f b e gin n i n g an d o f c o n t i n u an c e
a s sig n e d by ru l e s O f l aw an d t h ere are o t h er rul e s
,

acc o rdi n g t o which t h e y c e a s e A m ere d et ach e d.

k n o w l e dg e o f t h e c o n t en t s o f l egal rul e s w o uld b e

O f li t t l e u s e w i t h ou t k n o w i n g t h e c o n di t i o n s w hi c h

d e t e rm in e t h eir applicat i o n In o rd er t o hav e any

.

re al w o rki n g acq u ai nt an c e wi t h a s y s t e m o f law w e

mu s t i n qu ire no t o n ly w ha t d u t i es an d righ t s are

,

re c o g n i s e d
,
b ut h o w righ t s are acq u i re d a n d l o s t ;
w hat righ t s are capabl e O f t ra n s fe r a n d h o w ; by ,

w h at ac t s a n d e v e n t s d ut i e s are i m p o se d ; h o w far
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

i n t erest s in p ro p ert y are tra n s ferre d I t is O ft e n .

mu ch e as i er t o k no w w hat are t h e o w n er s righ t s

’

w h o e v e r h e m ay b e t han t o k n o w w h o t h e o w n er is
,
.

Agai n e very m an is b o u n d t o p ay h is d e b t s an d
, ,

t hi s vi e w e d fro m t h e o t h e r s id e is t h e c re di t or s
’

, ,

righ t t o b e paid B ut what is t o happ e n if t h e

.

d eb t o r di es or t h e c re dit o r ? What b e c o mes o f t h e

,

d ut y an d t h e c l ai m ? I n t h e lit erat u re o f E n glis h

l a w t h e e xp os i t i on o f t hi s a n d o t h e r i n cid e n t al

m a t t ers fi ll s t w o la rg e b u t by n o m ean s di ffus e

“
v o l u mes w ell k n o w n t o law y ers as Willia ms o n
,

E x e cu t o rs Wi t h o ut a b o dy o f rul es to det ermin e t i t l e

.
”

a n d s u cc e ss i o n t h e law o f p ro p ert y w o u ld b e in t h e

a ir. E sp e cially d o es t hi s h old in t hat m o s t i m p ort

a n t an d diffic u l t pa rt o f t h e l aw o f p ro p e rt y which

d e al s w i t h P o sses s io n In al mo s t e v ery bran ch o f t h e

.

law P o ssessi o n may hav e far reachi n g a n d d e ci s iv e

-

c o n s e qu en ce s T h e legal ide a o f P osse ssi on t h ou gh

.
,

ba se d o n el em en t ary fact s o f h uman n a t ure an d

s o ci e t y ( o r rat h e r p erhap s ,
b e cau s e so bas e d) is
, ,

a mon g t h e high e s t an d hard e s t w e have t o grappl e

w it h .B ut t h e p ractical c o n s e qu e n c es in a giv e n

s y s t e m o f law d e p e n d la rg e ly o n t h e rul e s t ha t

d et erm i n e h o w p oss ess i on is acqu ire d t ra ns ferre d , ,

an d l os t U l t i ma t e ly ru l e s o f t hi s kin d e n abl e u s t o
.

fix t h e d u t ie s an d righ t s o f parti es in t h e part ic ular

 T HE S U BJECT M ATT ER
-
OF LAW

cas e s T h ey e xi s t fo r t h e s ak e o f a s c e rt ai n i n g right s
.

a n d d u t i es . B ut t h e y d o n o t in t h e fi rs t i n s t a n c e
, ,

affirm a ny s p e cific righ t o r d u t y We m ay c o n .

“ ”
v e n ie n t l y c a ll t h e m d e t e rmi n i n g rul es w h e n w e
d e s i re t o s p e a k o f t h e m by a c om p en di ou s n am e .

F urt h er ru l e s o f l aw are rul e s in an d fo r a livin g R l f

,
u es o

e vid c
en e

c o m mo n w e al t h a c t ive an d o p e rat iv e p rec e p t s n o t d p

, ,
an ro

ce d ure
I n P ro fe s s o r
.

m ere ly c o n t e m pl at iv e p ro p o s i t i o n s .

H o lla n d s h a ppy ph ras e l a w h as t o d e al w i t h righ t s

’

in m o t i o n a s w e ll a s a t res t . D ut i e s hav e t o b e

e n fo rc e d a n d righ t s h a v e t o b e vi n dica t e d Be yon d

.

t hi s m o d e rn c o u rt s of j us t ic e d e v o t e m u ch o f t h e i r
,

b e st lab o u r an d sk ill t o q u ie t n o n c on t en t io u s o r n ot
-

fully c o n t en t i o u s w o rk o f w hich t h e pu blic a t large ,

w i t h it s d ra m a t ic a n d c ri mi n ali s t V i e w o f l egal p ro

c e e d ings , is al m o s t u n a w are
. . T h e ad m i n i s t ra t iv e

b us i n es s Of c ou rt s o f e qu i t y an d p ro bat e j uris dic t i o n

is o f t hi s ki n d . Su ch w ork is di re c t e d t o d efi n i n g
an d p re s ervin g t h e righ t s o f part ie s ra t h er t han
e n fo rcin g t h em In m an y cas es t h ere is n o h os t il e
.

c o n t e n t io n at all ; t h e part i e s o n ly w an t t o b e
c e rt ifie d wha t t h e i r righ t s are In t h e s e p ro c esses
.
,

a s w e ll a s in t h e c o ars e r a n d m o re c o n s pic u o u s o n es

o f li t ig a t i o n b e t w e e n adv e rs ari e s d u t i es a n d righ t s

,

are c o n s t a n t ly m o difi e d a n d t ra n s form e d .On e d u t y

o r s et o f d u t i e s is di s cha rg e d or e x t i n g u i s h e d a n d
 FIRST B OOK O F J U R ISP R U D ENCE C HA P .

a n o t h e r a ri s e s A ft e r j udg me n t giv e n t h e d u t ie s
.

a n d cl a i m s a re n o t t h e s a m e as b e fo re T h e re is a .

n e w d ut y t ha t o f s a t i s fyi n g t h e j ud g me n t
,
An d .

h ere in t h e St a t e t h ro ugh it s j udici al a n d e x e c u t iv e

,

o ffi c e rs ,
h as i t s o w n a c t iv e a n d m ore o r l e ss in
d ep e n d e n t part a t l e a st in al l mo d e rn s y s t e m s
,
.

T h u s w e n ee d a w h o l e m a chi n e ry o f a u xil ia ry

rul e s t o g u id e t h e ci t iz e n i n s e eki n g t h e aid o f

1

c o urt s o f j us t ic e a n d t o reg ulat e t h e p o w ers a n d

,

di s c re t i o n o f t h e c o u rt i t s elf In c ri m i n a l affai rs t h e
.

n e e d is n o l e s s T h e c o m mo n w e al t h is s u p rem e a n d
.

c a n p u n i s h o ffe n d e rs b u t it mu s t p u n i s h acc o rdin g

,

t o l aw . N ay w e re qu ire s e c urit y t hat p en al l a w

,

s hall b e ab u n d a n t ly j u s t I t is b e t t e r t ha t s o m e
.

o ffe n d e rs s h o u ld g o s c o t fre e t ha n t ha t c o n d e m n a t i o n
-

a n d p un i s h m e n t s h o ul d s e e m a rbi t ra ry Wh e n we .

c on s id er a sy s t e m o f l a w fro m t h e cit iz en s p o in t of ’

V i e w rat h e r t ha n t h e law y er s a s a m a t eri a l e l e me n t

’

in t h e p o li t ical s t abili t y o f t h e c o m mo n w e alth w e ,

m ay al m o s t s ay t ha t c ert ain t y in p ro c e d ure is m ore

i mp ort a n t t ha n c ert ain t y in t h e s ub s t a n c e o f law .

We s e e t h en t h a t t h e m ere s u m o f e xi s t i ng d ut ie s
1 P c d h b j d ici lly d c ib d
ro e ure as ee n u th m d
a fpes r e as e o e o ro

c e e d ing by w h ich a l eg a l righ t is e n forc ed a s d is t in g uis h ed fro m ,

t h e l a w w h ich g i v e s o r d e fi n e s t h e righ t a n d w h ich by m ea n s o f

,

t h e p ro c e e d in g t h e Co urt i s t o a d m in is t e r—t h e m a ch in ery a s

d is t in gu is h e d fro m it s pro d u c t Lu s h L J in P oy ser V M in ors
, . .
, .

( 1 8 8 1 ) 7 Q B D iv
. . . 3 29 , 3 3 3 .
 T HE S U B JE CT M AT T ER
-
OF LAW

an d igh t s is n o t t h e l a w n o r e v en a s ep arabl e o r S b t
r u s a
,
t iv ti e an

w orki n g p ort i o n o f t h e l a w I t is b u t o n e e l e m e n t
figf
. ti ,
c ve

t h e p o s i t iv e o r s t a t ic e l e m e n t a s o n e m igh t call it .

I n o rd er t o b uild u p t h e o rg an ic life o f law w e hav e

n e e d o f t h e g e n e tic e l e me n t t h e p rin cipl e s w hich

,

d et ermin e t h e p os i t iv e rul e s in t h eir c o n cre te applica

t i o n t o p e rs o n s ac t s a n d e v en t s ; an d o f t h e dy n a mic
, ,

e l em e n t t h e ru l e s w h ere by l e gal c o n s e qu e n c es are

,

m a d e m an ifes t a n d w o rk e d o u t P os i t iv e rules of
.

l a w te ll u s w ha t is j u s t ; d et e rm in i n g rule s ( w hich
w e m igh t al s o call t h e l a w o f T i t l e u s i n g t ha t w ord ,

in t h e larg es t se n s e) p o i n t o ut w ha t is t h e j us t ic e o f

t h e cas e in ha n d ; t h e ru l e s o f p ro c e d ure S h o w u s

h o w j u s tic e is t o b e d o n e .

What w e have Sp o k en o f as t h e p os i t ive l a w o f

d ut ie s a nd righ t s is c o mmo n ly call e d Sub s t a n t iv e
“ ”
La w . T h e l a w o f d e t e rmin i n g rul es which h as ,

n o t in E n gli s h a n
y te ch n ical o r g en e rally acc ep t e d
n a me ,
is u s u ally an d c o n v e n i e n t ly t re a t e d as
au xili ary t o t h e s ub s t a nt ive law an d a t t ach e d for , ,

p u rp o s es o f e xp o s i t i on an d re feren c e t o it s vari ou s ,

h e ad s T h us t h e La w o f Ven d ors a n d P urchas ers

.

( t ha t i s O,
f la n d a n d in t eres t s in la n d a s t h e t e rm is ,

al w ays u n ders t o o d a m on g En glis h s p e aki n g l a wy ers)

-
1

1
It w o u ld b e n a t ura l gh fo r a c o n t in en t a l j uris t l e ft t o
e no u

h im s e lf in a n E n gl is h l a w li b ra ry t o t urn t o a t rea t is e o n V e n d o rs
and P urch as ers in t h e e xpe c t a t io n o f fin d in g s o m et h in g a b o u t
 FIR ST B O O K OF JURI SP RUDEN C E C HA P II I
.

is d e al t w t ih as a b ran ch of the l aw of R e al
P ro p ert y .

F or q u ally g o o d re a so n s o f c on ve n i e n c e P ro
e

c e d ure is d e al t w i t h a s a t o pic a p art C o d es o f civil

.

a n d c ri m i n al p ro c e d u re a re in forc e i n t h e maj o ri t y

o f civili s e d c ou n t ri e s i n cl udi n g B ri t i s h I n dia

,
H ere .

in E ngla n d w e hav e t h e s u b s t a n c e o f a c o d e o f civil

p ro c e d ure t h o ugh n o t t h e n am e in t h e R ul es o f
, ,

t h e Sup re m e C o urt Pro c e d ure c o n sidere d in it s

.
,

re la t i o n t o s u b s t a n t iv e l aw h a s b e e n c o n v e n i en t ly
,

c all e d A dj e ctive La w by m o d ern w ri t ers .

th e l
sa e g o o d s o r t o a t re a t is e o n t h e Co n t ra c t o f Sa l e fo r
Of ,

i n fo rm at io n a b o u t t h e t ra n s fe r o f l a n d in E n gl is h s p ea k in g -

c o u n t ries In e it h er c a s e h e w o uld b e s ig n ally d is a pp o in t ed

. .

T h e re a so n s o f t h is a re h is t o ric a l a n d fro m t h e ph i l o s o ph ic p o in t
,

o f v i e w a cc id e n t a l
,
.
 C H A P T E R IV

D IVI SI ONS OF LAW

IT is not p oss ibl e t o m ak e an y cl ea r—c u t d ivi s i o n o f D iv i i

s on s

fl g l
o e a
t h e s u bj e c t ma t t er o f l egal rul es
-
Th e s a m e fac t s l ifi
. c as s ca

are o ft e n t h e s u bj e c t o f t w o o r m o re di s t i n c t ru l es
, n ot

an d giv e ri s e a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o di s t i n c t a n d
differen t s e t s o f d ut i es an d righ t s T h e divi s io n s
.

o f l aw as w e a re in t h e h a bi t o f ellip t ically n a m i n g
,

t h e m are in t ru t h divis i o n s n ot o f fac t s b u t o f

,

rul e s ; o r if w e lik e t o s ay s o o f t h e l e gal a s p e c t s

, ,

o f fac t s Le g al ru l es are t h e la w y e r s m e a s ures fo r

’
.

re d u ci n g t h e w o rld o f h u ma n ac t i o n t o m a n a g e a bl e

i t e ms a n d s i ngli n g o u t w ha t h as t o b e d eal t w i t h
,

fo r t h e t i m e b e in g in t h e s a me w ay as n u mb er an d
,

n u m e rical s t a n da rd s e n abl e u s t o re d u c e t h e c o n

t in uo u s a n d e v e r ch a ngi n g w o rld o f m a t t e r an d

m o t i o n t o p ort i on s w hich c an b e c o n s id ere d apart .

T h u s rul e s o f l a w c an n o m ore giv e u s a c l as s ific a

t i o n O f h u m a n ac t s or affa i rs t h an t h e ru l e s o f
81 G
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SP RUDEN CE C HA P .

a ri t h m et ic c an giv e u s a cla s s ifica t i on o f n u merabl e

t hi n g s . In s ch o la s t ic t e rm s t h e divi s i o n s o f l a w
,

a re n o t m a t erial b u t fo rm a l Prac t i s i n g lawy e rs d o

.

n o t c o n c e rn t h em s e lv es m u ch w i t h divi s i o n s o f a

high o rd e r o f g e n era li t y T h ey hav e t o t hi n k in

.
,

t h e fi rs t plac e o f s p e e dy an d c o n v e n i e n t re fere n c e
, ,

an d t h e w o rki n g arra n g em en t s of p rofess io n al

l it erat ure are m ad e acc ordi n gly SO t h e t yp e s in a
.

p ri n t i n g O ffi c e are arran ge d n o t in o rd er t o ill u s t ra t e

t h e relati o n s o f s p o k en s o u n d s o r t h e hi s t o ry o f t h e

a lphab e t b u t s o t h a t t h e c o m p os i t o r m ay l a y h is
,

han d m o s t re adily o n t h e l et t e rs w hich a re O ft en es t

w an t e d . A mbi t i ou s w ri t ers have s o me t i m e s g o n e
t o w ork a s if i t w e re p o ss ibl e t o re d u c e t h e w h o l e

c o n t e n t s o f a l egal sy s t e m t o a s o rt o f cla ss ifi e d
c at alo g u e w h ere t h ere w ou ld b e n o re p e t it i o n s o r
c ro ss re fere n c e s an d t h e cl as s ificat i on w ou ld e xpl ai n
,

i t s e l f A mbi t i on o n t hat s cal e is d est i n e d t o d is

.

app o i n t men t by t h e n a t u re O f t hi n gs .

So m e g e n eral divi s io n s in t h e s ci e n c e o f l a w
h a v e b ee n m ad e cl ass ical by t h e m e t h o d a d op t e d in
t h e I n s t i t u t e s o f J u s t i n ia n an d by t h e s ub s e qu e n t
,

d e v e l o p m e nt giv en t o t h e R om an id e a s by c om
m e n t at ors a n d mo d ern j uri s t s O n e s u ch divi s i o n
.
,

w hi c h h a s b ee n m ad e e xplici t ly p rom i n en t o n ly in

re c e n t t i me s i s n o w c o mm o n ly m a rk e d by t h e t e rm s
,
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

e xi s t i ng b e t w e e n t h e m a n d b e t w e en t h em o nly .

T hi s d e fi n i t e re la t i o n o f clai m a n d d u t y w as call e d

a n obl ig a t i on by t h e R o m a n la w y e rs a n d is s t ill s o ,

c all e d e v ery w h e re s av e t hat in E ngli s h s p e aki n g

,
-

c o u n t ri e s a n u n fo rt un at e habi t h as ari s en o f u s i n g
“ ”
O bliga t i o n in a lax m a n n er a s c o e x t e n s iv e w i t h -

d ut ie s O f e v e ry ki n d NOW l e t Pe t e r pay J o h n t h e
1
.

p u rchase m o n e y an d J o h n d o all p ro p er a c t s for

,

c om pl e t i n g t h e s al e Su pp os e t o s i m plify t h e
.
,

ill u s t rat i o n t ha t J o h n h as re c eiv e d t h e m o n e y in

,

c o i n a n d P e t er h as e n t ere d in t o t h e h o us e an d
,

o cc u pi es it . P e t er is o w n er O f t h e h o u s e and J oh n ,

a n d a l l o t h e r p e rs o n s are u n d e r t h e d u t y o f re s p e c t

ing h is righ t s a s o w n er t ha t is o f ab s t ai n i n g fro m

, ,

t re s p as s a n d t h e lik e T h e m o n e y is J o h n s a n d
’
.
,

P et e r an d all o t h er p ers o n s m us t res p e c t J o h n s o w n e r ’

s hip o f t h e m o n e y by n o t s t e ali n g it o r o t h e rw i s e

m e ddli ng w i t h it in a n y u n au t h o ri se d w ay Th es e .

righ t s hav e n o d et ermi n at e c orre s p on di n g d ut i es ,

o n ly t h e g en e ral d ut y o f all m en n o t t o t re s pa s s ,

s t e al a nd
,
s o fort h T hat d u ty in t urn is n o t
.

c orrelat e d t o P e ter s or Jo h n s righ t s m ore t ha n t o

’ ’

1
In En gl is h l a w t h e w o rd fo rm e rly h ad a m u ch m o re re s t ric t e d
k
m e a n in g , n am e ly t h e s p ec ia l i n d o f c o n t ra c t a l s o c all e d a b o n d .

E
B u t t h e n gl is h n a m e o nd bis n o w a l w a y s o r a l m o s t a l w a y s
u s e d fo r t h is , a n d i t is c o n v e n ie n t t o re s t ore o bl ig a t io n t o it s
R o ma n s e n s e, fo r w h ich t h e re is no s y n o ny m .
 DIVI SI ON S O F LAW

t h ose o f any o t h e r o w n e r D om in iu m is t h e R o man

.

t erm fo r t h e righ t s o f an o w n e r aga i n s t all t h e

w o rld : a n d t h e c o n t ra s t o f d o mi n i u m a n d o bl ig a t io

is t h e n e a res t app ro ach t hat c an b e ma d e in ,

cl ass ical R o ma n lan gu age t o t h e d is t i n c t i on m a rk e d

,

by t h e m o d ern t erm s i n rem a n d i n p erson a m .

Le t u s n o w t a k e a fu rt h er s t e p R o b e rt a .
,

s t ra n g e r w a n t o n ly o r o u t o f s pi t e b re a k s a w i n d o w
,
g
d o in .

i n P e t e r s h o u se He h as dis re ga rd e d t h e ge n eral
’
.

d u t y o f re sp e c t i n g o t h er m e n s p ro p ert y a n d h e
’

i n c u rs a n e w d u t y t h at o f m aki n g c o m p e n s a t io n t o
,

Pe t e r It may b e t h at h e is al s o li a bl e t o fin e o r
.

i mp ri s o nme n t fo r t h e dis t urban c e o f p u blic o rd er

i n v olv e d in h is w ron gful act b u t t ha t is a dis t i n c t
,

a n d diffe re n t m a t t er O n t h e o t h er s id e P e t e r h as
.
,

a p e rs o n al an d d e t e rmi n e d righ t agai n s t R o b e rt A .

l e gal b on d o f liabili t y a nd clai m h as b ee n c rea t ed ;

t ha t is t o sa y t h e re is a n o bl iga t i o n
,
I f P e t er .

c o mes o u t o f t h e h o use at t h e m o m en t w h en R o b ert

b re aks t h e w i n d o w l os es h is t e mp er an d k n o ck s
, ,

d ow n R o b ert h e h as in t urn b rok e n in R o b ert s

,
’

p ers on t h e g en eral du t y o f n ot a s sau l t i n g o ne s ’

fell o w s u bj e c t s : for t h e righ t o f ac t i o n h e h a s

-
'

acqu ire d agai n s t R o b ert is a righ t t o re d re ss by

law ful m e an s o n ly o f w hich me an s k n o cki n g d o w n
,

t h e w ro n g d o e r o n t h e S p o t is n o t o n e in t h is c a s e
-
.
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

R o b ert m ay n ot be h e ld e n t i t l e d t o m u ch c o mp e n s a
t i o n b u t h e is e n t i t l e d t o s o m e
,
H ere is y e t
.

an o t he r o bliga t i o n t h e liabilit y b ei n g o n P e t er a n d
,

t h e clai m w i t h R o b e rt a n d it re s ul t s fro m a b re ach

o f t h e m o s t g e n e ral ki n d o f d u t y a d ut y c o rres p o n d
,

“ ”
in g t o a s o call e d p ri mi t iv e righ t
-
.

P e rs o n a l O blig a t i o n d o es n o t h o w e v e r i n cl u d e t h e w h o l e
d u t ie s
ot her t h a n of d ut i e s an d righ t s in p ersona m T h ere are .

o bl igat io n s
p ers on al re lat io n s re c o g ni s e d by l a w a nd h a vi n g
.

i m p ort a n t l e gal c o ns equ en c es b u t o u t s id e t h e l egal

,

c on c ep t io n o f o bligat i on . P e t er l e t u s as s u me
, ,

lives in t h e h ou s e w it h h is w ife Jo a n an d t h e y ,

h a v e child re n P e t er a n d J o a n o w e d ut i e s t o o n e
.

a n ot h er w hich t h e y can n o t o w e t o a n y o n e el s e ;
a n d t h e s a m e m ay b e s aid ( o m i t t i n g m i n o r di s t i n o

t i o n s in t hi s plac e ) o f t h e d u t i e s e xi s t i n g b e t w een

Pe t er a n d h is childre n B u t t h e s e d u t ie s are n ot
.

re ck o ne d as o bliga t i o n s : fo r t h e y c a n n o t b e e x

p re s s e d as d e fi n i t e clai ms a n d t h e ir p erforma n c e
,

can n o t b e re d uc e d t o an y d e fi ni t e me a s u re T h e y .

a re fully di s charg e d o n ly w h e n t h e re la t i o n o u t O f

w hich t h e y a ri s e h a s c o m e t o a n e n d : in t h e ca s e

o f m a rri ag e by d e a t h o r i n s y s t e m s o f l a w w h ere
'

, ,

divo rc e is allo w e d by div o rc e

,
. In t h e c a s e O f

p aren t al rela t io n s t h e n ormal mo d e o f d et ermi n a t i o n

is t h e a t t a in m e n t o f full a g e by t h e child ( w hich ,
 FIR ST B O OK O F JURI SP RUDEN C E C HA P .

a re h a t t h e l aw m ak es t h em By t h e m ere fa c t
w .

o f b e in g a ci t iz e n o r s u bj e c t o n e i s e n t i t l e d t o a
c e rt ain m e asu re of p e rs on al s e c uri t y fre e d o m t o ,

fol l o w o n e s l a w fu l c a lli n g an d s o fort h By t h e

’

, .

fac t o f b e co m i n g a n o w n er o n e acqu ires t h e righ t s

a n d fac u l t i es o f a n o w n e r s u ch a s t h e l a w d e cla re s
,

t h em t o b e . O n e m ay ch o ose t o av ail o n e s elf o f

t h e m o r n o t b u t o n e can n o t al t er t h e m
,
I f on e .

c o uld o n e w o u ld b e abl e t o i m p os e n ew du t i es o n
,

o n e s fe ll o w ci t iz e n s wi t h o u t t h e i r c o n se n t in fac t
’
-
,

t o m ak e n e w l a w for o n e s o w n b e n e fi t B ut t hi s
’
.

w o u ld c o n t radic t t h e fun dam en t al p u rp os e o f

l a w a n d j us t ic e . I t is e xac t ly w ha t t h e y aim a t

p re v e n t in g
.

P e rs o n al d u t ies a n d righ t s o n t h e o t h er han d

, ,

m ay n ot o n ly a ri s e fro m ac t s o f t h e part i e s b u t b e ,

dire c t ly c rea t e d a n d d et ermi n e d by t h e i r will T h e .

part ies t o a n ag ree m e n t n o t o nly c on fer a n d a s su me

d ut i es by t h e ir v o lu n t ary a c t b u t by t h e s a me ac t
,

p re s c rib e w hat t h e d u t i es s hall b e .

T h e s a me rem a rk appli es t o t ra n s ac t i o n s in

v olvi n g agree men t a n d o bligat ion t h o ugh n o t ,

u s u ally i n cl u d e d u n d er t h e n a m e o f c o n t rac t s u ch ,

as t h e c re at i o n o f t rus t s in E n gli s h l a w Th e .

part ie s c a n m ak e a l a w for t h e ms elv es j u st b e cau se

t h e i r di s p os i t i o n s a re p e rs o n al t o t h e ms e lv es a n d d o ,
 DIVI SI ON S O F LAW

n ot i mp o se o r affe c t t o i mp o s e a ny n ew d u t ies o n
t h e i r fe ll ow s u bj e c t s a t larg e
-
.

P e rs o n al d u t i e s are al so p fe sc rib ed by rul es o f

l a w a n d a t t a c h e d t o a c t s or re l a t i o n s o f pa rt i es .

So me t i me s t h e y are c o n t e mplat e d by t h e part i es ,

t h o ugh n o t w i t hi n t h e i r c o n t ro l a n d s o m et i m es n o t
,
.

T h u s i n t h e c a se o f m arri a g e an d o t h er fa mily

re la t io n s t h e l e gal c o n s e qu e n c e s a re c on t e mplat e d
a nd acc e pt e d b u t can n o t b e fram e d or vari e d a t
,

t h e w ill o f t h e pa rt i e s lik e t h e d u t i e s c re a t e d by a

c o mmercial c o n t ra c t 1
In m an y ca ses w h e re d u t i e s
.

re s e mbli n g t h o se c re a t e d by c o n t rac t are i mp o s e d

by l aw ( w h e re in R o man t erm s t h ere is o bligat i on

qua si ea: co n t ra c t n ) t h e y are s u ch a s it is c o n s id e re d
/

t ha t a j us t m an o n b e i n g fully i n fo rme d o f t h e
,

fa ct s w o uld in t h e ci rc u ms t a n c es w illi n gly a s s um e

,
.

Th e m os t fa m ili ar e xampl e in t hi s ki n d is t h e d u t y

o f re t u rn i n g a pay me n t ma d e by mi s t ak e Wh e re .

o bligat i on ari se s fro m a m erely w ro n gfu l ac t t h e ,

liabil it y is o f c o urse n ot d es i re d by t h e w ron g d oer -

,

an d is c o n t e mpla t e d if a t all as an e vil ( fro m h is

, ,

p oi n t o f V i ew) t o b e en d ured o nly s o far as it

ca nn o t b e avo id ed .

1
T h is d oe s no tpply t o inc id e n t a l d is po sit io n s o f pro pert y
a

s u ch a s are m a d e by ma rria g e s e t t l e m e n t s T h e se m ay w e ll b e
.

t re a t e d a s in o u r l a w t h e y are a s m a t t e rs o f a g re e m e n t l rg e ly
, , a

w it h i n t h e c o n t ro l o f t h e p rt ie s a .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

We have n o t y e t m en t i o n e d a n o t h e r w ay in
w hich p e rs o n a l d u t i e s a n d liabili t i es aris e n am e ly ,

fro m t h e b re ach O f a n t e c e d e n t p e rs o n al d u t i e s

c rea t ed by ag re e m en t .

E v e ry s u ch bre ach o f d ut y is in s o me s e nse

w ro n gfu l ; a n d it is c o n t rary t o t h e o rigi n al i n t e n

t i o n o f t h e part i e s Agree men t s a re m ade in Orde r

.

t o b e p erfo rm e d n o t t o b e b ro k e n
,
I t is e v e n .

p o ssibl e t o re g ard t h e b re a ch o f a p ro mi s e a s a
w ro n g in t h e s t ric t e s t s e n s e a t re s p a s s o r d e c e i t
,
1
.

S t ill t h e re is a goo d d e al o f differe n c e D ut i es .

u n d e r agre e m e n t m a
y e a s ily b e b ro k e n wi t h o u t a ny
w ro n gfu l i n t en t i o n P erfo rma n c e m ay b e pre v en t e d
.

by m i s adv en t ure ( w hich is n o t al w ay s a n e xc us e

e v e n if t h e part y h e n o t in fa u l t ) o r t h e re m ay b e ,

h o n e s t a n d s e ri o us dive rs i t y o f Opin i on a s t o what

is re ally d u e T h e n al t h ou gh part i e s d o n o t d e s i re
.
,

t h e i r ag reem en t s t o b e b ro k e n it w o uld b e i n c o rre c t

,

t o s a y t h at t h e y n e v e r c o n t e m pla t e d it ; fo r t h e y

o ft e n m ak e s p e cial p ro vi s i o n fo r s u ch a n e v e n t a n d ,

e ve n fix b e fore han d t h e a mou n t o r s c a l e Of t h e

c o mp en s a t io n t o b e paid Th u s it app e a rs t ha t t h e
.

d u t y o f c o mp e ns at i o n in c a s e o f n o n p e rform an c e is -

fa irly regard e d a s i n cid en t an d s u ppl em e n t ary t o

t h e p ri m a ry d u t y o f p e rform a n c e In p ra c t ic e an d
.

1
T h is i s fully e x em pl ifi e d in t h e h is t ory of t h e C o mm o n La w .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E

b e i ng in re m or in p ers on a m . B ut it s h ou ld b e
re me m b ere d t hat in R o m an u s age ac t io n ”
i n clu d e d
”
w ha t w e n o w call a righ t o f ac t i o n a n y d e t ermin
,

a t e clai m t o s o m e fo rm o f l e gal re d re s s
“
Act ion .
”

w as d e fi n e d a s a ma n s righ t o f O b t ai n i n g by
’

p ro c es s o f law wha t is d u e t o h im n o t a s t h e ,

pro c e s s it s elf .
“
N ihil ali ud est act i o qu am ius
”
qu o d Sibi d eb et u r i u dicio p e rs e qu en d i 1
H en c e .

t h e m o d ern u s ag e is n ot s o w id e apa rt fro m t h e

R o m a n as it app e a rs a t fi rs t s igh t t o b e .

A clas sical divi s io n acc ep t e d by al mo st all

s y s t e m a t ic w rit ers is t ha t o f P u blic a n d P riva t e

Law . NO ru l e o f l aw c an b e s aid in t h e la s t ,

reso rt t o e xi s t m e re ly for t h e b e n e fi t o f t h e St a t e o r
,

m erely fo r t h e b en e fi t o f t h e i n divid ual

. B ut s o me .

d e part men t s o f legal rul es hav e regard in t h e fi rs t in

s t a n c e t o t h e p ro t e c t i o n an d i n t eres t s o f t h e c o mm o n

w e a l t h o t h e rs t o t h o s e o f it s i n divid u al m e mb e rs
,
.

In t h e fo rm er ca se t h e p u blic i nt e res t is im

m e dia t e ; it c an b e di re c t ly rep re sen t e d by t h e

p ro p er O ffic ers o f t h e St at e an d vi n dic at e d by ,

t h e m in t h e n am e o f t h e St at e o r o f it s t i t u la r ,

h e ad : in t h e la t t e r t h e i n t ere s t o f t h e in divid u al s
w h o s e righ t s are a ffe ct e d c om e s i n t h e fi rs t li n e ;

it is p ro t e c t e d by t h e l a w b u t t h e pa rt i e s i n t ere s t e d
,

1
C e l s us , D . 4 4, 7 , d e O b l . e t ac t . 51 .
 DIVI SI ON S O F LAW

a re le ft to s et t h e l a w in m o t i o n . R ul e s
p riv a t e
of

l a w m ay b e s a id t o h a v e rem ai n e d in a s t a ge w h e re
all ru le s o f law p ro bably w e re in re mo t e t i me s :
t h at is t o s ay t h e St a t e p ro vid es j u dg m e n t a n d
,

j us t ic e b ut o n ly o n t h e re qu es t a nd ac t io n o f t h e
,

i n divid u al cit iz e n : t h o s e w h o d es ire j udgme n t mu s t

c o me a n d a s k fo r it A cc ordin gly t h e s p e ci al fi e ld
.

o f s u ch rul es is t h a t part o f h u m a n a ffa i rs in w hich

i n divid ual i n t ere s t s p re dom i n a t e a n d a re lik ely t o

,

b e a s s ert e d o n t h e w h o l e w i t h s uffi ci e n t vigo ur a n d ,

mo re o ve r n o p u blic harm is an O bvi o u s or n e c e s s ary

c o n s e qu en c e o f part i e s n o t c arin g t o a ss ert t h e i r
righ t s in p a rt ic u l ar ca s e s I n t h e l a w o f c o n t rac t
.

an d it s va ri o u s c o mme rcial d e v e l o p me n t s t h e s e

c on dit io n s a re mo s t fully s a t i s fi e d ; t h ou gh e v en
“
h ere c o n s id era t i o n s o f p ublic p o licy t o u s e t h e,

acc u s t o me d E ngli s h t erm are b y n o me an s ab s en t

, .

In t h e l aw o f fam ily re la t i on s an d o f p ro p e rt y

mo t iv es o f l e gi t i m at e p rivat e i n t eres t hav e a c o n s id er

abl e part b u t t h ey are n ot s o u n iformly Op era t iv e
,

t h a t t h e y c an b e t re at e d a s ad e qu at e ly g u a rdi n g t h e

i nt eres t of t h e c o m mo n w e al t h H en c e w e fin d t hat
.

t h e ft a n d c e rt ai n o t h e r fo rm s o f m i s app ro p ria t i on

a nd frau d an d e ve n c ert ai n ki nd s o f b re ach o f

,

c o nt rac t are p u n i s habl e a s p u blic o ffen c e s Th e

, .

g en e ral s e c uri t y o f p ro p ert y h as t o b e c o n s id e re d as

 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

we ll a s t h e cha n c e s o f re s t it u t i o n in e a ch c as e ,

w hich o ft e n are s o s l e n d e r t ha t t h e p e rs o n ro bb e d
-

o r d e fra u d e d h a s n o s u ffici e n t m o t iv e o f s e lf i n t e res t

-

fo r V i n dicat i n g t h e l aw . Wh en w e c om e t o b o dily
s a fe t y t h e p u blic i n t ere s t b a la n c es o r in s o m e ca s es
, ,

e v e n o u t w e igh s t h e p riva t e
,
. W ron g s o f v i o l en c e
a re in all C i v i li s e d l e gal s y s t e m s d e al t w i t h a s

o ffe n c e s a gai n s t t h e c o mm o n w e al t h in addi t io n t o

,

t h e righ t s t o re d re s s w hich m ay b e c o n fe rre d o n t h e

i n divid ual i nj u re d . I n c o rp o re al p ers o n al w ron g s ,

s u ch a s d e fa m a t i o n a ffo rd a ki n d o f n e u t ral g rou n d

,

w h e re t h e righ t s o f t h e St a t e a n d o f i n dividu al s

hav e ab o ut e qu ally free play in m o d e rn l a w T h e re .

fall m o re s p e cially u n d er rul es O f p u blic l aw t h e

d u t ies a n d p o w ers o f di ffe rent au t h o ri t i e s in t h e
St at e m aki n g u p w hat is u s u ally k n o w n a s t h e l a w
,

o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n ; al s o t h e s p e ci a l b o di e s o f l aw

g o v ern i n g t h e arme d forc es of t h e St at e an d t h e ,

ad mi n is t ra t i on o f it s o t h e r d e part men t s ; la w s
re g u la t i n g pa rt ic u la r t rad e s a n d u n d ert aki n g s in

t h e i n t e res t o f p u blic h e al t h or s afe t y ; a n d in

s h o rt all St a t e e n t e rp ri s e a n d all ac t iv e i n t e rferen c e

Of t h e St a t e wi t h t h e e n t e rp ri ses o f p riva t e m e n .

We s ay ac t iv e i n t e rfere n c e F o r t h e re are m an y
.

dis p osi t i o n s in part ic ular d e part m e nt s o f p riva t e

l a w which a re fo u n d e d o n re a s o n s o f p u blic p o licy ,
 FIR ST B O OK O F JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

ca n n o t b e laid d o w n b e fo rehan d : it d e p en d s o n -

t h e fo rms m e t h o d s a n d hi s t o ry o f t h e part ic u lar

, ,

s y s t e m o f l a w w hich is b e i n g ad m i n i s t ere d In o u r .

l a w t h e vi o la t i o n o f a p u blic d u t y m ay Oft en giv e

a righ t o f acti on t o a ci t iz e n w h o h as t h ere by
s u ffe re d d a m ag e b ut t hi s is by n o m e a n s a n
,

u n iv e rs al o r n e c ess ary re s u l t
1
.

It w ill b e s e e n t h e re fore t ha t t h e t o pic s o f

p ublic a n d p riva t e l aw are by n o m e a n s mu t u ally

e xcl us iv e . On t h e c o n t ra ry t h e i r applica t i o n o v e r
lap s w i t h rega rd t o a la rg e p ro p ort io n Of t h e w h o l e
m as s Of a c t s a n d e v en t s capabl e o f havi n g l e g a l
c o n s e qu en c es An in ge n iou s at t e mp t h as b e en m ad e
.

t o s i mplify t h e di s ti n c t i o n by m e a n s o f id e n t ifyi n g

p rivat e law w i t h t h e l aw o f p rop ert y t ak in g t ha t ,

t erm in it s la rg es t s e n se 2
B u t t h e c o i n cid en c e d o es
.

n o t s e e m t o b e m o re t ha n app ro xi m at e : fo r th ere are

c e rt ai nly p riva t e rights a n d d u t i e s which t h o ugh ,

di s t in c t ly re c ogn is e d by l aw an d s ubj e c t s o f j udicial

d e ci s i on are n o t capabl e o f p e cu n iary es t i mat i o n an d
,

d o n o t form pa rt o f a m a n s a sse t s o r es t at e
’
A .

gu ardian s righ t s in re s p ec t o f t h e p ers on an d

’

c us t o dy o f h is w ard w ere i n d ee d val u abl e p rop ert y

in t h e Middl e A g es b u t t h e y are n o t so n o w
,
.

1
Wa rd v . H o bbs ( 1 8 7 8 ) 4 A pp . Ca 1 3
. .

2
S o h m , I n s t i t u t es of R o ma n La w , 19 .
 DI VI SI ON S O F LAW

So m e t i mes t h e di s t i n c t i on b et w e e n pu blic a n d
p riv a t e l a w is mad e t o t urn o n t h e St at e b ein g o r
n o t b e i n g a pa rt y t o t h e ac t o r p ro c ee di ng which

is b e i n g c o n s id ere d. O n ly d e ali n g s b e t w ee n s ubj e c t

a n d s ubj e c t it is s aid
,
fo rm t h e p rovi n c e o f p riva t e
,

l aw . B ut t hi s d o es n o t s ee m qu i t e e x a c t : u n l es s

i n d ee d w e ad o p t t h e vi e w w hich h as al re ady b een

,

rej e c t e d,
t ha t t h e St at e is w h o lly ab o v e l a w a n d

l egal j us tic e an d n ei t h er d u t i e s n or righ t s c a n p ro

,

p e rly b e a s c rib e d t o it Ma ny val uabl e t hi ng s b ot h

.

i mmo vabl e an d m ov abl e are h eld a n d e mpl o y e d

for t h e p u blic s ervic e : palac e s m u se u ms p u blic , ,

o fii c e s fort ifica t i o n s Ship s o f w ar a n d s o fort h ; in

, , ,

s o m e c o u n t ri es rail w ay s m ercha n t s hippi n g a n d a l l

, ,

t h e i r va ri o u s furn i t u re an d a pp urt en an c e s Wh e th e r
.

t h e y a re h eld in t h e n am e Of t h e St at e i t s elf o r ,

o f t h e h e ad o f t h e St a t e o r o f i n divid u al o fli c ers
,

o f t h e St a t e o r p e rs o n s ac t i n g by t h ei r di re c t i o n ,

is a m a t t e r o f d et ail which m u st d e p e n d o n t h e
law s a n d us ages o f e v ery St a t e an d may b e d e t e r ,

m i ne d by highly t e ch n ical rea s o n s In su b s t an c e t h e

.

St a t e is an d m us t b e in e v ery civili se d c omm u ni t y

, ,

a g re at o w n er o f al mos t e v ery ki n d of o bj ec t N o w .

t h e righ t s a t t achi n g t o t h e St a t e in t hi s re s p e c t o r ,

t o t h e n omi n al o w n ers w h o h o ld o n t h e St at e s
’

b ehalf n e e d n o t differ from t h o s e o f an y p riva t e

,

H
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

o wn e r, and in E ngli s h s p e akin g c o u n t ri es t h e y

-
do
not . They c an be andd e al t wi t h by t h e
are

o rdi n a ry c ou rt s in t h e s a m e way a s t h e righ t s of

an
y ci t iz e n a n d acc o rdi n g t o t h e o rdi n a ry ru l es Of
,

t h e l a w o f p ro p e rt y for t h e p re s erva t i o n a n d m a n ag e

m e n t o f t h e ki n d o f p ro p ert y which may b e in

qu es t i o n A gain m an y p ers o n s hav e t o b e employ e d
.
,

a n d ag re e m e n t s t o b e m ad e w i t h t h e m ; a n d t h ese

t ra n s ac t i o n s a re j u dg ed s o far a s n e c ess a ry by t h e
, ,

o rdi n a ry ru l e s o f t h e l a w o f c o n t rac t No w t h e rul e s

.

m e n t i o n e d n o t o n ly b el o n g t o p riva t e l aw b u t are a t
it s c e n t re ; t h e y a re t h e m o st o bvi ou s e xa m pl es o f

w ha t p riva t e l a w i n cl u d e s I t w o uld b e s t ra n g e t o
.

s ay t ha t t h e y b e c o m e ru l e s O f p u blic l a w b e ca u s e t h e

p ro p ert y a n d u n d ert akin gs in q ues t i on are p ublic .

T h e t rue vi e w s ee m s t o b e t ha t t h e St a t e a s a n ,

o w n e r a n d o t h e rwi se c a n m ak e u s e o f t h e ru l es o f
,

p rivat e l aw a n d b e c o me a s it w ere a ci t iz en fo r
,

t h e n o n c e t h o ugh u l t i m a t ely fo r p ublic p urp os e s

, .

So m et i mes t h e l a w o f n a t i o n s is b ro ugh t u n d e r
t h e h e ad o f p u blic l aw t hi s is pla u s ibl e acc o rdi n g

t o t h e t e s t o f t h e St a t e b e i n g a pa rt y w hi ch h o w , ,

e v e r w e hav e n o t acc e p t e d
,
I t is e n o ugh t o s ay
.

h ere t hat t h e d ut i es o f i n d ep e n d en t St a t es t o o n e
a n o t h er , w ha t e v e r m a y b e t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r

an al ogy t o l e gal d ut i e s are no t l egal d uti e s o r t h e

,
 FI RST B OO K OF JURI S P RUDEN C E C HA P .

l e d ge o f l aw Wh at is h e re s o ugh t is m erely t o
.

m ak e a c om mo n m o d e rn t e rm i n t elligibl e .

A n ot h er cla ssical divi s io n ad o p t e d by t h e

I ns t i t ut e s o f J us t i n ian fro m G ains is t hat which
t rea t s t h e w h o l e b o d y o f l aw ( t ha t is l e g al ru l es ) ,

a s re la t i n g e i t h e r t o P e rs on s Thi n gs o r A c t i o n s,
1
, .

“
O mn e a u t e m ius q u o u t imu r v e l ad p e rso n a s

e rt in e t v el a d re s v el ad ac t i o n e s
p .

T o a c e rt ai n e x te n t t hi s divi s i o n c o i n cid e s w i t h

t h e divi s i o n al re ady n o t e d o f Su b s t a n t iv e a n d

A dj e c t ive l aw T h e l a w o f A c t i ons is t h e b o dy o f
.

rul e s d e t e rm i n i ng t h e m o d es a n d p ro c e s se s o f l e gal

re d res s ; it is e qu iva l e n t t o w hat m o d e rn w ri t e rs

call t h e l a w O f Pro c e d ure b u t wi t h s o m e addi t i o n

,

o f t h e l a w o f R e m e di e s : for as p o i n t e d o u t ab o v e
, ,
’

t h e R o m a n s h ardly di s t i n gu i sh e d t h e righ t t o a

c ert ai n ki n d o f re d res s fro m t h e pro c ess o f O b t ai ni n g

it . So far t h ere is n ot hi n g calli n g fo r fres h e x
pla n at i on ; it is t o b e re m em b e re d h o w e v er tha t as , , ,

Mai n e had p o i nt e d o u t t h e di st i n ct io n o f su b s t a n t iv e
,

from adj e c t iv e law m u s t in a n ci e nt t ime s h ave

i n v olve d a mu ch high e r e ffort o f ab st rac t i o n t han
w e c a n e a s ily re ali s e n o w Wh en w e c o n s id er t h e
.

fu rth er divi s ion o f s u b s t a n tiv e l aw i nt o l aw o f

1
Op . M ai ne , E a rl y L a w a nd Cu s t om , ch x i . .
,
and Dr . M ylo
’
e s

i n t ro d uc t io n to t h e fi rs t b o o k o f t h e I n s t it u t es .
 DIVI SI ON S O F LAW

Pers on s and l aw of T hi ng s , w e
ck by t h e
are s t ru

fac t t ha t t h e divi s io n t h o ugh n o t in t e rm s c o n fi n e d

,

t o p riva t e l a w h as in fac t b ee n so c on fi n e d by t h e
,

u s a g e o f b o t h a n ci e n t a n d m o d ern e xp o un d ers It .

will app e a r s h o rt ly t ha t t h e re is g oo d re a s o n fo r

Lik e t h e th e r divi s i on s we hav e b een c o ns ider P ac ic l

p mt
o r a

ing t hi s is a d ivi s i on o f l e gal rul es n o t O f t h e fac t s

nigf
,
tl
,
on .

t o w hich t h e y apply It s e ems t o b e cl osely re late d

.

t o t h e p rac t ical q ues t i on s w hich a ri se o r may aris e

w h e n a m an fe e l s aggri e v e d an d t hi nk s o f s eeki n g

re d ress. P ers on s b et w een w h o m t h e re is a dis pu t e ;

a t hin g w hich is t h e s ubj e c t Of dis p u t e ; s o me form
o f ac t i o n fo r res o lvi n g t h e di s p u t e by p ro c e s s o f

l aw : t h ese are t h e c o mm o n e l em en t s o f li t igat i o n

b et w ee n parti es T hi s e vid e n t ly d o es n o t apply

.

t o c ri mes o r t o all p riva t e w ro n g s ; b u t t h e applica

,

t i o n is qu i t e w id e e n o ugh t o s u pp ort a clas s ifica t i o n

w hich in t rut h is o n ly a rough o n e D O the .

p ers o n s c on c erne d fa ll u n d er a n y ru l es o f l aw
li mi t in g o r s p e ci ally m o d ifyi n g t h eir capaci t y o r
liabilit y ? What righ t s are re c o gn ise d by l aw w it h
re gard t o t h e s ubj e c t ma t t er in q u e s t i o n ?
-
C an i t
b e o w n e d o r e xcl u s iv ely e nj oy e d ?
, One o f t h e
part i es p erhap s claims by s al e or b e qu es t : c o uld
, ,

t h e t hi ng b e giv en by w ill ? c o u ld t h e s al e i n v e s t
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

h im w i t h t h e igh t s
r clai ms t o e x erci se ? Wha t
he ,

o n t h e wh o l e ,
is t h e resu l t i n g d u t y or liabili t y ?
T h en s u pp o s i n g t h e right s o f t h e part i es t o b e
,

se t tl e d,
w hat are t h e avail abl e re me di es ? Wh at
is t h e ac t ive fo rm s o t o s p e ak o f t h e l e gal re s ul t ?
, ,

o r in E n gli s h l e gal ph ra s e what is t h e cau se o f

,

actio n ? Can c o mp en s at io n b e re c o vere d in m o ne y ,

o r is t h e re an y o t h e r an d wha t form o f re d re s s ?
,

T h e di s t i n c t i o n b e t we e n law re lat i n g t o p e rso n s

a n d law re l a t i n g t o t h i n g s m ay s eem t o t h e m o d ern

re ad er p erhap s
,
n o t t o b e a re al o n e
, or n o t o n e
,

o f t h e fi rs t i m p ort a n c e F o r t hi n gs ( w hat e v e r w e
.

i ncl u d e in t h e c o n c e p t i on Of a t hi n g w hich w e ,

are n o t y e t c o n s id eri n g) c an p l ai n ly hav e n o pl ac e,

in l egal ru l e s e xc e pt in c onn e c t i on w i t h t h e d u t i e s

a n d righ t s o f p erso n s Th e m at e rial w orld a s s u ch

.

is ab s o l u t e ly i rre l e va n t t o j uri s p ru d e n c e E ve ry .

ru l e o f l a w m u s t t o t hi s e x t e n t hav e t o d o w i t h

p ers o n s An d in m o d ern We s t ern l aw w e fin d t h at

.

o n e p erso n is v ery lik e a n o t h er a nd d i ffe ren c e s

,

b et wee n p ers on s t en d t o b e re d uc e d t o a mi n i mum .

In fac t w e c an n o w aday s b e t e mp t e d t o re ga rd t h e

l aw o f p ers on s as id en t ical wi t h t h e law o f fa mily

re la t i o n s in w hich t h e i rre d u cibl e di ffere n c es o f
,

p erso n s a s w e m ay call t h e m re sul t i n g fro m t h e

, ,

c o n dit i o n s o f se x an d age are o f n e c e s si t y m o s t

,
 FIRST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

and e v en of th e Empi re
d o w n t o Ju s t i n ian s ’

“
t i me a n d la t er t h e q u es t i o n
,
Wi t h w hat ki n d
,

”
o f p ers o n hav e I t o d o ? h ad a v e ry cl e ar an d

pro mi n en t l eg a l m ea n i n g an d n o qu es t i o n c o uld
,

b e m ore p rac t ical .

M o d ern au t h o rs hav e n o t arrive d at an y gen eral

agree men t e it h er a s t o t h e pre ci s e me a n i n g o f t h e
l a w re la t i ng t o p e rs o n s in t h e R o m an class ifica t i o n

( if i n d e e d t h e m e a n i n g e v er w a s p re ci s e
) o r as t o ,

what t o pic s are c o n v e n i en t ly i n cl ud e d u n d er s u ch

a h e ad at t h e p re se n t day Th ere is h o w ev er a .

g e n eral t e n d en cy t o regard t h e law o f p erso n s as

su ppl e me n t a ry t o t h e g e n e ral b o dy o f l e ga l rul e s .

We are ap t t o ask fi rs t n o t what are t h e res p ectiv e

,

capaci t ies o f t h e part ie s in t h e m a t ter in han d b u t ,

what are t h e righ t s o f t h e m at t er a s su mi n g all

part i es t o b e o f full abili t y Th en w e c o n s ider .
,

as a p os s ibl e accid e n t in t h e ca s e wh e t h er a n y o n e ,

is u n d e r an y di s abili t y o r t o a ny e x t e n t e x em p t
,

fro m resp on s ibilit y by rea so n o f s o me s p e ci a l

,

p ers on al c o n di t i on In b ook s m e an t fo r p rac t ical

.

u se t hi s m e th o d is c o mm o n ly fo ll o w e d t h e d is ,

abili t i es an d i m mu n it ie s o f in fa nt s marri e d w o m e n , ,

an d s o fo rt h,
b ei n g explai n e d wi t h referen c e t o
t h e d e pa rt m e n t o f l aw o r cla ss o f t ra n s ac t i o n s

w hich is t h e su bj e c t O f e xp os i t i o n .
 DIVI SI ON S O F LAW

An o t h er p ri ncipl e d i v i s i o n fran kly ba se d o n

of

c o n ve n ien c e o f e xp os i t io n is t ha t by which in ,

d eal i ng ei t h er w i t h a wh ol e b ody o f l aw o r w i t h
a s u b s t a n t ial d epart men t t h ereo f t h o se p ri n cipl es ,

a n d rul es which are fo u n d in all or m o s t p o rt i o n s

o f t h e sub e ct ha h y m b aid
j s o t t,
t e ay e s t o ru n

t h ro u gh i t are dis p o sed o f b efo re t h e s ev eral

,

bra n ch es are e nt ere d u p o n Such p ri n cipl es an d .

ru l e s m ay rela t e t o t h e n a t ure o f d ut i es an d
righ t s in t h em s e lv es t o t h e c o n di t i o n s o f t h e i r
,

o ri gi n ,
t ran sm i ss i o n a n d e x t i n c t i o n ( t i t l e as w e
, ,

hav e al re ady use d t h e w ord) or t o t h e remedi e s ,

applicabl e T h e s et t i ng fo rt h o f t h es e m at t e rs in
.

adva n c e so as t o av o id rep e t iti o n s a nd a wk w a rd

,

d igre ss i o n s in t h e s u b se q ue n t d etail e d t re a t m e n t ,

is call e d aft er t h e m o d ern G erm a n u s ag e t h e

, ,

G en eral P art o f t h e w ork in han d In t h e.

Sp e cial P art t h e s ev eral t o pic s are d e al t w i t h in

o rd e r a n d
,
t h e g e n eral pri n cipl e s h avm g al re ady
,

b ee n s t a t e d o nly t h ose rul es are di s c u s s e d w hich

,

are p e c uli ar t o t h e s ubdivi s io n in ha n d or are ,

in s o me p e c uliar way m o difi e d in t h e ir applica

t i o n t o it s c o n t en t s T h u s Savign y s gre a t w o rk
’
.

o n R o m a n La w is o n ly t h e
“
G e n eral P art o f h is ”

p roj e ct e d sys t e m Well fra me d l egi sl at iv e ac ts

.
-

o n la rg e s u bj e c t s usu ally p ro c ee d in s o m e s u ch
 F IR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUD EN CE C HA P .

m a n n er fro m t h e g en eral t o t h e sp e cial Th u s .

t h e I n dian P e n al C o d e h as chapte rs o f
“
G en e ral
E xplan atio n s ,
”
P un ish m en t s an d G en eral Ex
“
,
”

c ep t io n s
( t hat is t,
h e cau s e s f o r which ac t s

o t h e rwi s e c ri m i n al a re j u s tifi e d o r e xc u s e d
) w hich ,

c ome b efo re t h e d e fi n it i o n s o f part icu lar Offen c e s .

“
Th e p relimi n ary part o f Sir J a me s Ste ph en s ’

D igest of t h e ( En gli sh ) Cri mi n a l La w is a w ell

m ark e d G e n eral P art A gai n t h e fi rs t six chapt ers

.
,

o f t h e I n dian C o n t ract Ac t c o n t ai n w hat a Co n

t in e n t al w ri t er w ou ld c all t h e G e n e ral P art O f t h e

l aw o f c o n t rac t n am e ly rul e s o f l aw by w hich

, ,

t h e fo rma t i o n validi t y an d effe c t o f all ki n d s o f

, ,

c on t rac t s alik e are g o v ern e d in B rit is h I n dia T h e .

o t h e r chap t e rs , which d e al w i t h s al e ag en cy an d , ,

o t h er s p e ci es of c o n t racts migh t b e c all e d t h e

,

Sp e cial P a rt o f t h e Ac t No t w i t h s t an din g t h e
.

o bvi o u s adva n t ag es o f t hi s m e t h o d it h as o n ly
,

grad u ally a n d o f lat e y e ars c o me i n t o u s e a m o n g

E n gli s h l a w yers ; I d o n o t s ay in n am e which is ,

of li t t l e m o me n t b u t in s ub s tan c e Th e la t e
, .

M r Le ak e s e xc ell en t an d acc ura t e D ig est of t h e

’
.

P rinc ip l es of t h e La w of Co n t rac t s is h o w ever , ,

a c o mpl e te a n d s y s t e ma t ic G e n eral P a rt for t ha t

s u bj e c t
. Wh ere a wid e fi eld h as t o b e c o v ere d ,

t h e m e t h o d m ay w e ll b e appli e d o n a s m all er
 C H AP T E R V

P ERSONS

LAW c
n e ess r a ily d e al s wit h d ut ie s an d rights o f
p ers ons T h o s e d ut ies an d righ t s are d e t ermi n e d
.

by t h e rel a t io n s o f p e rs on s t o e ach o t h er d e p en din g

,

p a rt ly o n t h ei r ac t s a nd part ly o n e ve n t s in d ep e n
d e n t o f t h em an d c o n ne c t in g t h os e p ers o n s e i t h e r
,

i mme diate ly o r t h ro ugh t h e m e di u m o f wha t w e

m ay call p ro vi s i o n ally an d vagu ely t h e p o s s ibl e
, ,

o bj e cts o f c o mm o n o r c o n flic t i n g i n t eres t U s i ng

.

“ ”
t hi n g s as a c o mp en di ous e qu ival en t fo r t hi s
la s t ph ra se w e may say t hat p ers o n s are b rough t
, ,

by t h e o p eratio n o f ac t s an d e v en t s i n t o rela t i on s
,

wi t h t hi n gs and wi t h o n e a no t h er : t ha t is t o say ,

re la t i o n s capabl e o f b e g e tt i n g d u t i es rights
,
and ,

clai ms ; for t h e s ci en c e o f l aw regard s n o n e ot h ers .

Clai ms are s at i s fie d by R e me die s t h e vario us fo rms

,

o f l e gal re d re s s : a n d t h e b e n e fi t o f t h e app ro p ria t e

“ ”
re m e dy t h e
,
fruit s o f j udg men t as w e Oft e n say ,

1 08
C HA P v. PER SON S

is me t e d acc o rding t o t h e rul es o f Pro c e d u re

o ut .

Fro m t hi s po in t o f vi e w w e ge t a n o t h e r w ay O f
l o oki n g a t t h e divi s i o n o f law as rel at i ng t o
P e rs on s T hi ng s a n d A c t i ons which w e lat ely
, ,

n o t ic e d It is n o t p ro p os e d h o w e v e r t o c o n s id er
.
, ,

h ere w h e t h er t hi s o r s o m et hi n g lik e it m ay hav e

, ,

b e en in t h e m in d o f t h e R o ma n la wy ers t h o u gh ,

t h ey did n o t di s t i ng ui s h t h e g e n e ral id e as fro m

t h e Sp e cial fo rms a s s u m e d by t h e m i n t h e l aw o f

Ro m e We s hall p ro c e ed in ou r o w n fa shi o n t o
.

u s e t hi s cl ue fo r t h e b e t t er app re h e n s i o n o f s o m e

o f t h e l e adi n g id e a s o f j uri s p ru d e n c e I t s e e ms .

a c on v en i e n t c ou rs e t o s t art from t h e fo ll o w i n g
qu es t ion s a s b ei ng n ec ess ary an d e l em en t ary Wh o .

and w h at a re t h e s u bj e c t s O f d ut i e s ? a n d
1
h ow

b ro ugh t i nto relat io n w i t h t h e p o ss ibl e m a tt er o f

d ut ie s ? Of w hat d oe s t ha t m a t t er c on si s t ? H o w
are t h e da t a fo r d e t erm i n i n g t h e e xi s t e n c e o f d u t i e s

as c ert ai n e d ; an d wh en a s c ert ain ed h o w are t h e

, ,

d ut ies en forc e d ? F u rth er t h ere is aft er all t h es e,

a qu es t i o n o f gre at p rac t ical i mp ort an c e n amely ,

In w hat forms is t h e law m ad e k n o wn ? Thi s

l a st o n e h o w e v er d o es n o t s eem t o ad mi t o f a n y
, ,

a n sw er in g en e ral t e rms that c an b e o f mu ch

1
T h e w o rd i s h ere u s ed , of c o u rse ,
in t h e l o gic a l , no t th e
p o l it ic a l s en s e .
 FIR ST B O O K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

p ractic a l b e n e fi t : a nd w e s hall d e al w i t h it a p art ,

an d w i t h s p e cial re fe re n c e t o t h e a u t h o ri t i es o f

t h e C o m m o n La w in t h e s e c o n d pa rt o f t hi s w o rk
, .

In lik e m a n n e r it is n o t a s su m e d t ha t t h e o t h er

qu es t i on s all s t a n d on t h e s a m e li n e in t hi s regard .

R u l e s o f e vid e n c e a n d p ro c e d u re are la rg e ly d e t e r

m in e d by n at i o n al a n d hi s t o rical c o n di t i on s w hich ,

t h o ugh n o t re ally arbi t ra ry ca n n o t b e acc o u n t e d

,

for by u n iv e rs al p ri n cipl es .

F i rs t t h e n w e h a ve t o i n qu i re n o t w hat w e re ,

t h e c a paci t i e s o f p ers o n s in R o m a n l a w o r w hat ,

t h e y a re in E n gli s h l a w b u t w ha t a p e rs o n is ;
,

t ha t is w ha t are t h e n e c e s s a ry m ark s o f a p e rs o n
,

in l a w . D ut i es a n d righ t s b el o n g t o p e rs o n s .

Pe rs o n s a re t h e s ubj e ct s of rights a n d d ut i es : a n d ,

a s t h e s u bj e c t o f a righ t a p e rs on is t h e Obj e ct
,

o f t h e c o rre la t iv e d ut y an d c o n v ers ely

, Th e s ub .

jc e t o f a righ t h as b e e n call e d by P ro fes sor H o lla n d

t h e p e rs o n o f i n h e re n c e t h e s u bj e ct o f a d u t y t h e
,

“ “
p ers o n o f i n cid e n c e . E nt i t l e d an d b o un d are ”

t h e t e rms in c o mmo n u s e in E n gli sh a nd fo r m o s t

'

p u rp o ses t h ey s eem ad e qu a t e E ve ry full ci t iz e n.

is a p ers o n : o t h e r h um a n b e i ng s n a mely s ubj e c t s

,

w h o are n o t ci t iz en s may b e p e rs o n s
, B ut n o t .

e v e ry h u ma n b e i n g is n e c ess arily a p ers o n for a ,

p erso n is capabl e of righ t s an d d uti es and t h ere ,

 FIR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

t h e re a re p e rs o n s in l a w w hich a re n o t i ndivid u al
h u man b e i ng s No t o n ly m an is so cial b ut w ithi n
.
,

a s o ci e t y m e n a c t c olle c t iv e ly p res en t i n g a s olid

,

fro n t s o t o s p e ak t o s o ci e t y at large G ro up s
, , .
,

p e rman e n t o r t e mp o rary b ehave a s i ndivid ual s

, .

T h e re ari s e in t hi s m an ne r c o ll e c t iv e capaci t i es a n d

res p o n s ibili t i e s w hich t h e law p e rs o n ifie s for c o n

v e n ie n c e . We hav e a rt ificial p erso ns or as w e s ay , ,

in t h e C o mm o n La w c o rp ora t i o ns, No t that i t is

.

a n a ffa i r o f m ere c o n v e n ie nc e I t w o uld s e e m

.

t ha t i n t h e hi s t o ry o f i n s t i t ut i o n s c olle c t iv e righ t s

an d res p o n s ibili t i es w e re a n t e c e d ent t o t h os e Of

t h e i n divid ual : an d u n d er a rchaic s y s t e m s o f l a w ,

as in H i n d u a n d t o s o me e x t en t in Slav o nic

s o ci e t y
,
w e c a n s t il l fin d t h e i n divid ual ha rdly

dis e ngag e d fro m t h e b o n d s o f t h e fa mily Ho w .

e v e r that m ay b e w e c o n s t a n t ly n e e d in m o d ern
,

l a w t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f an a rt ificia l p erson a s u bj e c t ,

o f d u t i es a n d righ t s w hich is re p re s e n te d by o n e

o r m o re n a t u ral p e rs o n s ( g e ne rally n o t n e c ess a rily

, ,

by m ore t han o n e) b u t d oes n o t c o in cid e wi t h

,

t hem . It h as a c o n t i nu ou s l e gal e xi s t e n c e n o t

n e c e s s a rily d e p en di n g on a ny n a t ural life ; t hi s

l egal c o n t i n ui t y an s w e rs t o s o m e real c o n tinui t y
o f p u blic fu n c t i o n s or o f s p e cial p u rp o s e s re c o g
,

n is e d a s havi n g p u blic u t ili t y o r Of s o m e la w fu l

,
 PER SON S

c o mm o n int ere s t o f t h e n at ural p ers on s c on c e rn e d .

T h ere h as b ee n gre at s p e c ulat iv e c o n t ro v ers y o n t h e

C o n t i nen t o f E uro p e n o t wi t h ou t p rac t ical a s p e ct s

, ,

as t o t h e t ru e n a t ure o f c o rp o ra t e b o di e s F or a .

l o n g t ime t h e p revailin g t h e ory w as t ha t t h e

p e rs on alit y o f a c orpo rat i on w as a m ere l e gal fic t i o n ,

a n d it s righ t s d e riv e d in e v e ry ca s e fro m a Sp e ci a l

c reat i o n by t h e St at e e v e n t h o ugh t h e St at e s p o w ers

,
’

in t ha t b ehalf m igh t b e d e l egat e d o r e x e rci s e d in ,

t h e fo rm o f g e n e ral reg ula t i o n s Cl os ely a s s ociat e d .

w i t h t hi s d o c t ri n e is t h e a s s ump t i o n w hich ru n s ,

t h ro u gh t h e w h o l e o f C on t i n e n t al p ublic l a w t hat ,

a s so ciat i o n s o f an y ki n d mus t n ot b e form e d w i t h ou t

b ein g a ut h ori se d by t h e St ate B ut o f la t e ye ars .

a c o n t rary d o c t ri n e h as b een m ain t ain e d by wri t ers

o f c o n s id e rabl e au t h o ri t y a n d s ee ms t o b e gai n i n g ,

gro un d n amely t hat t h e l egal exi s t en c e o r p er

, ,

s o n alit y o f a c o rp ora t i o n t h ou gh li m i t e d in vari o u s ,

way s is qu i t e as re al as t hat o f a n i n divid ual Th e

, .

s u bj e c t is t oo diffic u l t t o b e p urs u e d h e re b u t I ,

“
b eliev e t h e realis t Vi ew t o b e t h e s o un d er 1
.

1
F or furt h e r in fo rm a t io n s ee Ach ill e M L es p ers o n n es
e s t re ,

mo ra l es , et c . , P a ris , 1 8 99 Sa l e ill es , P ers on n a l i t e j u rid i qu e, P a ris ,

’

1 91 0 F . W . M it l
a an d , P o l i t i ca l Th e ori es f
o th e .Mid d l e A ge ( b e in g
a p art ia l t ra n s l a t io n of D r G i erk e
.
’
s g rea t w or k , D a s d e u t s ch e
G en o ss en s ch af t s rech t , B e r in , l and t h e t ra n s l a t or s ’
in t ro
d uc t io n ; O t t o Gierk e , D a s l Vesen d er men s ch l i ch en Verband
‘

( in a u g u ra l a d d re s s a s ect o r R of the U ivn ers i t y) , B erl in , 1 9 02 . I

 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUD EN C E C HA P .

Th e C o mmo n La w h as n e v er b e en formally c o m
m it t e d t o a n y t h eo ry at all t h o ugh so met hi n g v ery ,

lik e t h e fi c t i o n t h eory s eem s t o b e a ss ume d by

“ ”

t h e m aj o ri t y o f t e x t w ri t ers -
AS t o t h e w o rd .

“ ”
a rt ificial it n e e d n o t s ign ify m o re t han that
,

t h e p e rs o n a li t y o f a c orp o ra t i o n is re c og n i s e d as

s u ch by t h e l a w b u t is di ffe re n t fro m t ha t o f a
,

n a t u ra l p ers o n — w hich n o b o dy w o u ld t hi n k o f
d e n yi n g .

T h e n ot i o n o f a n a rt ificial p e rs o n b e it o b s e rv e d , ,

is n o t a m e re ly l e gal o r t e ch n ical o n e We m ak e .

u s e o f it e v ery d ay for t h e c o mmo n p u rp os e s O f

life a n d in applicat i o n s go i n g fa r b ey on d t h o s e
,

w hich c o urt s o f j u s t ic e ad mi t We as c rib e a .

s i n gl e w ill a n d re s p o n s ibili t y t o t h e Mi n i st ry o f t h e

day t o v o l un t a ry a sso ciat i o n s a n d ( w hat p erhap s

,

is m o s t c uri o us o f all ) t o a n e w s pap er In s o m e .

cas es t h e art ificial p ers on o f c om m on s p ee ch may

b e; o r m ay app ro xi ma t ely c o i n cid e w i t h a n a rti ,

fic ial p e rs o n in l a w t oo Th u s in E nglan d a
.

n e w s pap er m ay p o ss ibly b e l o n g ( an d n o w aday s

o ft en d oes o a c o m pa n y i n c orp o ra t e d u n d e r t h e
) t

C o mpan ies A ct s ; an d railw ay c o mpan ies are wi t h

out e xc e p t i o n I b eli e v e c orp o ra t i on s
, , In o t h e r .

h a ve t rie d to h o w in a c o n t ri b ut io n t o D r Gierk e s F es t sch mf t

S .
’

( We im a r 1 91 1 , a l s o p rin t e d in L Q R
. xxv ii 2 1 9 ) t h at our l aw is
. . .

not c o mm i t t ed t o a ny t h e o ry
.
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

partic ular habi t s o r d i s p o s i t i o n s is at b e st t o mak e

, ,

a s t at em en t ab ou t t h e tradit i on s o f p olicy w hich

are k n o w n by e xp e ri e n c e t o p re vail in t h e p u blic

affa irs o f t hat c ou n t ry : a t w ors t it is t o m ak e

w id e a ssert i on s ab o u t t h e c o ll e c t iv e cha rac t er o f

a mu l t it u d e o f p eo pl e i n cl u di n g ma n y a n d div e rs e
,

t yp es an d fa r t o o n u me ro u s fo r a n y o n e m an t o
,

b e e v e n s u p e rficially acq u ai n t e d w i t h a t fi rs t ha n d .

No t tha t t h ere is n o s u ch t hi n g a s n a t i o n al charact er ,

b ut it is n ot t o b e j u dg e d o f by s up erficial an d

e ph em e ral i n dica t i o n s . F e w c o n c e p t i o n s c o u ld b e
”
w id e r apart t han th o s e e n t e rt ai n e d O f G e rm a n y
by t h e av erag e o pi ni o n o f E n gli sh m en in 1 8 7 0 ,

b e fo re t h e F ran c o G erm a n w ar an d ab o ut 1 9 00 ;
-
,

c ertai n ly t h e fi rs t w a s p re tt y far fro m t h e t rut h ,

p ro bably t h e s e c on d w as n ot m u ch n e arer T h e .

B ri t is h l egen d t h at Fra n c e is friv o l ou s a n d t h e

Fren ch l eg en d t ha t E n gla n d is hyp o c ri t ical m ay
b e s et O ff ag a i n s t o n e an o t h er a s ab o ut e qu ally

ab s urd : at t hi s day w e m ay h o p e t hat n o e d u cat e d

p ers o n in Fran c e o r G re at B ri t ain b e lie v es e i t h er .

So m e t i m es c o u n t ri e s an d p o p u la t i o n s are p ers on ifi e d
in thi s m a n n er w hich c o n t ai n i n t ern al e l e m e n t s o f
e xt rem e div ers i t y a n d hav e n o t o r hav e n e v e r had
,

an y t ru e n at i o n al u n i t y ; a s o n a gre at s cal e I n di a
, , ,

a n d o n a s m all e r o n e I relan d
, ,
In su ch a c a s e t h e
.
 PER SON S

m e taph o r is a d egree more remo t e a n d t h e dang er of

,

fallacy ( c o m mon ly by t aki ng s ome part o r parts for

t h e wh o l e) is g re a t er . B u t th ese ma t t ers lie b e y on d

t h e p ro vi n c e o f l aw.

In t h e C o mm o n La w w e call art ificial p e rs on s C p o r o ra .

ti
on s .

c o rp o ra t i on s T h ei r e xi s t e n c e is n e c ess ary t o av o id
.

t h e t e di o us a n d c u mb ro u s p ro c e ss e s w hich w o u ld

o t h e rwi s e b e re q u i re d fo r t h e ca rryi n g o n o f j o i n t

u n d e rt a ki n g s in w hich a la rg e n um b e r o f ci t iz en s

a re o r m a y b e i n t eres t e d . It is a n at u ral foll o w

in g o u t o f t h e s a m e re a son s t o li mi t by l a w as
'

is d o n e in E n gl an d t h e n u m b e r o f p e rs o n s w h o
,

may carry o n b u s i n e ss j o i n t ly w i t h ou t in c o rp orat i o n

b u t it is p os s ibl e t o re s e n t l egi sla t i o n o f t hi s ki n d
as a n u n d u e re s t ric t i o n o f i n divid u al fre e d o m . I
b e li ev e t hat in Am erica gre a t facili t i es for O b t ai n i ng
in c orp ora t io n c o in cid e w i t h u n li m i t e d free d o m o f
u n i n c o rp ora t e a s s o cia t i o n
.

We hav e in an ordin ary part n ers hip firm an Fi m r s.

e xam pl e o f a rt ificial p e rso n ali t y lyin g j u s t o n t h e

b o rd e rs o f s o cial or c o mmercial c o n v en t i on an d l aw .

T h e firm is a p e rs on by m e rca n t il e u s ag e : it is

a l w ay s a n d e v e ry w h ere t re a t e d in b u s i n e s s acc o u n t s
,

c o rre sp o n d en c e an d s o fort h a s a p e rs o n di s t i n c t
, ,

fro m t h e i n divid u al part n e rs In En gl is h s p e aki ng

.
-

c o u n t ri es it is q u i t e c o m m on fo r a firm t o go o n
 F IR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

us n i g a n am e which h as l o n g c e ase d t o b e b orn e

by any i n divid u al part n er ; t h o ugh el s e wh ere t hi s
is n o t g e n erally all o w e d As t o making t h e firm .

a p ers o n l egal u s ag e is n o t u n iform In Sc o t t i s h

, .

l aw an d I b eli e v e o n t h e C o n t i n e n t o f E u ro p e
, , ,

g en erally t h e firm is re c o g nis e d a s a p ers o n : in

t h e C o m m o n La w it is n o t t h o u gh it is c u rre nt ly ,

call e d an en t it y in Am erica In clas s ical R o m an

”
.

l a w w e are hardly w i t hi n S igh t o f s u ch a q u es t i o n ,

fo r t h e p re vaili ng id e a is s t ill t h e m a n ag em en t
o f c o m mo n p ro p e rt y a n d t h e id e a o f j o i n t i n t e res t
,

in a j o in t e n t erp ri se is o n ly b egi n n i n g t o e m e rge .

T h e St at e . T h e gre at e s t Of a rt ificial p e rso n s p o li t ically ,

s p e aki n g is t h e St at e
,
B ut it d ep e n d s o n t h e
.

l egal i n s t it u t i o n s an d fo rms o f e v e ry c o mmo n w e al t h

wh eth er a nd h ow far t h e St at e o r it s t i t u lar h e ad
is o ffi cially t re at e d a s an a rt i fi cial p erso n In .

E nglan d w e n o w s ay t hat t h e C ro w n is a c o rp ora

t i o n t h o u gh t hi s is a n i n n o vat i o n m ad e in a n age o f
,

p e dan t ry an d s e ems t o b e o f n o real u s e T h e c on

,
1
.

c ep t io n o f t hi s or a n y o t h e r p erm a n e n t re p res e n t a

ti on Of t h e St at e had n o t b een forme d a t all in t h e

e arli er Middl e A g es w h e n t h e ki ng s p e ac e di e d wi t h
’

h im a n d ,
e v ery m an t hat c o u ld fo rt hwi t h ro bb e d

1 F . W
. M it l
a and ,
“
T h e C o rp ora t io n S o l e ,
” “
T h e C ro w n as

C orp o ra t io n , L .
Q R . xvi . 335 , xv ii . 1 31 .
 FIR ST B O OK O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

t o m an ag e on e s
’
a fia irs . A b n ormally p e opl e
,
m ay
be di s abl e d by i n s a n it y a t an y ag e ; t h e as c er
t ainm e n t Of i n s an i t y it s e ffe c t s in e xclu di n g
,

res p o n s ibili t y an d ,
t h e ad mi n i s t ra t iv e m e a s u re s

n e c es s ary o r p ro p er for p reservin g t h e p ro p ert y

o f i n s a n e p e rso n s an d ch e cki n g ab u s es hav e t o ,

b e p ro vid e d for by e v ery s y s t em o f l aw in it s

o wn w ay . SO far a s g en e ral p ri n cipl es are
i n v olve d t h e y b el o ng m ai n ly t o p u blic l aw .

An ot h er cla ss o f p ers on al di s t in cti on s rest s o n

t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e family Su ch d i sti n c t i o n s .

are ,
in part u l t i m a t e ly gro un d e d o n t h e phy s ical
,

di ffere n c e o f s e x an d on moral di ffere n c es a s s um ed

,

by t h e law t o acc ompan y it In p riva t e l aw .

m a rri e d w o m e n u n d erg o s o m e l o s s o f l eg a l capaci t y

in all o r al m os t all sy s t e ms O f law 1
w hil e in ,

s o m e s y s t e m s a l l w o m e n a re o r hav e b e e n u n d e r

dis abili t i es In p u b l ic l aw an d in e v e ry k n o wn
.
,

s y s t em SO far a s p u blic law g o es all w o m e n a re ,

u n d er so me di s abili t i es an d are e x emp t from

s o me d u t i e s t h a t o f mili t ary s e rvic e fo r e xa m pl e
, ,

wh ere it e xi s t s as a g en eral d u t y o f ci t iz en s .

1
Th e p ro h ib it io n of b ig am y
h ch a ppl ie s t o m arrie d m e n a s
, w i
w e ll a s w o me n in m o d e rn l a w h a s n e v e r b e e n re ck o n e d as a p o in t
,

o f l e g a l i n c a p a c it y by m rriag e t h e o rig ina l c a p a c it y i s n o t d e

a

s t ro y e d b u t fulfill e d S o n o o n e w o u ld s a y t h a t a s it t in g m e m b er
.

o f Pa rl ia m e n t h a d l o s t h is c a p a c it y o f b e i n g e l e c t e d .
 PER SON S

We fin d o n t h e o th er han d variat i o ns o f p ers on al

, ,

capaci t y d eriv e d fro m fa m ily re lat i on s which b e l on g

o n ly t o s o me part ic ular t yp e o r s t ag e O f fam ily
‘

i n st i t u t io n s Th e s ubj e c t io n o f ad ult s t o pat ernal

.

p o w er amo n g R o ma n ci t iz en s t h e limit e d capaci t ie s

,

“
o f a m e mb e r o f a H i n d u j o i n t fa mily may b e ,

t ak e n as e xa mpl es .

F urt h er t h e re are sp ecial p ers on al d is qual ific a Sp ci l

,
e a

d i q l ifi s ua
t i o n s o r d i mi n u t i o n s o f le gal capac i t y i n e v e ry c t i a on s,

sy st e m of law So me o f t h ese hav e a p e n al

.

chara c t er or at l eas t s a vou r o f p re ve n t ive an d

,

c o mpu l sory di s cipli n e : s u ch are t h e di s abil it i e s

o f c o n vic t s ban k rup t s an d ( in s ome s y st e ms )
, ,

d e clare d s p en d t h rift s O t h ers are a t t ach e d t o

.

c ert ain p u blic Offi c es o r p os i t io n s for re as on s o f

p olicy n ot di sh o n o urable t o t h e i n divid u al Su ch .

a re in E n gla n d t h e d is qu alific a t io n s o f cl e rgy m e n ,

an d o f p e rs o n s h o ldi n g v ari ou s O ffi c e s t o s it in ,

Pa rliamen t In m o dern l aw t h e s e d is qu al ific at ion s

.

r e x e mp t i o n s hich l es s o cc ur) a re al most

( o w ,
no

or w h o lly c o n fi n e d t o p u blic l a w B ut in t h e
1
.

Middl e A ge s a man c o uld ren ou n c e h is W h ol e

l e g al p ers on alit y p ublic a n d p rivat e be c o me a s
, ,

1
T h is w o u l d seem g ra in o f t ru t h in t h e s t ra n ge Vie w
t o be t he
t k e n by t h o s e w rit e rs w h o h a v e rej e c t e d t h e d is t in c t io n b e t w e e n
a

P u bl ic a n d P ri va t e La w a n d t re at e d P ubl ic La w a s a b ra n ch o f
,

t h e La w o f P e rs o n s At l e a s t I c a n n o t fin d a ny o t h er
. .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

“
it w a s calle d civilly d e ad by e nt erin g o n e o f
,

t he re g u l ar o rd ers Of re ligi o n,
an d t hi s m ay

p o ss ibly b e so s t ill in s o m e o f t h e j uri s dict ion s

wh ere t h e R o m an Cat h o lic re ligio n is e xcl us ively
or pri n cipally re c o gn i s e d by t h e St at e an d it s ,

m o n a s t ic a n d o t h e r s o ci e t i e s o f p ro fe s s e d re ligio us
p e rs o n s hav e an O ffi cial s t a n din g We a re n o t .

aware t hat t h e i n st i t u t ion s urviv es in a ny o f t h e

g re at er St a t e s o f EurOp e .

P as s i ng t o art ificial p ers o n s w e fin d t hat t h e ir

capaci t ie s are n o t s u bj e c t t o m os t o f t h e ca u s es
o f varia t i o n w hich a ffe c t t h os e o f n a t u ral p e rs o n s .

O bvi o u s ly a c o rp orat i on ca n n o t b e a n i n fan t o r

i n s an e It m ay b e in s o lve nt ; it is t h e c o mmo n
.

e xp e ri en c e O f o ur o w n t i m e t hat as a n idl e rhy m

, er
”
o n c e wro t e ,
win din g u p c om e t h t o limi t e d t hi n gs
-
.

F o r re a s o n s Of p rac t ical c o n v e n i e n c e h o w e v er in
, ,

s o lv e n t c o rp o ra t i o n s are ,
in E n gla n d at a ny ra t e ,

d e al t wi t h by s p e cial fo rms o f pro c e d u re differi n g

fro m t h os e u s e d in ca ses o f i n divid u al ban krup t cy .

C o rp o rat e capaci t y o n t h e o t h er han d is s u bj e c t

, ,

by it s n a t u re t o re s t rai nin g c o n dit i o n s fro m which

t h e act s o f n at u ral p ers on s a re free .

Fi rs t an art ificial p ers on c an a c t o n ly by m e a n s

,

o f s o m e n a t ura l p e rs o n o r p e rs o n s h a vi n g a u t h o ri t y
”
t o re p res e n t it ,
a c t o re m s iv e s y n d ic u m as the
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUD EN CE C HA P .

had re b elle d agai ns t t h e C ro wn n o t t h e C o mpa n y ,

b u t t h e dire c t o rs w o u ld hav e b een gui l t y o f high

t re as o n . Supp os i n g agai n t ha t a c orp orat i o n c o uld
, ,

c o mm i t high t re a s o n o r any o t h er o ffen c e p un ishabl e

w i t h d e a t h o r i m p ri so n m en t t h e s e n t e n c e c o u ld n o t
,

b e e x ec u t e d . From c orp oral p en al t i es N at u re hat h

”
e x emp t e d all b o di es p oli t iqu e B ut ab us e o f
1
.

c orp ora t e p o w ers may l e ad t o what w e may call

app ro xim at e capit al p un i s hm en t n am ely t h e dis s o lu
, ,

t i on o f t h e c orp o rati on by t h e j u dicial rev o ca t i on o f

it s cha rt er o r o t h er app ro p ria t e p ro c ess O f law

, .

M ore o v er a c orp oration m ay hav e p o sit ive d uti e s

,

i m p os e d o n it by p u blic l a w an d may i n cu r ,

p en al t ies ( t h o u gh n o t cri mi n al p u ni s h men t in t h e

s t ric t s en se ) by fail ure or n e gl e c t in t ha t re s p e c t .

Su ch d ut i es m ay b e di re ctly i m p os e d o n a c orp ora

t i o n in c onn e c t i o n wi t h t h e s p e cial p u rp o s e s fo r w hich

it is c o n s t i t u t e d o r as a n e qu ival e n t for p rivil e g e s

.
,

gra n t e d by t h e St ate ; o r t h e c orp ora t i o n m ay i n c ur

t h e m by carryi n g o n a t rad e o r b u s i n ess t o w hi ch

t h e y are a t t a ch e d by t h e g e n eral law Fu rt h e r a .

,

c o rp o ra t i o n m ay b e liabl e for civil w ro ng s c o mmi t t e d

by it s agen t s in t h e c ou rs e o f t h e ir e mpl o y m e n t j u st ,

a s a n at u ra l p e rs o n may b e a n d t hi s is o f v e ry g re a t

i mp ort a n c e in p rac t ic e On p ri n cipl e t h ere a ppe ars

.

1
H o bb e s , Levi a t h a n , c . 22 .
 P ERSON S

t o be no re a s o n c o n s i st ent ly wi t h t h e ge n era l
wh y ,

id ea of a rt ificial p ers on ali t y it s h o uld n ot b e liable t o ,

t h e s am e e x t e n t T hi s is c ert ai n ly t h e d o c t ri n e o f
.

t he C o m mo n Law a n d app e ars t o b e n o w fi n ally

,

s e t t l e d in E ngla n d Wha t is m ore t h e p rop ert y h eld

.
,

o n b e half o f a ss o cia t i o n s w hi c h are n o t i n c o rp o ra t e d ,

b u t in fa c t b e hav e lik e c o rp orat i o n s an d e x e rci s e t h e

s am e ki n d o f p o w e rs m a b e m ad avail bl e f r th e
y e ,
a o

c o m p en s at ion o f p ers on s w ron ge d by t h e o ffic ers o r

age nt s o f t h e a sso ci at i on wi t h o n ly s ligh t v ariat i o n s
,

o f p ro c e d u re
1
.

T hi rdly m an y c o rp o rat i o n s are c re a t e d e xp re ss ly

,

fo r s p e ci a l p urp o s es a n d t h e i r p o w e rs are l im it e d
,

t o t h e e x e c u t i o n o f t h o se p urp o s e s a n d w h at is ,

re a s o n ably i n cid e n t t h e re t o T hi s is t h e ca se w i t h
.

mo s t c orp orat i o n s in m o d ern t i m es an d t h ere h as ,

e ven b ee n a t e n d en cy t o s u pp o se t h e p ri n ciple
u n iv e rs a l .P ractica lly s uch cas es al m o s t al w ay s fall
u n d er s o m e s p e cial l e gi s la t iv e rul e : b u t t h e in t e r re
p
t at io n o f s u ch rul es h a s b e e n d o u b t fu l e n ou gh t o

l e av e room for c o nt ro ve rs ies of p ri n cipl e .

A c orp orat io n h a s dist in c t righ t s an d d ut ies n o t C p t o r o ra e

d ti d u es a n
o n ly a s agai n s t p erson s ou t s id e it b u t a s agai n s t it s igh t
, r s :
f m ti or a on
o w n m em b e rs T h e y c an b e it s c re di t ors o r d e b t o rs f c p
. .
o or o

rat io n s .

1
T aj
’

Va l e K y 00 . . v . Ama l ga ma t ed S o ci et y f
o R a i l wa y
S erva n t s [ 1 9 01 ] A O 4 2 6 . . .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUD EN CE C HA P v .

On t h e ot h er han d ,
it s debt s
cla i ms agai n s t and

o t h e r p e rs o n s a re n o t t h e s a me
a s t h e irs Si qu i s .

u nivers it a t i d e b e t ur s in g u l is n o n d e b e t u r n e c q u o d
, ,

”
d e b et u n iv ers ita s s ingul i d e b e n t 1
Thi s is a .

n e c ess a ry c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e c o rp orat i o n b e i n g a

dis t i n c t p ers on in law Ho w far t h e i n divid u a l .

m e m b e rs c a n d e riv e p ro fit fro m c orp o rat e p ro p ert y

o r b u s in e s s o r b e liabl e t o c o n t rib u t e t o t h e pay
,

m e n t o f c o rp ora t e d e b t s h as t o b e d e t ermin e d by
,

t h e pa rt ic u lar s y s t e m o f l a w a n d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f

t h e pa rt ic u lar c orp o ra t i o n Th e form a t i o n O f c o r

.

o ra t io n s agai n is a m a t t e r o f p os i t iv e re gu l at i o n ;
p , ,

t h ou gh it m ay b e tak en as a p rin c ip l e o f g e n e ral

’

j uri s p ru d en c e t ha t t h e a ut h o ri t y o f t h e St ate is
re q ui s i t e . Su ch a u t h o ri t y may b e c o n fe rre d o n c e
fo r all as re gard s a clas s o f c o rp o ra t i o n s by g e n era l
, ,

e n abli n g l e gi s l a t i o n an d t hi s h as b e e n d o n e in
,

En glan d by t h e C o mpan ies A c t s M u n icipal c o r .

o ra t io n s a n d a limi t e d n u m b er o f t rad e gil d s app e a r

p
t o hav e b ee n t h e o n ly ki n d s o f c orp ora t i on s k n o w n

t o t h e cla s s ical R o m a n l a w
2
N o w aday s t h e i m p ort
.

a n c e a n d n e c ess i t y o f c orp o ra t i o n s fo r carryin g o n

t h e a ffa i rs o f m o d e rn life m ee t s u s at e v e ry t u rn .

1 U lpian, D . 3 , 4, quo d c ui u s c u n qu e u n i v ers it a t is , 7, § 1 .

2
D . eod . t it . 1 .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

familiar a re m at erial s en sibl e Obj e c t s w hich c an b e

d e alt wi t h in t h e way o f m a nu al u s e No d iflic ul t y .

o cc u rs in t re a t i n g a h o u s e a b ook o r a s h ee p as
, , ,

thi ngs AS b o rro w er o f a b oo k I hav e t h e right

.
,

o f k ee pi n g t h e b o o k fo r t h e ag ree d t i me o r u n t il ,

re d e m a n d e d
-
a n d t h e d u ty o f re t urn i n g it
,
Th e .

b o o k is plai n ly n o t t h e s a me a s my righ t s o r an y ,

o n e s rega rdi n g t h e b o o k o r t h e s u m o f all p oss ibl e

’

, ,

righ t s It w o u ld s t ill b e a re al b o o k if it b el o n g e d
.

t o n o b o dy We are n ot n o w c o n sid ering w hat t h e

.

p o s s ibl e righ t s o f o wn ers hip o r o th erw i se m ay b e

, , .

We t ak e it p ro vi s ion ally a s c o mmo n k n o wl e dge t hat

a n o w n er w h o h a s n o t pa rt e d wi t h an y O f h is righ t s

h as la rg e p o w e rs o f u s e a n d di s p o s al o v er t h e t hi n g

o w n ed p o w ers w hich are i n d e fi n i t e e ve n t h o ugh

,

t h e y may b e li mit e d in c e rt ai n di re c t i on s by rul es

of l aw .

T h e re is no agai n in e xt en d in g thi s
t roubl e, ,

“ ”
n o t ion o f a t hi n g t o a n aggregat e o f m at e rial

t hi n gs s u ch as la n d w i t h a h o u se a n d o t h er b u ild
,

i n g s o n it a lib rary w i t h all t h e b ook s in it a fl o ck

, ,

o f sh e ep An y o f th e s e aggregat es m ay b e t rea t e d
.

a s a s i ngl e t hi ng if w e fin d it c o n v e n i e n t P hys ical

.

c o n t i nu it y i s i n n o w ay essen t ial t o t h e id en t i t y a n d
s i n gl en e s s o f t h e righ t s e xi s t i n g o v e r m a t erial o bj e ct s .

P hy s ical di s c o n t i nu ity m ak es it n o d oub t e a s ier t o

, ,
 TH IN G S EVEN T S A ND A CT S
, ,

se para t e t h os e righ t s an d form n e w c o mbin at i o n s

b ut e as i er on ly in d e gre e O n e Sh e e p may b e b o u gh t
.

an d d riv e n o ff fro m t h e fl o ck o n e ch a i r o u t o f a

s e t m ay b e s o l d o r giv e n a w ay B u t al so w h e n t h e
.

s h ee p b e c o m e s m ut t o n e ach l eg o f mu t t o n may hav e

a se para t e o w n er ; an d a chim n e y in a h o use m ay

b e re pai re d an d t h e o l d m a t e rial s t ak e n by t h e
b u ild er in part p ay m en t o r a wh ol e w i n g o f t h e
,

h ous e m ay b e re b u il t an d t h e mat erial s s old in l o ts .

So fa r w e h a v e s p ok e n o f t hi n g s ( as Li t t l e t o n
s aid ) w h e re o f a m a n m ay h a v e a m a n u al o cc u pa t i o n ,

p o sses s io n o r re c eip t
,
1
.

B ut m a n y el e me n t s O f w e al t h are n o t t a ngibl e I ,
n t an gibl e
’
01
a s w e k n o w w i t h ou t a s s u mi n g an y s p e cial k n o w

l e dge o f l a w T h e w ort h o f fiv e s o ve reign s is in

.

t h e g o ld ; t h e w orth o f a five p o u n d n o t e an d t h e
-
,

rea s o n w h y w e c a n e t fi v e s o v e reig n s for it is

g ,

in t h e c re dit o f t h e Ban k o f E n gla n d Wha t e v e r .

d e b t s are o w e d t o an i n divid u al a firm o r a c o r , ,

p orat io n in t h e c o u rs e o f b u s i n e s s are pa rt o f t h e
a sse t s o f t h e b u s i n e s s N ay m ore t h e g o o d w ill of
.
,

a b u s i n e s s w hich is m ere ly t h e righ t t o

, go o n u s i n g
t h e o l d n a m e c ou pl e d w i t h t h e e xp e c t a t i o n t ha t
,

c us t o m w ill s t ill fo ll o w t h e n am e is o ft e n o f grea t ,

p e c u n i ary val ue .

1
Lit t § 1 0
. .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

T h en w e hav e e xcl u s iv e righ t s w hich t h o ugh ,

n o t m erel y p e rs on al a re o n ly rem o t ely c o n n e c t e d

,

w i t h an y t a n gibl e t hi n g a n d c o n s i s t in t h e l e g a l
,

p o w er o f e xclu din g o t h e rs fro m c o m p et it i on in

re s p e c t o f t h e i r s u bj e c t m a t t er O n e m ay hav e
-
.

a n e xcl u s i ve right t o t ak e fis h in a c ert ai n pi e c e

of w a t er t o ferry pa s se n g ers acro s s a riv er fo r

,

hire a t a c e rt a i n plac e t o m ak e an d s ell a n ew

,

m achi n e o r i n s t ru me nt t o m ul t iply a n d s ell c o pi e s

,

o f a b o o k or a p ri n t A gai n w e may hav e righ t s

.

o v er t a n gibl e t h i n g s which b el o n g t o o t h e rs ; righ t s

o f way o v er l a n d righ t s o f u s i n g o r d e tai n i n g g o o d s

,

by w ay of l o an hi re o r pl e dge an d o th ers Th e s e
, , , .

righ t s c a n b e a n d are re g ard e d in law a s h a vi n g

di st in ct an d me a su rabl e v al ue s an d what e v er h as ,

s u ch val u e is a t hi n g t h o u gh n o t a b o dily an d
,

s e n s ibl e t hi n g T h ese b e n e fi t s c an b e pa rt o f a
.

“
m a n s i n h e ri t a n c e o r g oo d s o f h is e s t at e
’
an d
,

”
e ffe c t s
, t o u s e t h e large s t t e rm k n o w n t o o u r l aw ;

t h e y a re c apabl e o f tran s mi ss i on an d for t h e m o s t ,

part o f v o l u n t ary ali en at i o n We m us t re c ogn is e as

,
.

t hi n g s in fa c t all o bj e c t s o f e xchan g e a n d c o mm e rc e
, ,

w hich are re c o g n i s e d by t h e u s ag e o f man ki n d .

It is o ft en s aid t hat su ch t hi n g s hav e n o b e i n g

s av e in c o n t em pla t i o n o f l a w : t h e R o m a n ph rase
“ ”
is in i ure c on s is t u n t B u t t hi s ( al t h o u gh i t
.
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

c orp ore al t hi ng a s di s t i n ct fro m t h e righ t s e x erci se d

o v e r it Of c o u rs e t h e v al u e o f an i n c o rp o re al
.

t hi n g m a y b e l a rg e ly d u e t o it s re c og n iti o n an d

p ro t e c t i o n by t h e law a n d s o m e i n c orp ore al t hi n gs

,

m ay b e call e d c re a t ures o f t h e l a w B ut n o o ne
.

will s u pp ose t hat t h e val ue o f t a ngibl e p ro p ert y

w o u ld n o t a l s o b e di mi n i s h e d if t h e law s h ou ld

c ea se t o p u n i s h t h e ft o r t o d e cid e q ues t io n s o f
,

ti t l e Th e parall el t h erefore seem s t o h old g o o d

.

n o t w ith s ta n di n g t h e p o ss ibl e a n o m ali e s o f e x t re m e

cas e s .

At t hi s p o i n t it m ay b e w o rt h c o n s id eri ng at ,

t h e ri s k o f a n appa re n t pa rad o x w h e t h e r c o rp o re al
,

t hi n g s t h e mse lv es are so c o rp o re al as w e t hi n k

at fi rs t F or a m a t erial o bj e c t is re ally n o t hin g

.

t o t h e l a w w ha t e v er it m ay b e t o s ci e n c e o r
,

phil os o phy s av e as an o ccas io n o f u s e o r e nj oy

,

m e n t t o m an o r a s a n i n st rum e n t in h u ma n a c t s
, .

In fac t t h ere a re parc e ls o f t e rre s t rial m at t er

w hich a re n o t t hi ng s in t h e law Of so m e su ch
.

parc el s o n gro u n ds o f n e c es s a ry c o n ven i en c e w e

, ,

hav e t o s ay c o mm un ia s un t o mn i um t h e w a t e r ,
”

o f t h e high s e a s fo r e x am pl e ; o f o t h e r s u ch w e

s ay,
fo r re a s o n s o f re ligi o n or s t a t e n ulli us in
,

”
b o n is sun t .T hi s is m u ch e a s i e r t o illu s t ra t e

fro m t h e R o m an l a w t h an fro m o u r o w n ; fo r t h e
 TH IN G S EVEN TS A ND A CTS
, ,

C o mm o n La w abh ors a vac u um o f pro p e rt y : a 1

s t a t e me n t which t h e re ad e r u n l es s h e b e al re ady
,

l e arn e d in t h e l aw mu st p ro vi s ion ally t ak e for

,

grant ed . A t hi ng w hich b e l on g s t o n o b ody is

o f n o l e gal i mp orta n c e u n t il s o m e t hi n g happ e n s t o

b ri ng a p ers on i n t o relat i on w i t h it a n d m ak e it ,

t h e s u bj e c t m at t er o f e n fo rc e abl e righ t s
-
An o l d .

i ron p ot t h ro w n a w ay an d d ropp e d at t h e b ot t o m
o f a ca n al fo r e xa mpl e m igh t w e ll b e n o m ore t o
, ,

t h e l a w t ha n if i t w e re in an o t h e r plan e t I f it is .

s o m e t hi ng t o t h e l a w it is b e ca u s e t h e l o cal l aw
,

m ay happ en t o p ro vid e a s o urs d oes t ha t a ba n d o n

, ,

m en t s hall n o t w h o lly d e s t ro y o r s us p e n d t h e
l egal q u alit ie s o f a cha t t e l w hich h as o n c e b e en
a t hi n g o f val ue . SO t ha t o n t h e w h o l e p e rhap s
“ ”
w e hav e g o o d g ro u n d for s ayi n g t ha t t h e t hi n g

o f l e gal c o n t e m pla t i o n e v e n w h e n w e hav e t o d o

,

w i t h a m at e rial O bj e c t is n o t p re ci s e ly t h e O bj e c t
,

a s w e fin d it in c o m m o n e xp e ri e n c e b u t ra t h e r ,

the en t i re t y of it s p o s s ibl e l e gal rela t i o n s t o

p erson s We s ay e n t iret y n o t s um b e ca u s e t h e
.
, ,

capaci t y o f b ei n g c on c e iv e d as a di s t in ct w h ol e
is a n e c e s s ary a t t rib u t e o f a n i n divid u al t hi n g .

What t h e relat i on s o f a p ers on t o a t hin g c an h e

m u st d e p en d in fa c t o n t h e n at ure o f t h e t hi n g

1
Ho l me s , T h e Co m m on L a w , p . 237 .
 FIR ST B OO K OF J UR ISP R U D ENCE C HA P .

as c o n t in uo u s o r dis c on t i nuo u s c orp ore al or in ,

:

c orp ore al an d in l aw o n t h e charact er an d t h e

,

e x t en t o f t h e p o w ers o f u se a n d di s p o s al which

part ic ul a r s ys t e ms o f l a w m ay rec o g nis e A m an .

w h o h a s c o py righ t in a b o ok c a n ali e n at e b u t

can n o t d es t roy t h e c o pyrigh t th o u gh h e may ,

ch o os e o n s o me s c ru pl e o f c o n s cie n c e again s t
,

m o n o p o ly in Spi ri t u al b e n e fit n o t t o e x e rci s e h is
1
,

righ t o r re ap t h e p ro fi t o f it T h e o w n e r o f an .

u n iq u e m a n u s c rip t c a n d es t ro y it in fac t b ut t h e ,

l a w migh t c on c e ivably fo rbid h im t o d o s o an d ,

p ro b ably w o u ld if t h e Obvi o u s i n t ere s t o f t h o se

t o wh o m t hi n g s o f u n iqu e valu e b e l o n g w e re

n o t t h o u gh t t o b e s u ffi ci e n t se c u ri t y agai n s t w a n t o n

d es t ru c t ion La n d t h o ugh it c a n b e was t e d o r

.
,

in s o me s i t ua t i on s fl o o d e d ca n n o t b e d es t roy e d in
,

t h e s a m e se n s e as ordi n ary cha t t e l s ; a n d s o m e fe w

cha t t el s s u ch a s t h e ha rd er ki n d s o f g ems m ay b e
, ,

c o ns id ere d i n d es t ru c t ible so far as o rdin ary accid e n t s

,

a re c o n c e rn e d a s c o m pare d wi t h p eri s habl e g oo d s

,

and ev en w i t h re la t iv e ly la s t i n g m at erial s o f
c o m m on u se T h ro u gh all t h e ran ge o f n a t ural
.

and l egal div e rs i t i e s h o we v e r a t hin g rem ain s

, , ,

fo r t h e la w y e r s p u rp o s e s t ha t w hich is a t t rib u t e d
’

1
T o l st o y d is cl a im e d al l in t eres t in t h e c o py righ t of h is w o rk s
for so me s u ch re a s o n .
 FIRST B OOK OF JURI SPRUD EN CE CH AP .

s hall s ee w h e n I o p e n t h e cl o set An d so t h e .

o wn erl ess aba n d o n e d t hi n g in s y s t e m s which ad m i t

,

t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f p ro p ert y is t h e m e re p ot en tiali t y o f
,

p o ss ess i o n o r o w n e rs hip t o c o me w h et h e r t h e thi n g ,

i t self b e b urie d t re a s ure or a w ort hl es s t in p ot .

T h ere is a l e gal vac u u m t ill t h e ac t o f an o cc u pi e r o r

fi n d er res t ore s t h e t hin g s o t o s p e ak t o t h e world

, ,

o f l e gal re ali t y . H en c e if w e fin d in a part ic ular

,

s y s t e m o f l a w ru l e s w hich are a s t u t e e v e n t o re fin e

m en t t o p re v e n t t hi s s t a t e o f vac u um t h ere is n o ,

re a s o n t o t re a t s u ch a n e n d e av o u r a s ab s urd In .

fac t t h e O l d m as t ers O f t h e C o mmo n Law did t a k e

t h e li n e O f abh o rrin g v a c a n t p o s s es s i o n o r p ro p e rt y ,

an d
p u t fo rt h e x t re me i n g e n uity t o av o id ad mi t t i n g
“
it . Th e l a w m u s t n e e d s re d u c e t h e p ro pe rt i es
o f all g o o d s t o s o m e m a n
”
1
Wi t h out c o nt e n di n g
.

t ha t t h e y w ere c o n s ci o u s ly l e d by a n y phil o s o phic

re a so n o n e m a
, y b e all o w e d t o t hi n k t ha t w h et h er ,

by s ci en t ific i ns t in c t o r by go o d fort u n e t h ey ,

s h o w e d t h e m s e l ves o n t hi s p o i n t a t l e a s t a s g oo d

philos o ph e rs a s t h e R o m a n l aw ye rs .

S ummary F or t h e p re se n t p u rp os e it is e n o u gh t o k n o w

t ha t in a n y ca s e t h e l e gal n o t io n o f a t hi n g mu s t
“ ”
e x t e n d fa r b e y o n d t h o s e O bj e c t s which are t hin g s

i n t h e p o p ular s e n s e a s b e i n g capabl e o f phy s ical

1
D oct . a nd St u d . Di la . ii . 0
. 51 .
 TH IN GS EV EN T S A ND
, ,
ACTS

app reh en s ion a n d u s e A rt ificia l aggregat e s o f

.

m a t e rial o bj e c t s lik e a library o r a fl o ck o f s h e ep

, ,

a re o n ly t h e fi rs t s t e p in t h e e x t e n s i o n We hav e .

t o i n cl u d e a ll di s t i n c t e l e men t s o f w e al t h t h o ugh ,

n o t ta n gibl e o r s e n s ibl e w hich c a n b e t h e s o urc e

,

o f p ro fitabl e u se or b en e fi t t o a ny c ert ai n p e rs o n .

T h e c o py righ t s ay o f J o w e t t s P l a to is a s m u ch
’

, ,

a t hin g a s a b ou n d v o l ume o f t h e b ook railway

Sha res a re as m u ch t hi n g s as t h e rolli n g s t o ck o f

t h e li n e
.

H o w a part ic u la r t hi n g c a n b e u se d a n d e u
j o ye d is a ma t t er o f fa c t c o n di t ion e d by it s n at u re
a n d q u ali t i e s
,
a n d t hi s wh e t h er t h e t hi n g b e c or

p oreal or i n c o rp ore al s av e t h a t a n i n c orp ore al t hi n g

,

m ay c o n s i s t m ere ly in t h e p o w er o r righ t o f havi n g

so me s t rict ly li mi t e d adv a n t ag e u s i ng a pa rt ic u l ar
,

pat h for e xa mpl e w hil e t h e p o ss e ss or o f a c orp o real

,

t hi n g h as i n d e fi n i t e t h o ugh n o t i n fi n i t e w ays o f

m an ifes t in g h is c on t ro l o v er it Q u e s t i o n s m ay
.

ari s e a s t o w ha t fo rm s o f u se a n d h o w m u ch u s e
, ,

t h e l aw w ill re c o gn i s e as p ro o f o f e ffe c t iv e a n d
1

e xcl u s iv e c o n t rol T h e u s e an d e nj o y m en t re mai n

.

in t h e ms e lv e s m a t t e rs o f p ure fa c t B ut w e c a n
.

s p e ak w i t h c e rt ai n t y o f t h e righ t s o f a p o ssess o r

o r o w n er o n ly w h en w e k n o w w ha t p o w e rs o f u s e

a n d d is p os al a re re c og n i s e d by t h e l a w ; n o t o n ly
 F IRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P
’

h ow t hin g s c an be u s ed , b u t h o w t h e y ma y b e ,
an d

h o w t h e y m ay or mus t not be .

T hi ng s bro u gh t i n t o re la t i on w i t h P ers on s by
are

E ve nt s a n d A c t s which are in t h e w orld Of l a w

,

t ha t w hich m o t i o n is in t h e w o rld o f m a t t e r .

A gre at n u mb er i n d ee d t h e fa r g re at er n um b er o f
,

e v e n t s a n d ac t s are o bvi o us ly o f n o l egal i m p ort

w ha t e v e r Th e fa lli n g of a n appl e fro m a m a n s o w n

’
.

t re e o n h is o w n g ro u n d m ak es n o di ffere n c e in a ny

o n e s righ t s ; a n d for t h e o w n er if h e is o n t h e s p o t
’

, ,

t o pick it u p o r n o t t o pick it u p t o e at o r n o t ,

t o e a t it is a n e x e rci s e o f h is la w fu l di s c ret i o n
,

w hich fro m a l egal p o i n t o f V i e w is e q ually in

di ffe re n t B u t it is i mp os s ibl e t o s ay o f a l mo s t
.

a n y ev e n t o r a c t t ha t it ca n n o t hav e l egal imp o rt

’

'

an c e A v e ry s m all chan ge of ci rc u ms t a n c e s w il l
.

m ak e all t h e differe n c e in t his res p e c t Le t t ha t .

appl e fall fro m a bra n ch p roj e c t in g a fe w fe e t

b e y on d t h e o w n er s b o u n da ry a n d c om e t o res t o n
’

a n e ighb our s la n d H ere is m at ter for qu est i on

’
.

in g a t o n c e Wh o s e is t h e appl e n o w ? D oe s it
.

s t ill b e l o n g t o t h e o wn er o f t h e t re e ? I f s o m ay ,

h e go o n h is n eighb o ur s la n d t o tak e it o r m us t
’
.

h e as k for it ? Or d oes it b e l on g t o t h e n eighb o u r

o n w h os e la n d it h a s fall e n ? if so u n c on di t io n ally ,

o r s u bj e c t t o an y a n d w ha t c o n di t i o n s as t o c o m
 FIR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

b e i n g dire c t ly d e t e rmi n e d by h u ma n i n t e rve n t io n .

It is p ro p e r t o n o t e t h at in a rchaic s y s t e m s o f

l a w t h e p art play e d by ac t s a s c o mpare d wi t h ,

eve n t s ,
is far l ess t han it b e c om e s in m o d ern

s ys t em s F or in e a rly t i m es or t o s p e ak m o re
.
, ,

e xac t ly in e a rly s t ag e s o f civili s a t i on t h e ran g e

, ,
.

acc ord e d t o i n divid u al will a n d di s c re t i o n is b u t

a n arro w on e D i s p os al Of p ro p ert y by a m a n s
.
’

l a s t w ill is p erhap s t h e s t ron ges t ca se o f in divid u al

p o w er w i t h which w e are fa mi l iar We fin d in .
,

fac t t ha t it is a relat ively mo d e rn i n s t it u t i on an d

, ,

u n res t ric t e d p o w er o f t es t a m e n t a ry gift fo r e xa m pl e,

t o t h e e xcl u si o n o f a s u rvivi n g wife o r child re n ,

is n o t fo u n d a t t hi s day in c ou n t ri e s wh ere t h e

R o man l aw h a s s e t t h e rul e in m at t e rs o f i n h e ri t

an ce . No w t h e d e a t h o f a m an h o ldi n g v a l u abl e
p ro p e rt y is an e v en t which mus t n e c e s s arily hav e
s o me l e gal e ffe c t ; fo r t h e la n d s o r g o o d s which

re m ai n m u s t b e l o n g t o s o m e o n e b e it t h e St a t e
,

or on e or m o re i n divid u al p ers o n s n a t u ral o r ,

c o rp orat e In a s ys t e m wh e re di s p os i t io n s by las t
.

w ill a re n o t re c og n i s e d t h e e v e n t o f d e a t h at o n ce
,

c a ll s i n t o Op e ra t i on t h e fix e d ru l e s o f l aw w ha t e v e r ,

t h e y m ay b e w hich d e t ermi n e t h e s u cc e ss i o n t o
,

t h e d e c e a s e d p e rs o n s e s t a t e In a s y s t e m w h e re
’
.

a c e rt ai n s hare ca n n o t b e ali e n at e d by w ill fro m '

 TH IN G S EVEN T S , , AND A CTS

a ma n
’
chil d re n t h e w ill o f a m a n w h o di es
s ,

l e avi n g c h ild ren s o far as it di s pos es of w h at h e

,

h as p o w e r t o di s p o se o f is a n ac t w hich t ak e s ,

e ffe c t u p o n t h e e v e n t o f h is d ea t h So far a s h e .

h a s n o t e x e rci s e d h is di s p o s i n g p o w e rs an d s o fa r ,

as c o n c ern s t h e p o rt ion o f h is es ta t e w hich h e

ca n n o t dis p o se o f t h e righ t s o f h is su cc e s s o r or
,

s u cc ess o rs a re d e t ermi n e d by t h e ru l e s of l a w .

Wh ere full p o w ers o f t es t amen t ary dis p o si t io n

e xi s t ,
a n d a n o w n e r h as e x e rci s e d t h e m as t o t h e

w h o l e o f h is p ro p ert y t h e e v e n t o f h is d e a t h call s
,

h is ac t o f di s p o s i t i o n i n t o play a n d h as n o t a s , ,

re g ard s w ha t w a s c o m p ri s e d in t ha t a c t a n t h
y o e r ,

o p era t io n SO far as h e h as n o t e x erci s e d h is

1
.

righ t s t h e e v e n t o f his d e a t h o p era t e s as in t h e

,

c a se s b efore p u t .

Wh ere ch an ge s are w o rk e d in t h e l e gal righ t s Ac t f s o

”
th l w e a ,

a n d i n t e re s t s o f p ers o n s by ru l es of l a w n ot de d ct an a s
”
i th l w n e a
p e n d en t ou t h e w ill o f a n y part y t hi s is Oft en
.

“
a n d c o n v e n i e n t ly s aid t o b e an
”
a c t o f t h e l aw

“
as co n t ra st e d w i t h a n a c t o f partie s al t h o u gh ,

t h e c o n t ras t is n o t l ogically qu it e e xac t R u le s .

1
We a re n o w s p e a k in g on ly o f
cc ess io n un d e r a w ill a s a n
su

a l t ern t i v e t o i n t e s t a t e s ucc ess io n

a T h e d e v o l u t io n o f p ro p e rt y
.

i n w h ich l im it e d in t ere s t s h a v e b e e n c rea t e d m a y d e p e n d o n

p re v io u s a c t s o f p art ies or o n ru l es o f l a w o r part ly o n t h e o n e
, ,

a n d p rt ly o n t h e o t h er
a It is s u ffic ie n t a n d p re fe ra bl e fo r t h e
.
,

p u rpo s e in h and t o t k e t h e s im pl e s t e x am pl e
,
a .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E

of l aw hav e t o d e t e rm i ne t h e l egal re su l t s Of ac t s
a n d e v e n ts alik e B ut in m a n y t ra n s ac t i on s t h e
.

ru l es l e av e a w id e fre e d o m t o t h e pa rt i es o f app o i n t

in g a t t h e i r o w n pl e a su re w hat t h e re su l t s hall

b e ; t h e l aw mak e s i t s elf in fac t t h e i n s trum en t

, ,

o f t h ei r i nt e n t i o n s a n d i n a m a n n er s t a n d s
,
a sid e .

“
As t h e T we lv e T abl es s aid Cu m n e x um fac iet
man c ip iu m qu e u t i li ng u a n u n c u p as sit ita ius
,

”
e st o .

Th e ph ra s e ac t in t h e l aw may c on v en i en t ly
b e u s e d fo r a n a c t o f p art i es w hich is fi t t e d a n d

d e s ig n e d t o hav e a di s t i n c t l e gal e ffe c t an d al t h o u gh

, ,

it o cc urs w i t h a wid e r a pplica t i o n it se e ms d e s i ra bl e

,

t o re s t ric t it t o t hi s m e a n i n g for which w e hav e

,
:

n o t o t h erw i se a n y c o m p en di o u s En gli s h e xp re ss i o n.

We migh t al s o s p e ak if w e ch o se o f e v e n t s “

in t h e l a w ,
me an i n g e v e n t s p ro d u ci n g s o m e l egal
e ffe c t ; b u t s i n c e j uri s p ru d e n c e t ak es n o t ic e O f

e v e n t s o n ly so far fo rt h a s t h e y c a n hav e l e gal

e ffe ct it w ill al m o s t al w ay s b e su p erfl uo u s t o u se

,

a n y s u ch ph ra se .

T h e a ri si n g o f liabili t y t o su ffe r p u n i s h m e n t ,

or t o pay c o mp e n s at i o n or o t h e rw i s e s u b mit t o
ci vil re d ress by re aso n o f a m erely w ro n gful ac t
,
-

is n o t c o m mo n ly s p o k e n o f a s an ac t Of t h e l a w ,

t h ou gh t h e l iabili t y an d t h e c o rre s p o n di n g righ t

 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

a re o f s u ch i n fre q ue n t o ccu rren c e in t h e a ffai rs o f

1

j u s t ic e t hat it w ould b e qu i t e o ut o f plac e t o d w e ll

u p o n t h e m in a g e n e ral s u rv e y o f l egal id e a s a n d

ca t ego ri e s As t o ac t s o f t h e m i n d w hich are n o t

.

di re ctly m a n ife s t e d in o ut w ard p erforman c e t h e l a w ,

w ill n o t g e n e rally t a k e acc o u n t o f t h e m b o t h b e ,

c a us e t h ey can n o t h e c ert ai nly k n o w n arid b e ca u s e ,

n o c ert ai n re s ul t c a n b e a s s ig n e d t o t h e m B o dily .

m o ti o n s o n t h e o t h er ha n d m ay b e e x e c u te d un d e r
, ,

dire c t m e cha n ic a l c o n s t rai n t w i t h o u t o r agai n s t t h e

,

p ers o n s w ill a s if a m a n s han d sh o uld b e fo rcibly

’

,
’

g uid e d t o m ak e a Sig n a t u re or m ark Such mo t io n s .

a re n o t act s a t all an d a re m e n t i o n e d h e re o n ly
'

b e cau s e form er w ri t ers have t h ought it n e edful o r

p ro p er t o m e n t io n t h e m by w ay Of ab u n dan t ca ut io n .

It is e n o u gh fo r u s t o a t t e n d t o v o l u n t a ry act s as
th e y are c o mmon ly k n o w n an d u n d ers t oo d .

In c o n s id e ri n g v o l u n t a ry ac t s w i t h regard t o

t h e age n t s res p o n s ibili t y it is u s u al t o dis ti ngu i s h

’

b e t w ee n i n t e nt io n an d m o t ive I n t ent i o n is t he
.

w i s h o r d e s i re acc o m pa n yi n g a n a c t a n d havi n g ,

rega rd n o t o n ly t o t h e a c t i t self b u t t o t h e c o n
,

se qu e n c e or c o n se q u e n c es t o b e p ro d u c e d T h us .

i n t e n t io n in cl u d es w ill b u t al s o c o v ers m uch mo re

,

1
To t h e b es t o f m y k no w l e dg e t h e re is no t in t h e w h o l e m a ss
o f E n gl is h re p o rt e d d e c is io n s a n y a u t h o ri t y g o v e rn in g s u ch c a s e s .
 TH IN GS EVENT S A ND A CT S
, ,

th an is c om mo n ly u n d e rs t oo d by t h a t t erm It is .

n ee dl e s s t o d raw t h e li n e for a n y p u rp o s e n o t

s t ric t ly phil os o phical N ear an d o bvi ous c o n .

s e qu e n c es a re fo r all c o mmo n p u rp os e s re ck o n e d
'

pa rt o f t h e a c t i t s elf as w e shall s ee m ore at larg e ,

pres en t ly T h us w h en I p res s t h e b utt on o f an

.

e l e c t ric d oo r b e ll w e s ay t ha t I ri n g t h e b e ll ; in
-
,

o t h e r w o rd s t h e sou n di n g o f t h e b e ll is i n cl u d e d in

m y ac t t h o u gh it re al ly d e p e n d s o n c o n dit i o n s qu it e
,

b ey on d my c o n t rol s u ch as t h e e l e c t rical apparat us

,

b e in g in o rd er My i n t en t i o n e xt en d s t o p ro curi n g
.

t h e d oo r t o b e o p e n e d b e i n g ad m i t t e d if m y fri en d s
,

a re a t h o me l e avi n g a c a rd o r m e s s ag e if t h e y are o u t
, ,

or o t h erw i s e a s th e n a t u re o f m y erra n d m ay b e .

Mo t iv e is u n h appily a mo re a m big uo u s w o rd M t iv
,
1
,
. o e as

“ ”
So m et i m e s w e m e a n by mo t iv e t h e d e s i re fo r

a part ic u l ar re s u l t w hich i n d u c es a p ers on t o a c t A ffifil l

g l ’

in a m ann er fi t t e d t o b ri n g ab ou t t h at re s ul t We .

s p e a k h e re o n ly o f t h os e m o t iv es w hich a re e ffe c t u al .

F o r p o ss ibl e grou n d s o f ac t i o n w hich are c o n s id e re d

an d rej e c t e d a n d t h ere fo re d o n o t e n t er i n t o t h e
,

d e t ermin at io n o f a n y ac t a re plainly b ey on d t h e ,

1
B en t h am bl e d by it s mu l t ifa rio u s n e ss P ri n é p l es of
w a s t ro u ,
e

Ill ora l s a n d Legi s l a t i on ch X 1 s s iv vi,

In t h e B nk ru p t cy
. .
, . .
-
. a

Ac t 1 8 8 3 s 4 8 t h e w o rd v iew is u s e d a pp are n t ly w it h t h e
”
.
, , , ,

m ea n in g o f u l t im at e a s d is t in g u is h e d fro m im m ed ia t e in t e n t io n .

It h as n ot b e en fo u n d t o o cl e a r for d is c u s s io n : s e e N ew P ra n ce , ,

a n d G a rra rd s t ru s t ee v H u n t i n g [ 1 8 9 7 ] l Q B
’
. 61 6 i
. . .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

S oc p e o f l e gal j u dg me nt Now SO far as d e sire o f .

,

t hi s o r t hat part ic u lar res u l t is c on c e rn e d it w o u ld ,

s e em t ha t n o t hi n g c an b e p re se n t in a m an s m o t iv e s
’

( t ha t i s e f
f e c t
,
u al m o t iv e s ) w hich is n o t al s o p res e nt

in h is i n t en t i o n F o r h is i n t e n t i o n h o w e v er far
.
,

it e x t e n d s is d e t e rmi n e d p o i n t fo r p o i n t by h is
, , ,

d e s ire s Th e d es i re d a n d i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s
.

o f a n acti o n m u s t b e c o m m e n s u ra t e wi t h t h e d es i res

t hat p ro m p t e d it E v ery re pres ent a t io n o f a p re

.

ferre d o bj e ct in c o n t emplat i on h as it s a c t iv e
e q u ival e n t in t h e fo rm e d i n t e n t i o n In de lib era .

t i o n w e w o rk b a ck w ard s fro m t h e u l t i m at e o bj e c t

t o t h e i n t erm e diat e m e an s an d en d wi t h t h e ,

i m m e diat e a c t t o b e d o n e : in w ill o r i nt e nt i o n w e
s tart fro m t h e i m m e dia t e ac t a n d l o o k forw ard t o

t h e d es ire d c on s e qu e n c e s T hi s w as cl e a rly s een

.

by A ri st o t l e w h o p o i n t s ou t t hat t h e c on t en t s o f
,

d e lib era t ion ( t h e w e ighin g o f m ot iv e s ) an d ch o ic e

( t h e fo rm a t i o n o f i n t e n t i o n ) are t h e s a me e xc e p t ,

t ha t in ch o ic e t h e m at t er o f d e lib e ra t i o n is fi n ally

d et erm i n e d ; i n t e n t ion is t h e s um o f what is ch o s en

as d e s i rabl e a m o n g t h e o bj e c t s o f d es i re :
1
the two
‘
Ka i n p oa t p er ov T o a irr é w h ip! d ¢wpw né vov
’
1
o vh e vr ou
B 66 , # 577 r d
‘
fis [So vh fis n p o x t d ey n po a t p er é v é arw E th
n p oa rp er é v rb y dp é
'
K r p . .

N i c I I I iii
. . A ris t o t l e l o ok s t o t h e ac t iv e pro c e s s o f t h e
. 17 .

k
m in d ( Bankno t e, n poa lp ea t s ) w h ere w e l o o t o t h e m a t eria l s o r re s u l t
'

o f t h e p ro c e s s ( m o t iv e o r d e s ire , in t e n t io n ) It is no t o v io u s t h a t . b
A ris t o t l e s ’
w ay i s t h e w o rs e .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

m ean s t o d es i re d e n d Oft en have u n d es irabl e

s o me

featu res w hich are t o l erat e d fo r t h e s ak e o f t h e

en d . No v oyag e c an b e wh o lly fre e fro m p eril s
o f t h e s ea ; n o t rav e ll e r c an e xpl ore a n e w c o u n t r
y
wi t h o u t k n o w n an d u n k n o wn dang ers ; n o grea t
w o rk o f e n gi n e eri n g c a n b e e x e c u t e d w i t h ou t s o me

ri s k t o life a n d h e al t h
1
E ve ry o n e w o uld m ak e
.

h is w o rk p erfe c t ly s afe if h e c o u ld b u t t h e ri s k ,

t ha t re m ai n s aft er t aki n g a ll re a s o n abl e a n d p rac

t ic ab l e p re ca u t i o n s h as t o b e acc e pt e d t h o ugh n o t

w e lc o m e d T h ere is a diffe re n c e agai n b e t w ee n

.
, ,

d ra w back s w hich are a n e c es s ary pa rt o f a p rop ose d

c ou rs e an d t ho s e w hich a re o n ly m o re o r l es s
,

p ro babl e i n ciden t s ; in t h e forme r ca s e an ac t io n

re p u g n a n t in s o m e w ay s is n e v ert h e l e s s d e cid e d

u po n a s w h ere a w e ll gro w n t re e is c u t d o w n fo r
,
-

t h e s ak e o f ligh t o r s pac e ; in t h e la t t er t h ere is

o n ly t h e t aki n g o f adv e rs e cha n c es as wh e re a ,

m o u n t ai n eeri n g part y rat h er t ha n aba n d o n an ex

,

p e d it io n c ross es a cou l oi r liabl e t o b e s w e p t by

,

falli n g s t o n es .

So far w e hav e t ak e n m o t iv e in t h e s e n s e o f
e x t ern al mo t iv e as it m ay b e call e d t h e pa rt ic u la r
, ,

“
i n d u c e men t t o a c o urs e o f ac t io n B u t mo t iv e .
”

1
Qu i reu t la fin veu t l t S moy en s i s a g en era l t ru t h in t h i s
q u a l ifi e d s e n s e : one m igh t ad d as a gl oss ,
meme qu a nd i l vo u d ra i t

a u t re ch os e .
 TH IN G S EVEN TS A ND A CT S
, ,

c an al so m ea n i n t ern al mot ive t h e gen eral m oral ,

1

qu ali t y o r di sp os i t i on o f t h e agen t which is a

c on st a n t el e men t a s c ompared w it h part icu lar
i n d uc e men t s a n d giv es weigh t in h is d elib erat io n
,

t o t hi s o r t hat i n d uc e m e n t T h e e ffe c t o f g e n e ral

.

mo ral q u ali t y o r di sp o si t i on in t h e p ro c e ss o f
d elib era t io n a n d ch o ic e is fo r m an y p urpos es m ore
i mp ort a n t t han t h e a v erag e o r Obj ec t ive val u e ( SO
far as t h ere is an y ) o f t hi n g s rep u t e d d e s i rabl e .

“ ”
An d t hi s s ee m s t o b e t h e m e an i n g o f m o t ive
p re ferre d by t h e b est mo d ern a u t h ors w h en e xac t
dis t i n c t ion is re q uire d I n o rdi n ary l an gu ag e w h en
.
,

w e s p e ak o f t h e m o t iv e s for a n ac t i o n w e a re fo r ,

t h e m os t pa rt c on s ci o u sly o r u n c o n s ci o u sly t aki n g

e x t e rn al a n d i n t ern al m o t iv es t o g e t h e r I n t ern al .

mo t iv e o r t h e g e n e ral di sp o s i t i o n fro m w hich a n

,

a c t p ro c ee d s is O bvi o u s ly n o t capabl e o f p ro o f by
,

t h e fac t s o f a pa rt ic ular ca s e al o n e .

I f w e are a s k e d t h ere fo re h ow far t h e law E xt

, , l ern a

m t iv i o e s
regard s m o t iv e a s di s t i n c t fro m i n t e n t i o n w e mu s t ft , o en c o n
id d i
an s w er wit h t h e c ou n t e r qu es t i o n : E x t e rn al o r l w
-
s

a
e re

.
n

i nt ern al m o t ive ? T h e re is n o d ou b t t ha t t h e l aw
d o es t ak e a cc o u n t o f e x t ern al mot ive as em b o di e d
in i n t e n t i o n Mo t iv e in t h is se n s e t h e d e sire o r
.
,

1
All m ot iv e is i nt e rn a l in o n e s e n se fo r it c n o p era t e o n ly in
,
a

c o n s c io u s n e s s B ut it is e n o u gh t h a t t h e d is t in c t io n b e in t e ll igibl e
. .
 FIRST B OO K OF J UR ISPR U D ENCE C HA P .

p urpo s e o p erat iv e in t h e ag e nt s ch o ic e is o ft en
’

cap abl e Of p roo f an d may b e ma t erial t o Sh o w t h e

,

i n t en t i o n wi t h which an ac t w as d on e : an d in ca ses
wh ere t h e q u e s t ion is by w h o man act w as d o n e ,

t h e p rese n c e o r ab se n c e o f m o t iv e— t ha t is t h e fac t ,

or p ro b a bl e app e a ra n c e tha t a giv e n p erso n d e s i re d

a n e n d which t h e act w as fi tt e d t o at t ai n o r t h e ,

ab s e n c e of a ny s u ch app eara n c e — is c o n st an t ly
di s c uss ed an d may in t h e ab s en c e Of direc t e vid en c e
, , ,

hav e gre at w eight In a case Of u n l aw fu l w o un d

.

ing t h e p ri so n e r s i n t e n t t o d o g ri e v ou s harm m ay
’

app e ar n o t o n ly fro m t h e n at ure o f t h e weap on t h e ,

circ ums t an c e s o f t h e at t ack an d t h e li k e b u t fro m

, ,

p revi o u s d e clarat io n s o f ill will t ow ards t h e p ers o n

-

a t t ack e d
. Si m ilar c o n s id erat i on s apply in ca s es
wh ere w e hav e t o c on s id er wh e t h er t h e re h as b een
a n i n t en ti o n al a c t o f a giv e n p ers on at all Th e .

first Lord St Le o n ard s w as k n o w n t o hav e m ad e a

.

'

w ill ; t h e w ill w a s n ot fort hc o mi n g aft er h is d e at h ;

p ro o f of it s c on t en t s w as h o w e v er fort hc o mi n g a n d ,

w as ad mi t t e d . It had t o b e d e cid e d w h et h e r Lord

St Le on ard s had d e s t ro y e d t h e w ill w i th t h e in t en

.

t i o n o f re v o ki n g it or o n t h e c o n t rary it had b ee n
, , ,

s e c re t ly s t o l e n ; a n d it w as s h o w n t ha t h is c o n d u c t

a n d e xp re s s e d fe e li n g s d o w n t o t h e la s t d ay s o f h is
,

life h ad b e en t h o se Of a m an w h o b eli e ve d t h e wil l

,
 FIR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

affe c t i o n o r b en e v olen c e A m an wh o s t e al s fo o d
.

fo r his h u n gry child re n is a t hi ef a s w e ll a s o n e w ho

s t e al s m o n e y t o b uy liq u o r a n d ge t d ru n k b u t t h ey ,

will ha rdl y b e p un i s h e d ali k e u n d er a s y st e m which

l e av e s any dis c ret io n t o t h e j udg e Th e p os it iv e .

d e fi n i t io n s an d j u dg men t s o f law as dis t in c t fro m

,

j u dicial di s cret ion d o n o t as a rul e at t empt t o

,

c on s id er i n t ern al di sp o s i t io n s A c t s c an b e p ro v e d
.

an d t h e i r c o n se q u e n c e s t rac e d ; t h e s p ri n g s o f c on

d u c t are for t h e m os t pa rt hi dd e n I n s o me e x c ep
.

t io n al ca s es h o w e v er t h e di sp os i t i o n fro m w hich a n
, ,

ac t p ro c ee d s is t ak e n i n t o acc o u n t a s di s t in c t f ro m

“ ”
t h e i nt en t i o n . T h e w o rd m alic e wh en i t m ea n s
,

a n y t hi n g m o re t ha n t h e i n t e n t i on o f d o i n g a n
u n la w fu l a c t s e e m s t o b e t h e s p e cific m a rk o f s u ch
,

ca s e s ( t h ere are n o t m a ny o f t h em) in t h e lan gu ag e

o f t h e C o mm o n La w .

It h as al re ady app e a re d in t h e c o u rs e o f t h e

fore go i n g e xpla n at io n t hat i nt e n t io n is al mos t

al w ay s m a n ifo ld a n d c ompl ex M o s t act s are d on e
.

wit h a vi e w t o a s e ri e s o f res u l t s o f which some o r

,

o n e a re g e n e ra lly su b ordi n a t e t o s om e o t h e r re s u l t

or g ro u p o f res ul t s for t h e s ak e o f w hich t h e ac t i o n

.

is u n d ert ak e n a n d w hich is c o m m on ly call ed it s

,

e n d o r p urp os e .A m a n w ri t e s w i t h t h e p ro xi m at e
i nt e n t o f s et t in g d o w n c ert ai n wo rd s an d s ent en c es
 TH IN GS EVENTS A ND A CT S
, ,

if h e is w ri t in g a b oo k h e h a s t h e furt h er in t e n t
,

t ha t t h e y m ay b e pri n t e d a n d p u bli s h e d a n d h is ,

u l t i m a t e a n d p ri n cipal en d s m ay b e t o i n s t ruct o r

a m u se t h o s e wh o re ad t h e b oo k t o p roc ure gain o r

,

re p u t a t i o n t o hi m se lf t o adva n c e t h e i n t e re s t s o f
,

h is part y o r t o p ro mo t e s o m e u n d ert aki n g which h e

h as at h e a rt o r all o r s om e o f t h ese t hi n g s m ay b e
,

d es ired by h im in e qu al or vari ou s d eg rees A .

h ou seh old e r is aro u se d in t h e n igh t by t h e s ou n d o f

foo t s t ep s w hi ch h e b elie ve s t o b e a ro bb er s an d ’

fi res a s h o t o u t o f t h e win do w His i mm e dia t e .

i n t e n t is t o dis charg e t h e gun o r pi s t ol His .

furt h er i n t en t is t o s ca re a w ay t h e t hi e f an d t o ,

s u mm on t o h is aid a n y c o n s t abl e o r o t h er t rue ma n

w h o ma y b e wi t hi n h e ari n g t h e s e are t w o c o n s is t en t

a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s b u t di s t i n c t p u rp oses .

F or s i mplici t y s s ak e w e c o mmo n ly re ck o n th e P x im t
’
ro a e

CO D SC
i mm e d i at e an d u s ual c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n a c t w h e n u en c e s
q ,

k d
t o all app e ara n c e t h e y are i n t e n d e d an d fo ll o w a s
" ac
i nt en d e d as part of t h e ac t i t self an d w e s p e ak
, ,

o f i n t e n t i on o n ly wi t h re fe re n c e t o t h e fart h er

c on se qu en c e s In t h e ac t o f s h oo t i n g for e xa m pl e
.
, ,

t h e m a n s o w n a c t s t o p s if w e are t o s p ea k w it h
’

s t ri c t p re cis i on a t p u lli ng t h e t rigge r b u t t h e

, ,

di s ch arg e o f t h e g un in t h e dire c t io n give n t o

t h e ba rre l by t h e m an s a im is c o un t e d a s pa rt
’
 FIR ST B OO K o r JURI SPRUDE NCE C HA P .

of the a ct . Thi s is w e ll illus t rat e d in a n e arly

pass age o f t hat c uriou s an d di s c urs ive b ook ,

Ab raha m T u ck e r s Ligh t of Na t u re ’
.

In s p ea k in gc t io n be sid es t h e se v era l c o e x ist en t

of a ,
-

m o t io n s an d s e v eral s u cc ess i v e v o l it io n s b e fo re m e n t ion e d -

,

w e o rd in arily c o m p re h en d se v e ra l o p e rat io n s o f o t h er a g e n t s

a c t in g in a se ries t o w a rd s c o m pl ea t in g t h e p u rp os e w e h a d

i n v iew p ro v id e d w e c o n c e i v e t h e m n e c essa ri ly c o n s e q u e n t
,

u p o n o ur v o l it io n T h us w h e n R o ge r s h ot t h e h a w k h o v er
’

in g o v e r h is mas t e r s d o v e h o use h e o nl y p ul l e d t h e t ri gg e r
’
-
, , ,

t h e a c t io n o f t h e s p rin g d ro v e d o w n t h e fl in t t h e a c t io n o f
, ,

t h e flin t s t ru c k fire in t o t h e p an t h e a c t io n o f t h e fire s e t ,

t h e p o w d e r in a b l az e t h a t o f t h e p o w d er fo rc e d ou t t h e
'

Sh o t t h at o f t h e s h o t w o u n d e d t h e b ird an
,
d t h at of gra v it y ,

b ro ug h t h er t o t h e g rou n d B ut al l t h is w e asc rib e t o R o ge r

.
,

fo r w e s ay h e b rou g h t d o w n t h e fe l o n an d if w e t h in k t h e

s h o t a n ic e o n e a ppl au d h im fo r h a v in g d o n e a cl e v er fea t
, .

S o l ik e w ise w e cl aim t h e ac t io n s o f o t h er p erso n s fo r o ur

.

o wn ,
w h en e v er w e e xp e c t t h e y w i ll c ert ain ly fo l l o w as w e ~

s h a ll d ire c t Wh en S qu ire P e rem p t o ry d ist rain e d h is

.

t e n an t for ren t p erh a p s h e d id n o m o re t h a n w rit e h is

,

o rd e rs in a l e t t e r t h is h is servan t carrie d t o t h e p o s t
,
t he ,

p o s t m an c o n v ey e d it in t o t h e c o u n t ry w h e re it w as ,

d eli ve re d t o t h e st ew a rd w h o s en t h is cl erk t o m ak e t h e
,

d ist ress Ye t w e as crib e t h e w h o l e t o t h e Squire s o w n

.
’

d o in g for w e say h e d is t rain e d h is t e n an t an d c al l it a

, ,

p rud en t o r a c rue l ac t a cc o rd in g as w e t h in k o f t h e c irc u m

,

s t an c es o f t h e c ase .

H e n c e t h e l a w m a x im h e t h at d o es a t h in g b y a n o t h er
, ,

d o es it hi ms e lf ; w h i ch t h o u gh v a l id in West min st er H all

w il l n o t h o ld g o o d in t h e s ch oo l s o f m e t a phy s ic s fo r t h ere ,

w e s h a ll fin d n o t h in g a n a c t o f t h e m in d t h at is n o t t h e
i mm e d iat e p ro d u c t o f h e r v o l it io n B u t fo r t h e u s es o f .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

t h em w e re i n te n d e d or foreseen a n d which n o t ,

and t h en w e m ay hav e t o fall b a ck o n o t h er

e vid en c e o f wha t t h e p erson acti ng did at t h e

o u t se t i n t e nd an d d es i re A ma n c o mes o u t o f
.

h is h o u s e ca rryi n g a s t ick ; aft er w alki n g a fe w

st ep s h e t urn s back o p e n s t h e d oo r g o e s in
, , ,

an d c om es o ut aga i n wi t h a n u mb rella We .

may gu ess t hat h e re t urn e d t o fe t ch a n um b rella

b e cause h e t h o ugh t t h e sky l o o k e d rain y B ut .

t hi s is o n ly o n e g u es s an d may n o t b e t h e righ t

one . He m ay n o t hav e had a ny t h ou gh t o f b e i n g

rai n e d u p o n o r an y i n t en t i o n o f p ro t e c t i n g hi m s e lf

from ra i n P e rhap s h e t h ough t h e w o uld t ak e t h e

.

u m b re ll a t o b e m e n d e d .P erhap s h e w en t back
fo r so me t hin g q u i t e di ffere n t a n d t h en t o o k u p
,

t h e u mb rella ra t h e r t ha n t h e s t ick by di s t rac t i o n

or m ere accid e n t . T h e c onn e c t i o n o f ac t a n d

i n t e n t is alre ady re m o t e an d p re ca ri ous e v e n in ,

s o s i mpl e a ca s e un l es s w e hav e s o m e i n d e p e n d e n t
,

g u i d a n c e for o ur j udgm en t .

E v en m an ife s t i n t en t io n is hardly t re a t e d as a
p os sibl e or p ro p er s u bj e c t m a t t er o f j u dicia l p ro o f
-

in a rchaic s y s t e m s o f l aw Wh e re t h e a n aly s is o f
.

g e n eral c on c ep t i o ns if a n y t h ere b e is o f a c ru d e
, ,

a n d ru di m e n t a ry ki n d an d t h e m e t h o d s o f p ro o f
,

are c u m b ro us a n d o f i n fl e xibl e formali t y t h e re are

,
 TH IN GS EVEN T S A ND A CT S
, ,

no me a n s of app ort i on in g l iabili t y for ac t s w i t h

regard t o t h e act or s i n t e n t
’
. E arly l aw fas ten s
o n s o me pa rt ic u la r e x t e rn al q u ali t y o f a n a c t , an d

m ak es tha t t h e d e ci s iv e t e s t . T h us in t h e m o d e rn

C o mmo n La w t h e di fferen c e b et w een murd er t h e ,

capi t al o r m ore c ulpabl e d egre e o f h o micid e a n d ,

m a n s l au gh t e r t h e l ess c ul pabl e i n v o lv e s n o t o n ly
, ,

t h e n o t i o n o f i n t e n t i o n b u t c o n s id erabl e re fi n e me n t s
“ ”
o n it . B u t origi n ally m urd er mea n t n o t hi ng b u t
se c re t killi n g e s p e cially by p o i so n o r w i t chc raft
, .

It is c o mm o n k n o w l e dge t ha t c o n s e qu e n c e s o f U i n n

t d d
en e c on

a n ac t w hich are ma n ife s t ly i n t e n d e d o ft e n d o n o t se

q c
uen es

d i t
an n en t
fo ll o w a n d un i n t e n d e d c o ns e qu en c e s d o ; as w h ere w it h t
, ou

c o us e
o n e t h ro ws a c rick e t ball a t t h e w ick e t o r a s t o n e, q u e n c es .

at s o me o bj e c t ch o s en at ran do m a n d mi ss es ;
,

w h e re a s o ldi er ro u se d in ca m p by a n igh t al arm

s eiz e s h is pi s t o l an d fi ri n g in ha s t e s h o o t s h is o w n
, ,

t oe s i n s t e ad of t h e supp o se d e n e my ; w h e re a m a n

t ryi ng t o o p e n a l o ck e d d oor w i t h t h e p ro p e r k ey

fi n d s t ha t t h e pip e o f t h e ke y is ch ok e d or t h e l o ck
is o u t o f o rd er an d t h e lik e
,
. We m us t by n o
m e an s s u pp o se t h a t i n e ffe ct u al i n t e n t i o n s are o f n o
i mp o rt an c e in l aw for su ch i n t e n t i on s may w ell b e
,

t h e gro un d o f liabil i t y fo r m ore t han o n e reas o n .

At t emp t s t o c om m it o ffe n c es are c omm o n ly p u n is h

’

abl e an d t h e me n ac e o f b o dily vio l en c e in a c t is a

,
 FIR ST B O OK OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

c o mpl e t e civil i nj ury by ou r l aw t h ou gh it may ,

s t o p s h ort o f t h e ac t u al app l ica t i o n o f forc e ; o r ,

a s w e s ay in t e ch n ical la n g u ag e a ss au l t w i t h ou t
,

bat t e ry is ac t i on abl e T h e high e s t cri me k n o w n t o

.

t h e l a w t ha t o f high t re a s o n is s i n g u larly e n o u gh
,

d e fi n e d i n it s fi rst b ra n ch n a mely t ha t o f c ompa ss

, ,

in g o r i m agi n i n g t h e d e a t h o f t h e ki n g h is c o n so rt , ,

o r t h ei r s o n a n d h e ir—apparen t a s c o n s i s t i n g in
,

i n t en t i o n ; s o t hat e v e n c o mpl et e e x e c u t io n o f t h e
d es ign is o n ly e vid en c e o f t h e i nt e nt io n w h ich
c on st it ut e s t h e o ffe n c e B ut this app ears t o b e a
.

hi st orical c uri o s it y o f t h e law n o t fi t t e d t o illu s t ra t e

a n y g e n eral p ri n cipl e .

We m ay n ow t ak e a s u mm ary vi e w o f t h e way s
in w hich ac t s c a n p ro du c e resp on s ibili t y in o t h e r ,

w ord s c re a t e d u t i e s an d c orres p on din g righ t s A .

gre at n u mb er o f ac t s are in t h e ms e l ves m erely

i n diffe re n t t o t h e l aw that is t o s ay d o n ot w ork
, ,

a n y cha n g e in e xi s t i n g d u t i e s or righ t s We s ay .

“ ”
in t h e ms e lv es b e ca us e n o t e v ery act which c an
b e d o n e w i t h i mm e diate i m p un i t y is righ t ful o r

app ro v ed an d t h e di s ti n c t i on b etwe en act s allo w e d

,

as righ t fu l an d ac t s a n d c o n d u c t barely t o l erat e d

c an b e a n d is appli e d in t h e adm i ni s t ra t i o n o f
j u s t ic e in various i n dire c t ways .

A c t s w hich d o cre at e o r mo dify right s d o s o

 FIRST B OO K O F J URI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

ol d fa s hi o ne d te xt b o o k s hav e s u rro u nd e d t h e w ord

- -

Mis t ak e w hich a s I hav e s aid el s e w h ere is n o t a

, , ,

s ubs t a nt iv e h e ad o f j uri s p ru d e n c e or l egal p rac t ic e

1
a t al l .

No ge n eral pro p os it i o n c an b e fra m e d as t o t h e

e ffe c t o f a pa rt y t o a l egal t ra n s ac t i o n havi n g ac t e d

u n d e r a wro n g b e li e f o r in ig n ora n c e o f s o m e m a t t er
,

o f fac t o r l a w w hich m igh t hav e cha n g e d h is mi n d

if h e had k no wn it T h ere may b e s u ch error as t o .

p re v e nt t h e form at ion o f c o n sen t in a t ran s ac t io n fo r

w hich c o n s en t is re q u i re d ; t h e re m ay b e s u ch e rror
’

a s a n o t h e r pa rt y o u gh t n o t t o p ro fi t by b e ca u s e h e ,

h a s ca us e d o r c o nt rib ut e d t o it ; t h ere m ay b e in

o t h e r w ays in c o n s e q u e n c e o f e rro r a fa il ure o f t h e

, ,

c o n di t i o ns re qu i re d for t h e t ra ns ac t io n t o h old go o d .

B ut t h e re is n o g e n e ral rul e t hat e v e n m i s t ak e o f

fa c t is an e xc u se m u ch l ess t hat ign o ra n c e o f l a w

,

w ill reli e v e a m a n fro m liabili t y So m e t i me s it is .

s aid t hat e v e ry m a n is p re s u m e d t o k n o w t h e law b u t ,

t hi s is o n ly a s l o v e n ly w ay o f s tat i n g t h e t ru t h that
'

ig no ra n c e o f t h e law is n o t in ge n eral a n e xc us e 2
.

I
Th e L a w o f F ra ud ,
et c . i n B ri t i s h I nd ia ( T a g ore La w Le c t u res ,

p . 1 08 . su bj e c t
d is c us s ed a t
The is l arg e in my P ri n cip l es
of Co n t ra ct ch i x ,
a n d s e e Sa l m o n d J u ri sp ru d en ce 3 7 5
. .
, , .

2 “
T h e re is n o p re s u m p t io n in t h is c o u n t ry t h a t e v ery p e rs o n
k n o ws t h e l a w it wo uld b e c o n t ra ry t o c om m o n s e n se a nd re a s on
i f it w ere s o M au l e J in fil a rt ind a l e v F a l kner
,
.
, 2 C B . . .

7 06 , 7 1 9 , 6 9 R R 6 02 , 6 1 1 . . .
 TH IN G S EVEN TS , ,
AND A CT S

Agai n co nse nt
, gh t t o b e full an d free ; it I mp f c t
ou er e

c t o n se n .

is n o t e n ough t ha t t h e re is an y s o rt o f c o n s e n t .

Q ui t e real c o n s e n t m ay b e b rou gh t ab ou t by
c om p ul s ion o r fraud an d t h e act t h o ugh n o t a, ,
‘

nu lli t y may b e liabl e t o b e d e prived o f it s e ffe c t if

,

di sp u t e d in t h e i n t eres t o f t h e part y w h o h as b een

'

c o erc e d o r d e c e ive d Sim ilar ru l es apply t o s ome

.
,
.

e x t e nt ,
t o t h o s e ac t s w h e re o nly t h e i n t en t i on o f

o n e p ers o n is in qu es t io n o f w hich di s p o s i t i o n s by
z
,

w i l l are t h e m o s t i mp o rt a n t We d o n ot e n large .

o n t h ese m a t t ers for w e are n o w c o n s id eri n g o n ly

,

w h a t are t h e p o s s ibl e effe c t s o f ac t s n ot e xa mini n g ,

.

t h e c o n di t io n s t ha t d e t erm i n e w hat e ffe c t pa rt ic u la r

kin d s o f ac t s are t o h av e B u t t h ere is o n e d is .

.

t i n c t i o n t o b e m e n t i on e d w hich is o f gre at i mp o rt

an c e in al mo s t e v e ry b ra n ch of p riva t e l a w .

An a c t t hat is i n capabl e o f t aki n g e ffe ct acc o rd

"
'

in g t o it s a ppare n t p urp ort is s aid t o b e vo id : c t 1

a s.

On e w hich m ay t ak e effe c t b ut is liabl e t o b e ,

d e p rived o f e ffe c t at t h e Op t io n of s om e or o n e o f
A vo idabl e ac t
’

t h e pa rt i e s is s a id t o b e v o idabl e
,
.

c an b e o bj e c t e d t o o n ly by t h e party s pe cial ly
e n t i t l e d t o di s p ut e it o r s o m e o n e s t an di n g in h is
,

plac e an d s o far an d s o l o n g as n o s u ch o bj e c t ion

, ,

1
It d o es fo ll o w t h a t a n ac t v o id in it s p rima ry
not in t e n t io n
m ay not h a ve some e ffec t in so me o t h e r c a pa c it y .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUD EN C E

h as b een mad e it m us t b e t re ate d as valid an d

,

e ffe c t u al . M ore o ver t h e p o w er o f o bj e ct i n g is

,

li mit e d in c ert a i n way s o u t o f re gard for t h e

i n t ere st s which o t h er p ers o n s m ay hav e acqu ire d in
g o o d fa it h o n t h e s t ren gt h o f an apparen t ly val id
ac t I n t hi s m ann e r act s o f di s p o s al o r c o n sent
‘

w hich w e re n o t bi n di n g in t h e fi rs t i n s t a n c e a s

b e t w e e n t h e part i es may b e c o mpl et e ly bi n di n g as

b et w e e n a part y w h o s e c o n s en t h as b een i n d u c e d
by frau d o r t h e lik e a n d an i n n o c e n t t hi rd
, ,

p erson .

We m u s t b e c are ful n ot t o s ay t ha t a v o id ac t
c an hav e n o l e gal e ffe c t a t all I t can n o t p ro d u c e
.

it s i nt e n d e d o r appa re n t e ffe c t b u t it m ay hav e

, ,

s e ri o u s e ffe c t s w hich w e re n ot i nt end ed A .

c ere mo n y o f m arriage b et w ee n t wo p e rs o n s o f
w h o m o n e is al re ady m arri e d t o a livi n g w ife or
'

h us ban d is a n u lli t y s o far as c o n c ern s t h e

p ret en d e d m arri ag e b ut it w ill g en erally c o n s t i t u t e
,

t h e o ffe n c e o f biga m y .

T h e l a w g en e rally ai ms at givi n g e ffe c t s o far a s

,

p oss ibl e t o t h e la w ful ac t s a n d i nt e n t io n s o f part i es

, .

B ut it is n e e dful fo r se c u ri t y s an d c e rt ai n t y s s ak e
’ ’

t ha t i n t e n t i o n s o f al t eri n g e xi s t i n g rights a n d

m aki n g di s p os i t i o n s fo r t h e fut u re b e s uffi ci en t ly

m an ifes te d an d w it h t hi s o bj ec t in Vi e w t h e law s
, , ,
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

abl e . H e re t h ere m ay b e s aid t o be a b re ach o f

dut y ,
ly b e ca u se t h e l a w for
b ut on ,
s p e cial re as o n s
1
,

h as in t h e s e ca s e s i m p os e d a n ab s o l u t e a n d u n qu al i

fie d d u t y o f p re v e n t i n g o n e s p ro p e rt y fro m d o i n g
’

ha rm T h us a m an if h e k e ep s a w ild a n im al d o e s
.
, ,

so at h is p e ril a n d p e rs o n s d e ali n g wi t h o t h e r
,

t hi n g s w hich a re acc o u n t e d e s p e ci a lly da n g ero u s are

u n d e r t h e lik e ru l e I n t h e ca se o f b re ach o f
.

c o n t ra c t t h e d u t y b ro k e n o r n o t p erform e d h as b e e n
i mp o s e d o n t h e part y by h is o w n c o n s e n t an d will ,

a n d t h e re fo re t h e q u es t i o n is g e n e rally n o t w h e t h er

h e w as t o bla me b ut o n ly w hat h e u n d ert o ok an d

,

w h e t h e r h e fail e d ; a n d if h e did fail fro m wh a t ,

e v e r ca u se t o fulfil h is u n d e rt aki n g h e is li a bl e
, , .

H ere h o w e v e r t h e liabili t y a l t h ough n o t e xac t ly

, , ,

i n t e n d ed w a s c o n t em pla t e d an d in t h e e ve n t o f
, , ,

fail u re t o p erform t h e p ro mi s e acc e p t e d b e forehan d , .

I f t h e s c o p e o f a p ro mi s er s u n d e rt aki n g o r a n y p art
’

o f i t is li m i t e d t o u s i n g d u e dil ig e n c e fo r a s p e cifi e d
,

p urp os e t h e n w e hav e q u e s t i o n s id en t ic a l w i t h t h o s e
,

w hich a ri se o u t o f s i m ila r d u t i e s imp o s e d by t h e

ge n eral law Th e t wo ki n d s o f d u t y may e v e n

.

1
In m a n y c a s e s t h e h is t oric a l o rig in o f e xc e p t io n a l ru l es o f l a w
h as v ery l it t l e t o d o w it h t h e re a s o n s t h a t c a n b e a s s ig n e d fo r
u ph o ld i n g t h em i n m o d ern t imes B u t w h e re a n a rch a ic rul e h a s
.

c o n t in u e d in fo rc e t o o ur o wn t im e w it h o u t a ny s erio us o ppo s it io n ,

w e m u s t pre s u me t h a t a t l eas t pl a u s ibl e m o d e rn re a so n s e x is t .

 TH IN GS EVEN TS A ND A CT S
, ,

c oi n cid e in o ur
,
l aw , i n s o me ki n d s of cas es ,
b ut

t h e gro un d s o f su ch cas es a re v ery s p e cial and

We may t ak e t o ge t h er t h e ca s es o f re s p o n s ibilit y D g e l ee s o f

i I D V O 1111 ‘

m e n t i o n e d in t h e las t pa ragraph w hich a ri s e fro m

,
lihflil it y .

an u n qu ali fi e d p ro m is e or an ab s o l u t e l egal d u t y a s ,

d ifferin g much in o t h er res p ec t s b u t havi n g t his ,

m u ch in c o m m o n t hat t h e liabili t y d o e s n o t d ep e n d
,

o n a n y e t hical j u dgm e n t o f t h e part y s c o n d u c t So

’
.

t aki n g t h e m w e may re ck o n t h em a s c o mp ri s i n g
,

t h e m o s t p os i t iv e a n d a rt ificial grou n d s o f liabili t y .

T h e n e x t d egree is w h e re t h e part y h as c o me u n d e r
s o me d u t y o f u s i n g dilig e n c e an d h as b ro u gh t ab o u t
,

dam age t o a fell o w cit iz e n by falli n g Sh ort o f t h e

-

“ ”
m e a s ure o f dilige n c e d u e care an d ca u t i o n a s it
,

is o ft e n call e d w hich t h e circ u ms t a n c es are d e eme d

,

t o re qu i re o f a re a son abl e m an T hi s gro u n d o f

.

liabili t y is w hat t h e C ommo n Law call s Negligen c e

a n d t h e R o ma n law C u lpa We hav e t o d e v e l o p
.

an d apply t hi s id e a part ly in c ri m i n al l a w an d t o a
, ,

c o ns id erabl e e x t en t in t h e l a w o f c on t rac t S in c e ,

m a n y kin d s o f c on t rac t s i n v o lv e a n u n d e rt aki n g t o

u se d u e dil ig en c e o r cau t i o n b u t it s chi e f i m p o rt a n c e
,

is in t h e l aw o f civil w ron g s .

T h en w e hav e t h e c ru d e r a n d Si m pl e r fo rm s o f

w ro n g d o i n g w h ere t h e re is n o t m e re ly fail ure in

-
 FIRST B OO K OF J UR ISPR U D ENCE C HA P .

a p os it ive d u t y o r c ulpabl e s h o rt c o min g b u t a

, ,

di st in c t ly w ro n gful i n t e n t ion H ere t h e liabili t y

.

m ay b e s aid t o re s t o n o bvi ou s p rin cipl e s o f n a t u ral

as w e ll a s p o s i t iv e l a w Th e c o mm o n se n se o f
.

j us t ic e w ou ld b e S h o ck e d if t h e law did n o t giv e

e ffe c t t o it Wh e t h er t his s hall b e d on e in t h e
.

re gi o n o f civil o r c ri mi n al law o r p e radv e n tu re

,

in b o t h c a n b e d e t e rm i n e d o n ly wi t h rega rd t o
,

t h e civili s a t io n a n d i n s ti t u t i o n s o f e ach part ic ular

c o mmo n we al t h .

It h a s b e e n fo un d a mat te r o f n o s m all diffi c u l t y ,

bo th in p ri n cipl e an d in t h e applicat io n o f t h e
p ri n ciples t o pa rt ic ula r ca ses as t h e y o cc ur t o d e ,

t e rm i n e h o w far a m an S hall b e h e ld a n s w e rabl e for

t h e l e s s o bvi o u s a n d di re c t c o n s e q uen c e s o f h is ac t s .

Q ue s t io ns o f t hi s ki n d are re ferre d by E n gli sh

“
s p e aki n g la w y e rs t o t h e h e ad o f re m o t en e ss of

da mage . It is h e ld t hat t h e ac t o r wh e re h e is ,

liabl e at all m us t an s w er for co n s e q ue n c e s w h e t h er

, ,

“
i n t e n de d o r n o t so far a s t h e y are n a t u ral a n d
,

”
p ro babl e t ha t is acc ordin g t o t h e o pi n i o n n o w
, ,

g en erally acc epte d and ap pli e d s o far a s a re as on ,

abl e man in h is plac e an d wi t h h is m ean s o f k n o w

l e dge w o u ld hav e fo re s een t h em T h us t h e u l t i m ate
.

app e al is t o lay c o mmon se ns e an d t h e s t an da rd o f

,

t h e law is t h e s t a n dard s o far a s it c a n b e

.
,
 C H A P T E R V II

R ELAT O I N OF P ER SO NS ING S :
TO T H I
P OSS E S S ON

AND O WNE R S HI P

WE hav e n o w s urv ey e d in t h e rou gh t h e m at e ri al s

o n which l a w h as t o w o rk t h a t is t o s ay p e rs o n s a n d
, ,

t hi n g s a n d t h e m e di u m by w hich t h e y are b ro u gh t
,

i n t o i n t e lligibl e rela t io n s t ha t is t o s ay e v e n t s an d
, ,

ac t s T h e relat ion s o f p ers o n s t o t hi n gs in l aw have

”

t o b e d e t e rm i n e d in acc ord an c e w i t h t h e fac t s of

life ; an d in daily li fe t h e i mp o rt an c e o f t hi n gs is
t hat t h e y c an b e u s e d a n d e nj o y e d What w e call
.

t h e l a w o f P ro p ert y is in t h e fi rs t plac e t h e
, ,

s y s t e m a t ic e xp re ssi o n o f t h e d e g rees a n d fo rm s o f

c o n t rol u s e an d e nj oy me n t t h at are rec o gn i s e d an d

, , ,

pro t e c t e d by l a w P os s ibly it m ay t u rn o ut t o
.
‘

c o ver more if w e give t h e wid e st acc e p t abl e s en s e

,

t o t h e w ord Pro p erty ; b u t it is t hi s at t h e v e ry

l e ast .

As a m att er o f fac t o n e m ay hav e t h e b en e fi t s

,

1 68
C HA P V I I RELAT I ON
. OF PERSON S TO TH IN G S

of us e j y men t in m an y d egree s So far

an d en o .

as w e t ak e o n ly t h e p re s e n t i n t o acc o un t e xcl us iv e m ,
en t .

an d effe c t iv e c o n t ro l o f a t hi n g is t h e high est d e gre e

po s sibl e for t hi s i ncl u d es p o w er t o d eal w i t h t h e
,

t hi n g ; w i t hi n t h e b o un d s o f w ha t it s n a t ure all o w s ,

w ill a n d pl e a sure In t h e n o t i o n o f
’
at on e s .

effe c t iv en es s w e m u s t i n cl u d e s u ch c o n ti n u an c e a s

w ill giv e t i m e ( t h o u gh v e ry li t t l e t i m e m a y b e

e n o u gh ) for t h e ch o ic e an d e x e c u t i o n o f w ha t

s hall b e d o ne .An d w e mu s t furt h er i n cl u d e

s om e p rac t ic a l freed o m in t h es e re s p e c t s Th e ,

m an w h o fi e ld s a ball a t c rick et an d i n s t a n t ly
t h ro w s it u p t o t h e w ick e t h a s fo r a s e c on d o r ,

t w o c o n t ro l o f t h e ball w hi c h is phy s ically b o t h

,

e xc l u s iv e a n d e ffe c t iv e ; b u t a s s o o n a s w e l o o k

b ey o n d t h e bare phys ical fac t s w e s ee t hat h e .

,

h as n o u s e o f it fo r hi m se lf an d li t t l e o r n o

dis c ret ion as t o w hat h e s h all d o w i t h it a n d ,

d o es n o t t hin k o f havi n g a n y N o b ody w ou ld

.

t hi n k o f s ayi n g t ha t t h e b a ll b e l o n g s t o h im .

H e h o ld s or d et ain s t h e ball for a few m om e nt s

‘

b u t n o t as h is o w n o r fo r h is o w n b en efi t ; t o
'

“
u s e t h e p ro p e r w o rd o f a rt as En gli s h la w y ers
,

s a y h e d o e s n o t p os s e s s it
,
Th e q u es t i o n t o w h o m
.

it d o es b el o n g o r t o p u t it in t h e m a n n e r m o s t
, ,

app ro priat e in o ur l a w w h o w ou ld b e t h e righ t

,
 FIR ST B OO K or JURI SPRUDEN C E a m p.

p ers o n to -
p ros e c u t e fo r a t h e ft o f it m ay b e l e ft fo r
,

t h e re ad er s a m u se m e n t D i ffere n t t hi n g s a re
’
.

capabl e of v ery d iffere n t ki n d s an d d egree s o f

phy s ical c on tro l an d t h e que s t i on wh e t h er e ffe ct iv e
,

a n d e xcl us iv e c o n t ro l is s h o w n in a pa rtic u la r ca s e

mu s t b e c o n s id ere d w i t h re ga rd t o t h e q u al i t i es o f
t h e t hi n g an d t h e m a n n er in which s u ch t hin gs are ;

h a bi t ually u s e d an d enj o y e d It may b e a ques t i o n

.
.

o f s om e di fficu l t y Wh en it is s o t h e fau lt
; ,

is n o t wi t h t h e law b u t wi t h t h e n a t u re o f .

t hi n g s.

T h e re a re al s o m an y m o d es o f e nj o y m e n t which
.

are n o t e xcl us iv e o r n o t c o n t i n u o u s o r p art ial in

, ,

e xt e n t, o r w hich fall Sh ort o f g en e ral c o n t ro l in

m o re t han o n e o f t h ese way s On e m ay t u rn

.

’
on e s b e a s t s ou t o n a c ommon ; h ere t h e e u
j y
o m e n t is o r may b e c o n t i n u o u s b u t it ,
is

not e xcl u s i ve . O n e may hav e t h e s o l e u se o f

s h o o t i ng or fi s hi n g o v e r s o m e o t h er p e rs o n s la n d
’

o r w a t e r ; h e re t h e e nj o y me n t is e xcl us iv e b u t

n o t c o n t i n uo u s .O ne m ay b e acc u s t o m e d t o t ak e
w a t er fro m a c e rt ai n w ell in c omm o n wi t h o t h e r

p e rs on s ; t his is a b e n e fit n eit h er e xcl u s iv e (s av e

as t o t h e u s e o f t h e t ackl e d u ri n g t h e ac t u al

o p e ra t i o n o f d ra w in g wa t e r n o r c o n t i n uo us
) O ne .

m ay b e acc us t o me d t o pa s s an d re pa s s o v er a
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUD EN C E

what h e d e sire s An i mals may ge n erally no t

.

s e e b eyo n d t h e p rese nt ; s avage s may s om e t i mes

n o t l oo k fart h e r .M an a s a m e mb e r o f a fam ily
,

a n d a c omm o n w e al t h l o ok s fo rw ard an d o ut w ard

, .

He w a n t s n o t o n ly t o u se a nd enj o y b u t t o p ut ,

o r l e av e o t h ers in h is plac e an d hi m se lf t o t ak e
,

t h e plac e o f o th e rs in a reg ula r a n d o rd e rly

,

m an n e r H e m u s t b e abl e t o t rafli c as a s ell e r

.

o r a s a b uy er ,t o give or t o re c e iv e b o u n t y t o ,

c o n t i n ue t h e n ame an d w e al t h o f h is an c est ors ,

t o l e av e t h e w orl d wi t h t h e a s s ura n c e t ha t t h e y

m ay b e c o n t i n u e d in h is p o s t eri t y F o r t h ese
.

en ds l aw m u s t d o mu ch T h e y m igh t
. e v en ,

w i t h o u t law n o t w h o lly fail t o b e c o mpa s s e d

,

aft e r s o me sort b ut t h e resul t wou ld b e p o or

,

an d p recari ou s . An d what t h e law m u s t d o

is m u ch m ore t ha n t h e p ro t e c t i on o f e xi s t i n g

o cc u pa t i on an d e nj o ym e n t Not on ly u se b ut
.

di s p o s al is n o w in qu est i o n ; an d w e ca n n o t
p ro t e ct t h e di s p os al o f lan d an d go o d s wi t h o u t
regu la t i n g it. C o n flic t i ng clai m s hav e t o b e
d e al t w i t h ; w e mu s t hav e ru l es for k n o wi n g
w hat di s p os i t i on s a re e fl e c t u al which a m o ng m a n y
°
,

clai m s are righ t s en ti t l e d t o p re vail .

We pa s s b eyo n d t h e m ere d efen c e o f p oss e ss i o n ,

a n d w e hav e t o adj u dg e o n w hich S id e is t h e b e t t er

 RE LAT I ON OF PE RSON S TO TH IN GS

righ t to p os s ess a n d e nj o y t h e su bj e c t o f di s p ut e .

It h a s t o b e c o n s id e re d n o t o n ly w h e t h e r a man
“ ”
h as b e en d ep riv e d o f p o ss e ss i o n di ss e i se d in t h e
,

la n gu age o f t h e C o mmon La w b u t w h o is t h e righ t

,

h ei r w h e t h er t h e re h as b ee n a p erfe c t s al e w h e t h er
, ,

a w 1 11 c an s t a n d In o n e w ord p oss es s io n is a
.
,

m a t t e r o f fac t o r at l e a s t fo u n d e d in fa c t ; w h e re as
,

t i t l e a s t h e ab s o l u t e ly or rel at iv ely b e s t righ t t o a

,

t hin g w hich m a y b e in di s p u t e is m a t t e r o f l a w , ,

n o t o n ly d e fi ne d b u t c re at e d by l a w Th e l aw m ay .

re s t rai n p o w ers o f u s e ; it m u s t d e t ermi n e p o w e rs

o f di s p o s al. Wh e n w e g et b ey o n d ac t ual c on t ro l
a n d o cc u pa t io n t h e e x t e n t o f o ur p o w e r o v e r t hi ng s
,

is w ha t t h e l a w d e cla res it t o b e “
A man as .
,
”

“
Li t tl e t o n s aid,
ca n no t hav e a m o re larg e o r g re at er

”
e s t at e o f i n h eri t a n c e t ha n fee s im pl e T hi s d o es
1
.

n o t m e an t ha t havi n g a n es t a t e t o o n es e lf an d o n e s
’

h eirs is in t h e C om mo n La w t h e t e ch n ical e xp res s i on

o f t h e u t m os t c o n c e ivabl e d eg ree o f di s p os i n g p o w er .

Li t t l e t o n c ou ld n o t hav e m e an t t hi s in fa c t for , ,

wh e n h e wro t e t h es e w o rd s a t e n an t in fee Simpl e

c o uld n o t l e av e h is lan d by w ill e xc e p t in a few
plac e s w h ere l o cal c u s t om allo w e d it Th e w ord s .

m e an e xac t ly w ha t t h e y s ay n a m ely t ha t t h e , ,

p o w ers o f use an d di s p os al su ch as t h ey are ,

1
Lit t . 11 .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN CE

w hich are i n cid en t t o an e s t a t e in fe e i mpl e

s

a re, as re g a rd s w hat e v e r c a n be the s u bj e ct

of fre e h old t e n ure t h e high e s t k n ow n

,
to th e

l aw .

St ill m ore is t hi s t h e ca s e wi t h regard t o p art i a l

’

an d li mi t e d m o d e s o f e nj oy m en t Wh e n a man .

c l ai ms t o hav e t h e u s e o f h is n e ighb our s l a n d in ’

s o me w ay ,
t o rid e ac ro ss it t o ge t w a t er fro m a
-
,

w ell t o c ut fi re w oo d t o dig grav el —

, ,
t h e fi rs t qu e s t i o n
,

is w ha t righ t s o f t ha t ki n d t h e law w ill re c o g n i s e .

T h e m e a s ure a nd t h e val u e o f su ch righ t s d ep e n d

o n t h e i r l e gal d e fi n i t i o n We may s ay o f t h em fo r
.

t hi s re a s o n —n o t b e cau s e t h e y are i n c orp ore al w hich ,

h as al re ady app e a re d n o t a n ad e qu a t e g ro u n d 1

“
t ha t in i ure c on s is t u nt On e s t e p fart h e r a n d
.
,

w e c o m e t o clai ms n o t o f a n y di re c t u s e o r p ro fi t
,

t o b e had by o n e s o w n ac t s b ut t o res t rai n a

’

n e ighb o ur fro m ac t s w hich if d o n e in t h e u s e o f

,

h is o w n lan d o r g oo d s w o u ld in so m e w ay di mi n i s h
,

o u r u s e or e nj o y me n t o f w hat b e l o n gs t o u s A .

cl a i m n o t t o hav e o n e s wi n d o w s da rk en e d by n ew
’

b u ildi ng is a c o mm o n e xam pl e an d p erhap s t h e ,

m o s t st riki ng H ere e v ery t hi n g d ep e nd s o n t h e

.

ru l e ; w e d o n o t k n o w wh e t h e r t h ere c a n b e a n y

right o r l e gal i n t e res t a t all u n t il w e k n o w w h e t h er

1
P 1 31
. bv
a o e.
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUD EN CE

the C omm on Law hall p re s e n tly s e e why We

1
we s .

m u s t n o t su pp ose t ha t all t h e p o w e rs o f an o w n e r

n ee d b e e xe rc is e abl e a t o n c e a n d i mm e di a t e ly ; h e

m ay re mai n o w n e r th o ugh h e h as part ed w i t h s o me

o f t h e m for a t i me H e m ay for a t i m e e v e n pa rt
.

w i t h h is w h o l e p o w e rs o f u s e a n d e nj o y me n t a nd ,

s u s p e n d h is p o w er o f dis p o s al p ro vide d that h e ,

res erv e s fo r hi mself o r h is s u cc es s o rs

,
t h e righ t o f ,

u ltim a t e ly re clai m i n g t h e t hi n g an d b e i n g res t o re d

t o h is p o w e r T hi s is t h e c o mm o n cas e o f hi ri n g
.

la n d b uildin g s o r g o o d s
, ,
Agai n t h e o w ner s .
,
’

p o w e rs m ay b e limit e d in part ic ular di re c t i on s

fo r a n i n d e fi n i t e t i me by righ t s as p erm a n e n t in

t h e i r n a t ure as o w n e rs hip i t s e lf Su ch is t h e .

c a s e w h ere t h e o w ner o f Whi t e ac re h as a righ t

o f way o v e r h is n e ighb ou r s fi eld o f Blackac re ’
.

As t hi s e xa m pl e Sh o w s w hat is t h u s s u b t rac t e d
’

fro m o n e o w n er s p ow e rs is gen erally add e d t o

’

an o t h er s In s h ort t h e o w n e r o f a t hin g is n ot
’
.
,

n e c ess a rily t h e p e rso n w h o a t a giv en t im e h as

t h e w h o l e p o w er o f u s e an d di s p os al ; v e ry o ft e n

t h e re is n o s u ch p ers o n We mus t l o o k for t h e

.

p e rson havi n g t h e re sid u e o f a ll s u ch p o w e r w h en

1
It o cc u rs in m o d ern Ac t s o f P arl ia m en t s ome t im e s w it h t h e
,

re s u l t o f p ro d u c i ng d iffic u l t ie s Se e A r o w Sh ipp i n g 00 v T y ne
. r . .

Tru e o w n er h as a di s t in c t
”
Co mmis si oners [ 1 8 9 4 ] A C 5 08 . . .

m e a n i ng .
VI I RE LAT I ON OF P ERSO N S TO T H IN G S

we have acc o un t e d for e v e ry d e t a ch e d an d l i m i t e d

'

p ort i o n o f it ; a n d h e w ill b e t h e o w n e r ev e n if
’

t h e i mme di at e p o w e r o f c o n t ro l a n d u s e is e l s e

w h ere In t h e s am e w ay a p o li t ical s o v e re ig n d o es
.

n o t l o s e h is i nd e p e n d e n c e m e rely b e ca u se h e h as

m ad e a t re a t y by w hich h e h as agree d t o fo re go
o r li m i t t h e e x e rci s e o f h is s o v e re ign p o w e r in
p art icu lar res p e c t s 1
.

We are n o w in a p os it i o n t o t ak e n o t e o f t h e D i t i ct i s n on

m an n er in w hich o w n ers hip di ffe rs fro m p o ss e ss i o n :iif j

s se s

. o

o n t h e o n e ha n d a n d li m i t e d righ t s o v er p a rt ic u l a r
,

t hi n g s (i u ra in re a l ien a ) o n t h e o t h e r P o s s es s i o n .

in fa c t — t h e e ffe c t iv e an d e xcl us iv e c o n t ro l o f a

t hi ng —is p ri or t o o w n ership a n d i n d ee d t o e v e ry

l egal rul e an d id e a Th e fact s which w e call ac t u a l

.

o r phy s ical p o s s e s s i o n w o u ld s t ill e xi s t in a s o ci e t y

w h ere t h e re w as n o re c o g n i t i o n o f i n divid ual p ro

p ert y B ut p os s es s i o n as a fa c t is i n t eres t i n g t o
.
, ,

l a w y ers o n ly s o far as l egal re s u l t s a n d i n cid e n t s

m ay at t ach t o it ; a n d t o giv e d e fi n i t e righ t s t o

2

a p os s es sor b e ca us e h e is in p os s e ss i on is t o ad m i t
i n divid ual righ t s o f e xcl us ive u s e an d e nj oy m en t .

We s ay b e ca us e h e is in p o s s e s si o n A s y s t e m o f .

M ighe l l v S u l t a n of J oh ore [ 1 8 9 4 ] 1 Q B 1 4 9 , C A
1
. . . .

2
Op P os ses s i o n i n t h e Co m mon L a w ( by t h e l a t e M r
. . J c
ust i e

Wrigh t a n d t h e pre s en t w ri t e r) p 1 0, a n d s e e t h e fi rs t
, . ch a p t er
of t h a t book l e d d is c u s s io n
fo r d et a i .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SP RUDEN C E C H AP .

l aw w hich m ere ly fo rbad e p ers o n al vi o l en c e migh t

i n cid e n t ally pro t e ct p os s e ss i o n s o far as a n y o n e
w h o u s e d ac t u al vi o l e n c e in di s p o sses s i n g a n o t h e r .

m igh t t h e re by re n d er hi m s elf liabl e t o a p e n al t y o r

d am ag e s T hi s w o uld n o t b e s ayin g a n y t hi ng o f
.

p o s se ss i o n e xc e p t t hat it w as n o t a c ri me w hich
d e p riv e d t h e p os s e ss o r o f h is o rdi n ary p ers o n al
righ t s ,
o r a c o n di t i o n in i t s e lf o di o u s t o t h e l a w .

St ill l es s d o es t hi s i n v o lv e an y c o nn e c t i o n o f p os
ses sion w it h t it le Wh e n p oss e s s i on as s u ch is
.

re g ard e d a s a p ro p er s u bj e c t o f p ro t e c t i o n t ha t is t o
,

s ay ,
w h e n di s p o s s e s s i o n w i t h o u t j u s t ca u s e ( apart

fro m an y v i o l e n c e o r ph y s ic al d a m ag e i n cid e n t al t o
t h e a c t ) is t re a t e d a s calli n g fo r a re medy t h e n ,

t h e relat i on t o o w n e rs hip b e c o m e s appare n t If a

.

p erso n o ut o f p os s e s s io n is t o hav e a s t a n din g p o i n t -

a t all p os s e s s i o n m u s t b e c a pabl e o f b e i n g w ro n gfu l

,

as w ell as righ t ful T h ere m u s t b e righ t s t o

.

p o s s e s s o r t o b e p ut in p ossessi on t hat c an b e
, ,

s e v e re d fro m p re s e n t p o ss es s ion T h ere mu s t b e

.

ro o m fo r c o n flic t i n g claim s t o p o s s e ss i o n a n d ru l e s
,

fo r d e cidi n g w hich o f t w o clai m an t s h a s t h e b e t t e r

righ t t o p os s es s t h e t hi n g in di s p u t e .

No w t hi s b ri n g s u s t o v ery cl o s e qu a rt ers w i t h
o w n e rs h Ip F o r o w n e rs hip a s t h e e n t i re t y o f l e gal
.
,

p o w e rs o f u se a n d di sp o s al m u s t i n cl u d e as t h e
, ,
 FIRST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

t h e l aw t o p o s s ess ion
d o m ore for h im .
.
O n c e in
h e c a n d e al w i t h h is o w n in any l a w ful m ann er .

Vl fa ue o He n c e it is c om m on ly s ufficie nt for a n o w n e r .

p y
o s s e s so r

m d i t t o rely on h is righ t t o p o s ses s i o n ; a n d a s it is

'

)
re e es o

ow n ers
c omm o n ly e asi er t o p rov e t h e l es s righ t t han t h e
.

: .

gre at er n ot t o s p eak for t h e p resent of t h e man n er

,

in w hich t hi s w ork s o ut in d e t a il it is o fte n p re fe r ,

able t o clai m p os se s si o n o nly Nay m ore it is

’

.
,

p o s sibl e for o wn ers hip t o b e su ffi ci en t ly gu ard e d for

'

al l p rac t ical p urp os e s by a s ys t e m o f reme di es

which o mi t s, o r h a s c o me t o o m it a n y s u ch so lemn ,

a n d e xp res s form o f ass e rt i n g o w n e rs hip a s t ha t t o

w h ic h t h e R om ans e m pha t ically gav e t h e n a m e o f

i

V i n dicat i o n In t h e C o mm o n Law t h is h as ac t u ally

‘

h app en e d F o r s o m e c en t u rie s al l p ract ical rem e di e s

.
e

fo r t h e re c o v e ry o f b o th l a n d a n d g oo d s hav e b e e n

p o s sessory a n d p ro p ert y h as m ean t for j u dici al

, ,

pu rp o ses t h e righ t Or t h e b es t right t o po s se s s

, , , .

C o n v erse ly t ha t w hich a m an w as e nt i t l e d t o
’ '

p os sess n o t o n ly w as c o rre c t ly d es c rib e d by h im in

pl e ad ing as res s ua b ut c ould n o t b e d e s crib e d in ,

a n y o t h e r way
l
.

P i
o ss es s o n B ut t hi s l e ad s u s t o a furth e r d e v el op m e n t .

as e vid c en e

of t it l e.Po s se ss i on an d u s e b e i n g t h e c om mon o ut ward

s ig n s o f o w n e rs hip it is re a so n abl e t o p resu me in , ,

1
H o l m e s , T h e Comm on L a w , p . 242 .
 RE LAT I ON OF PER SON S T O TH IN GS

the abs en ce o f proof t o t h e c on t rary t h a t e xis t in g

,

p e ac e abl e p o s se s s io n is righ t ful an d furt h er t o i n fe r

‘

o w n e rs hip fro m t h e righ t t o p o s s e s s which w e hav e

t h us p re su me d . H en c e w e t re at t h e act u al p o s
s es s o r n o t o n ly a s l e gal p o s s es s or b u t as o w n e r a s ,

again st e v ery o n e w h o ca n n o t Sh o w a b e t t er righ t .

As E ngli s h law y e rs s ay c o n c ern i n g in t e re s t s in lan d ,

p o s se ss io n is p ri ma facie e viden c e o f s ei sin in fee

t hat is n o t o f l egal p o ss e ss i o n o r s e i s i n al o n e b u t
, ,

o f se i s i n c o u pl e d w i t h t h e la rg e s t p o w e rs of u s e a n d

di s p o s al allo w e d by law Th en if w e regard t h e

.
,

p o ss es s or as b ein g righ t fu lly in t h e e x erci se o f

c o n t ro l w e mu s t allo w h im t h e p o w ers o f an o wn er
,

wit hin t h e li mit s o f h is apparen t righ t Not o nly

h is ac t s o f u s e an d o cc upa t i o n b u t h is ac t s o f

dis p os al mu st b e valid agains t e v ery on e w h o

ca n n ot mak e ou t a s up eri or claim An d wh e n t h e .

s u p eri or cl aim if a n y s u ch t h ere b e c e a s es t o b e

.
, ,

availabl e t h e righ t s fo un d e d on p os sess i on w ill b e

,

i n dist in g uis hable fro m t h e righ t s of o wn ers hip In .

t h e ca se o f m o vable g o o d s which p a s s fro m ha n d

t o ha n d w i t h o ut fo rm ali t y t hi s b e c om e s o bvi o us fo r ,

in t hat cas e p o ss e s s i o n is o ft e n n o t m e re ly t h e

n at u ral an d u su al p roo f of o wn e rs hip b u t t h e o n ly , ,

p ro o f We hav e c om e t h en t o dis t in c t ly re c og n i si n g
.

p oss es s ion a s an o rigin o f o w n ers hip a c o mm en ce ,

 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

me n t of t it le as o ur law calls it . A ga i n we see

t hat n ot on ly we hav e t hu s
c o gn i se it b u t
to re ,

a sys t em o f l a w c an ge t o n w i t h o u t re c o gn i s in g
an
y o t h er i
or gi n C o n t i n u o u s p o s s e s s i o n is qu i t e
.

capable o f b ei n g n ot me rely a p o s s ibl e fo u n dat i o n

,

o f o w n ersh ip b u t it s o n ly fo un da t i o n a n d e vid e n c e
, .

And t hi s o n c e m ore is e xac t ly wha t h as happ en e d

, ,

in t h e C o mmo n Law Wi t h v e ry fe w e xc e p t i o n s
.
1
,

p os se ss i o n t rac e d t h ro u gh a chai n o f law fu l t ran s fe r

or s u cc e s s i o n for a t i m e l o n g e n o u gh t o e xcl u d e a n y
,

re a s o n abl e app re h e n s i o n o f adv e rs e clai m s w as t h e ,

o n ly acc e p t abl e p ro o f o f t i t l e in t hi s c o un t ry b e fo re

t h e p art ial i n t ro d u c t i on o f a s y s t e m o f re gi s t ra t i o n ;

it is s t ill t h e p re vaili n g o n e .

So far w e hav e as s u me d t h a t t h e p os s es s o r s t a rt s
“
from w hat t h e R o m a n s call e d a j us t cau s e o f
p o ss e s s i o n : h e h as pu rcha s e d fro m s o me o n e w h o
w as a ppare n t ly e n t i t l e d o r h a s e n t e re d aft er t h e
, ,
.

former h old er s d e a t h as t h e n e are s t h ei r k n o w n o r

’

re a s o n ably s u pp o s e d t o b e livi n g o r a s t h e p e rso n ,

a nsw e ri n g a d esc rip t i on by which t h e n e x t t ak e r o f

t h e es t a t e h a s b e e n p o i n t e d out in a s e t t l e m e n t o r

will In a ny o n e o f t h es e an d s u ch lik e m at t ers

.
,

e rro r t h o u gh e xc e p t i o n al is p o ss ibl e
, , So m e e l e me n t .

1
As w h e re p a rt ic u l a r l a n d s h a ve b e e n bes t o w e d a n d mad e
i n a l ie n ab l e b y P a rl ia me n t a s a re w a rd for s ig n a l p u bl ic s e rv ic e .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDE NCE C HA P .

i n flic t . B ut a p ers on w h o c o m es in t o P et e r s
is
’

pla c e as h ei r o r p urcha s er or t h e s u cc e sso rs o f

,

a n y s u ch p ers o n t o b e n o b et t er o ff ? We hav e
,

all o w e d t ha t t h e a ppare n t ly righ t ful p os s e ss or i s t o ’

os t re a t e d a s o v Vn e r fo r p u rp oses o f di s p o s i t i o n a s

w e ll a s u se . No w t hi s p ri n cipl e is ad m it t e d pa rt ly
fo r h is o w n b en e fi t a n d p ro t e c t i o n b u t al so fo r t he
,

b en e fi t a n d p ro t e ct i on of t h os e w h o m ay d e al w i t h
‘

h im a s o w n e r o n t h e s t re n g t h o f h is appare n t ly
righ t fu l t i t l e C o n s id e ri n g t h e n t h e p os i t i o n o f a
.

dis p os s e s s o r w e hav e t o b e ar in min d t ha t t h e

,

w ro n gful n es s o f h is p os s e s s i o n is by n o m e an s

al w ay s o r n e c es s arily appare n t t o t h os e w h o may

c o me aft e r h im by p urchas e o r o t h erw i s e They .

m ay b e an d o ft e n w ill b e n o l e s s d es e rvi n g t ha n t h e
s u cc e s s o rs o f an appare n t o w n e r w h o s e p o s s e s s i o n

b ega n w i t h j u s t cau s e H en c e it is rea s o n abl e t o

.

p ro t ec t t he m in t h e s am e m an n e r a s agai ns t e v ery
o n e w h o c an S h o w n o b e t t e r righ t In s o d oi n g t h e
.

law mu s t t ak e it s chan c e of p ro t e c t i n g s om e p ers on s

w h o are u n d ese rvin g B ut t h e d eservi n g o n es
.
,

t h os e w h o d e al in go o d fai t h w i t h p ers o n s re a s o n ably

“

app e arin g t o b e e n t it l e d are t h e maj ori t y an d it is

, ,

b et t er t o fav ou r s o me u nj us t t han t o v ex man y j us t

o cc u pi e rs . T h u s t h ere is n o t h i n g a n om al o u s in

acc e p t i n g p osses s i o n w i t h ou t regard t o it s ac t u al

,
 RE LAT I ON OF P ERSO NS TO TH IN G S

o ri gi n as foun di ng a righ t w hich t h o ugh s ubj e c t t o

, ,

w h a t e v er b e t t e r righ t s m ay e x is t is i n v e s t e d as ,

agai nst t h e w o rld at large w i t h all t h e i n cid en t s o f

o w n ers hip e xc ep t t h e p o w e r o f u s i n g an y re m e dy

that lik e t h e R o m an V i n dic a t i o n is app ro p ria t e d

, ,

t o t h e fu ll righ t o f o w n ershi p T h e p o ssess or is in

.

a rela t iv e s en s e an o wn er ; p ossessi o n in ou r English ,

ph ra s e is a ro ot o f t it l e B ea t i p ossid en t es is a t rue
, .

ma xi m o f l aw ,n o t a me re e m pi rical e xp re ss i o n o f t h e
n a t ural adva n t ag es a ri s i n g fro m ac t u al o cc upa t i o n
!
.

Th e fore g o i n g e xpla n at i o n is o f c o urs e a n aly t i c al H i t ic l s or a

H i s t oric 532 22331 3

:
a n d t ak e n fro m a m o d e rn p o i n t Of vi e w . 0

ally t h e mai n o ut lin e o f t h e pro c e s s is m u ch Simpl er E

”
iig
l ne

t h o u gh t h e d e t ail s are e x t re me ly co m pl e x Th e n o t i o n .

of p o s s e s s i n g is re al ly b o t h m u ch e a s i er a n d m u ch

e arli e r t ha n t ha t o f o w n i n g Arch aic habit s o f t h o ugh t

.

fin d t h e u t m o s t diffi c ul t y in c o n c e ivi n g o w n ers hip .

a s s e v ere d fro m p o s s es s i o n o r a t ran s fe r of a ny t hi n g

,

as b e i n g e ffe c t u al wi t h o u t s o me t hin g lik e a vi s ibl e

t ra n s fer o f c o n t ro l a phy s ical d e liv e ry or in d u c t i o n

, .

So far as t h ere is any c on c e p t i on o f o w n ers hip i t is ,

re ali s e d o n ly t h ro u gh p o sses s io n Th e R o ma n l a w .

o f d o min iu m is esse n t ially m o d ern law Nay m o re .

, ,

1
T h e s t a t em e n t in t h e t ex t we n t a l it t l e b e y o n d p o s i t i v e or a t

E
l ea s t u n d is pu t ed ngl is h a ut ho rit y w h e n it w a s w rit t e n S ee n o w .

. . J
D a l t on v F i t zge ra l d [ 1 8 9 7 ] 2 Ch 8 6 , a n d Lo rd us t ic e ( n o w Lo rd )
Lin d l e y j u d gm e n t
’
s at p . 90
.
 FIRST B OO K O F J UR ISP R U D ENCE

the his t ory o f o u r o w n s ys t em s h o w s u s a s t age of

l e gal t hi n ki n g in w hich t h e righ t s o f an o w n e r o ut
o f p o s s e s s i o n c an b e d e a l t w i t h o nly by a s c ribi n g t o

h im a s ort o f fic t i t i o u s p os s e s s i o n E ngli s h l aw .

can n ot d e n y t hat a n o cc u pyi n g farm er is p o s se ss e d

o f t h e farmya rd as w e ll a s o f t h e pig s d u ck s a n d , ,

gee s e t h e re i n b u t it a s s ert s t hat t h e lan dl o rd is

,

s e i s e d o f t h e fre e h o ld ; a n d s e i s i n as e v e n o ur la t e r
,

b oo k s o f au t h ori t y w ill t ell u s w as o rigin ally n ot hin g

,

b ut p os se s s i o n l
In t h e ca s e o f fe u dal t e n ure s
.
,

w h e re a fre e h o ld er o w es re n t a n d s ervic es t o a n

o v e rl o rd t h e l o rd is s a id t o b e s e i se d o f t h e re n t by
,

ac t u al re c e ip t o f an y pa rt o f it ; an d re fu s al o r
fail ure t o pay s u ch re n t wh e n d uly d em a n d e d w a s a
di sse is in e n t i t li n g t h e l ord t o b ri n g t h e s am e form
,

o f ac t i o n — an
“
as s iz e o f n o v el di ss ei s i n as a
”
-

fre eh o ld er wh o had b e en phy s ically t u rn e d o u t o f

p os ses s io n Wh ere t h ere w as n o t an d c o u ld n ot b e
2
.

ac t u al p oss es s ion m e di eval lawy e rs e n d e av o ure d t o

,

fin d s o me t hi n g as lik e it as p o s s ibl e T h e y had a t .

la st t o fac e t h e n ee d o f d o in g w it h ou t b u t t h e e ffort
[

“
w a s a s e v e re o n e R igh t s w hich lie in gran t as
.

di s t i n c t from liv e ry t hat is which c an b e t ran s

“
.
,
”
,

ferre d by w ri t t en gra n t o n ly — t h e gran t n ei t h e r

re q u i ri n g n o r ad m i tt i n g a vi s ible h an di n g o v e r
2
1
Co . Lit t . 17 a . I bid . 23 3 .
 F IR ST B O O K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

a n d , as a g e neral pri n cipl e o f rem e dial j us t ic e is n ot ,

c o nfi n e d t o clai m s fo r t h e re c o v e ry o f la n d o r o t h er

p ro p ert y As regard s t h e acqu i s it i o n o f p ro p ert y

"
.
,

t h e t ran s fo rma t i o n o f p o s sess i o n i n t o o wn e rs hip ( o r

a t all e v e n t s an i n di s p u t abl e righ t t o p o sses s

) i s

o bvi o u s ly m os t n e c es s ary an d i m p o rt a n t in a s y s t e m

w h e re c o n t i n u o u s p os s ess i o n w i t h an appare n t ly
.

righ t ful t i t l e is t h e p ri n cipal o r o n ly p ro o f o f

'

o w n e rs hip In a s y s t e m wh ere o w n ership is

.

capabl e o f dire c t p ro o f an d o ffi ci al c o nfi rm at i o n as ,

by a re gis t ry o f t i t l e s t o lan d t h e i mp ort an c e o f

.
,

p o ss ess io n an d p res c rip t i on t e n d s t o dimin ish an d ,

c an e v en b e c o m e a va n i s hi n g qu a n t i t y
1
.

F urt h er hi s t o rical a n d c om parat ive d et ail s w ould

.

b e o u t o f plac e h ere P erhap s w e hav e b een t oo .

m u ch t emp t e d in t ha t dire c t i on al re ady B u t it .

m ay b e w o rt h re ma rkin g in g e n eral t erm s t ha t t h e

re la t i o n s o f p o s ses s i o n a n d o w n ers hip in R Om a n
'

an d E n gli s h l aw t h e difli cul t ies a ri s i n g ou t o f

,

t h e m an d t h e d e vic e s reso rt e d t o fo r o bvia t i n g

,

1
M ai n e , E a r l y La w a nd Cu s t om , 3 5 2 3 5 8
-
La n d T ra n s fe r Ac t ,
1 875, s. 21 , a nd s ee Elph in s t o n e t h ere o n in L a w Qua rt :
Sir H .
,

R e v x i 3 5 7 , 3 6 2 ; La n d Tra n s fer Ac t , 1 8 9 7 , s 1 2 : “ A t it l e t o
. . .

re g is t ere d l a n d a dv e rs e t o o r i n d e ro g a t io n o f t h e t i t l e o f t h e

re g is t e re d pro p rie t o r s h a ll n o t b e a cqu ired b

y a n y l e n g t h o f po s s e s
s io n . U
n d er t h e G e rman Civ il Co d e a re g is t e re d o w n er c a n b e

dis pl a c ed b y le n gt h o f ad v e rs e po s s es s io n on ly in e xc e p t io n a l
c irc u m s t a n c e s : B G B . . . 9 02 , 9 2 7 , 1 02 8, E n d e m a n n , L eh r b d . .

b it rger l i che n R ech t s , i i . 66 .

 RE LAT I ON OF PER SON S TO TH IN G S

or circu m v e n t in g t h ose diffi c ul t i es o ffer an amo u n t

,

o f res e m blan c e e v e n in d e t ail w hich is m u ch m o re

s t riki n g t ha n t h e s u p erficial a n d t e ch n ic a l di ffe r

e nc es . We can n o t d ou b t that t h e se res e mbl an c e s
d ep en d on t h e n at ure o f t h e p ro bl ems t o b e s olve d
a n d n o t o n a n y acci d e n t al c o n n e c t i o n O n e s yst em
.

o f l a w m ay hav e imi t a t e d a n ot h e r in part icula r

d o c t ri n es a n d i n s t it u t ion s b ut i mi t at i o n c a n n o t
,

fin d plac e in p ro c e s s e s e x t e n di n g o v e r t w o o r t h re e

c en t uri es a nd w h os e fun dament al a n al o gi es are

,

e xte rna lly di s g u i s e d in al m o s t e v ery p oss ibl e w ay .

H o w far c an t h e n o t i on s o f o w n ers hip an d

p o s s ess io n apply t o t h ose part ial righ t s o v er an o t h er
m a n s b el o n gi n g s ( I p u rp osely u s e a vag ue a n d
’
.

in art ific ial w o rd ) w hich are an i n c rem e nt o f o w n e r

s hip o n t h e acti ve a n d a s u b t rac t i o n fro m it o n

t h e pa s s ive S ide ? A n d re w a s o wn er o f Whi t e ac re

, ,

h as a righ t o f w a y o v er P e t er s es t a t e o f Black
’

acre Th is is w hat R o m an law calls a s ervi t u d e ;

.

“ ”
Whi t ea cre is t h e d omin an t an d Blackac re t h e
"

“
s ervi en t
”
t en em e n t En gli s h law c all s it an
'

.
.

ease m e n t : in m o d ern t i m es w e hav e b orro w e d t h e

-

” “ ”
t erms d o mi n ant an d s ervi en t fro m R oman
or R o m an i se d aut h orit i es an d u s e t h em fre ely
, .

Pet er an d his h e irs are b ou n d t o l et An d rew a nd

h is h e i rs pa s s an d repa ss by t ha t w ay So far .
 FIRST B O O K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C- HA P .

P et er s ’
o w n ers l e s s ; n o t o n ly b e caus e A n dre w
hip is

a n d h is s u cc e ss ors in t i t l e h a v e t h e righ t t o u s e P e t e r s
’

lan d for a l imit e d p u rp o se b u t b e cause P e t er an d h is

'

s u cc e sso rs ca n n o t cl o s e or div e rt t h e w ay w i t h o u t

t h e i r c o n se n t J u s t s o far o n t h e o t h er ha n d t h e
.
, ,

ra n g e o f A n d re w s o w n e rs hip is in c re a s e d
’
I s it .

c o rre c t t o c all h im o w n e r o f t h e e ase m e nt ? He is

o w n e r o f Whi t e a c re w i t h t h e adv a n t a g e o f t h e e a s e

m e n t ; t ha t h o w e v e r is n o t q u i t e t h e Sa m e t hi n g ;
, ,

a n d w e m u s t fin d a cl o se r t e s t I f h e c o uld d e al .

w ith t h e righ t o f w ay a s a s e pa ra t e th i n g s e t it g o i n g ,

by i t s elf as it w e re s o t ha t s o me day J o h n w h o h as
, ,

n o t hi n g t o d o w i t h Whi t e ac re c ou ld clai m t h e righ t ,

o f w a y a n d Willia m o r w h oe v e r m igh t h o ld Whi t e

, ,

a c re c o u ld n o t t ha t w ou ld b e a di s t i n c t o w n e rs hip
,

i n d eed . B ut t hi s is j u s t wha t n e i t h er E n gli s h

n o r R o m a n l a w will all o w t o b e d o n e AS Lo rd .

“
Cairn s s aid T h ere c an b e n o e a sem en t p ro p erly
,
-

s o call e d u n l e s s t h ere b e b o th a s ervi e n t an d a

d o mi n an t t e n e m e n t T h e re c an b e n o s u ch
.

t hi n g acc ordi n g t o o u r l aw o r acc o rdi n g t o t h e ,

civil l a w a s wha t I m ay t erm a n eas em en t in

,

g ros s .
1”
A n dre w c an t ran s fer a righ t of w ay
acro ss Bla ckac re o n ly by tran s fe rring h is o w n e rs hip
o f Whit e ac re ; a n d if J o h n h as , a s h e m ay hav e ,

1
R a n g el ey v . M id l a n d R . Co .
( 1 868) L R 3 Ch
. . 3 06 , 3 1 1 .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

La w ,
an d in t ha t capabl e
s e n se ma y b e s aid to be

o f a ki n d o f p os s es s i o n a n d t o b e fo u n d e d o n a
’

c o n t ro l o f t h e t hin g e nj o y ed w hich t h o ugh pa rt ial , ,

a n d i n t e rm it t e nt is re al an d e xcl u s iv e s o fa r as i t
,

g o e s In p art icu lar t h e n o t i o n o f p os s es s i o n is ,

fre ely appli e d t o t h e t e nure o f o ffic es by b ot h t h e ,

Can on Law a n d t h e C o mm o n Law 1

Lap se o f t i m e .

is avail a bl e for t h e ac qu isI t io n o f e as e m e n t s by

s h o w i n g c o n t i n u o u s e nj o y m e nt o f t h e a dva n t ag e in

qu es t i o n w hat e ver it m ay b e as i n cid en t t o t h e

,
.
,

p os s ess ion o f t h e d o m i n an t t en e m en t n ot as b ei ng ,

o r m a n ife s t i n g a di s t i n c t p o s sess i o n T hi s fo ll o w s .

fro m t h e p ri n cipl e s j ust s ta t ed Wh et h er a d e fa ct o .

e nj o y m e n t o f a n appa re n t e a s e m e n t re ally g o es al o n g
‘

wi t h t h e t i t l e o r appare n t t i t l e t o a c ert ai n t en e
m en t c an b e k n ow n i n t h e ab sen c e o f d o c u m en t ary
,

p roo f on ly by t h e o cc upat i o n o f t h e t en emen t b e i n g

, ,

c o upl e d w i t h t h e e nj o y me n t o f t h e w ay o v er an ot h e r
t e n e m e n t o r w hat e v er o t h e r adva n t ag e it m ay b e
, ,

fo r s u ch t i me as t h e l aw d e em s s u ffici en t : o f w hic h

ti me again t h e l en gt h h as t o b e fix e d by a p osi t iv e
, ,

1
A u t h orit ie s c it ed in Po ll o c k a n d Wrigh t o ri P ossess ion pp , .

3 5 6 ; D o rn b u rg P a n d ekt e n i 1 9 1
-
, E nd ema n n Leh rb d burger
,
.
,
. .

l i ch en R ech t s ii 28, O ur t re at me n t o f re n t a n d s e rv ic e s a s t h e
. .

s u bj e c t o f s e is in is p erh a p s rea lly a s s t ro n g as a n y Co n t i n e n t a l

e x a m pl e . As t o s eis in a n d p o s s e s s ory re m ed ies in re l a t io n t o

in c o rp o re a l t h in g s g e n era lly in m e d ie v a l E n gl is h l a w P o ll o ck a nd ,

M a it l a nd H E L B k II ch iv 6 v ol ii pp 1 2 4 1 41 1 4 6
,
. . . . . . .
, . . .
,
-
.
 RE LAT I ON OF PERSON S TO T H IN G S

ru e l . It is n o t n e c ess arily t h e s a me l e n g t h o f t i m e

t hat w o u ld s u ffic e t o m ak e o u t a t i t l e by p os se s s i o n

t o t h e all eg e d d o mi n a n t t e n e m e n t i t s elf G en eral .

p olicy w ou ld s eem t o req u ire s t rict er c o n di t i o n s

o f p res c rip t i o n in t h e ca s e o f s ervi t u d e s F or t h e .

t e n em en t s t h e ms elv es mus t ( in o u r l aw a t a n y

ra t e
) b el on g t o s o m eb o dy ; b ut it is n o t n e c ess ary
t hat t h ere s h o u ld b e an y servi t u d e at all b e t w e e n

t h em . Th e clai m an t o f a se rvi t ud e is clai mi n g t o

e n larg e h is o w n p o w e rs i n a n e xc e p t i o n al t h o u gh a

re c og n i s e d m an n er a n d t o c u t s h o rt t h os e o f h is
,

n e ighb o ur H en c e t h e acq ui s i t i on of ea s emen t s by

.

l ap se o f t i me m ay w ell b e p urp os ely m ad e rat h e r

di ffi cul t In t h e l aw o f Sc o t lan d i n d eed a d e fi n i t e
.
, ,

origi n h as t o b e s h o w n in e v e ry ca s e an d acq ui s i ,

t i o n by m ere lap s e o f t i me is n o t all o w e d at

all .
l
Wh ere a t i me is allo w e d an d fix e d by l aw a s
c apabl e o f h avi n g t ha t e ffe c t it s e e ms o n p ri n cipl e
, ,

a n d it is n o w d e cid e d in o u r l a w t ha t b e fo re t h e
,

e xpi ra t i o n o f t ha t t i m e t h e re is n o righ t o f a n y s ort .

It w ou ld b e fallaci ous t o s u gg e st t ha t t h ere c an

b e a q u as i p o s s es s ory i n t e re s t d eem e d w ort hy o f
-

prot e c t i on aga i ns t a m ere s t ra n g er t h ough n o t as ,

1
Th e fic t io n o f a l o st g ran t in t h e Co mm o n La w m a y b e s aid t o
re p res e n t a n o m in a l s a v i n g o f t h e s a m e p rin c ipl e t h e a pp a re n t

c o m pro m is e b ein g h o w e v er a v irt u a l a b a n d on m e n t B ut t h is is

, ,
.

t o o t e ch n ic a l a n d d iffic ul t a mat t er t o b e d w e l t o n h ere .

 F IRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

agai n s t theall eg e d s ervi en t t en e men t i t s elf It l

.

m ay b e add e d t ha t a th e ore t ica l righ t t o a s s e rt s u ch

a n i n t e res t c o u ld s e ld o m if e v er hav e a ny u s e ful

o p e ra t i o n fo r t h e clai man t F o r t h e t hi rd p e rs o n
.

i n t e rfe ri n g w it h t h e e nj oym en t o f an in ch o at e
e a s e m e n t c o u ld al w ay s t ak e t h e li n e o f a s s e rt i n g

t hat h e h a d ac t e d in t h e i n t ere s t a n d by t h e

a u t h o ri t y o f t h e o w n e r agai n s t w h o m t h e e a s e m e n t

w a s in p ro c ess o f b e i n g acqui re d An d it w o u ld b e .

t ha t o w n e r s i n t e res t t o ra t ify t h e ac t s i n c e t h e
’

acqu i s i t i o n o f a n adv ers e righ t w ou ld t h us b e

in t erru p t ed a n d t h e i n t erru p t i o n p u t o n re c o rd
, ,

in t h e m os t e ffe c t u al m a n n er an d w i t h t h e l e a s t ,

am o u nt o f t ro u bl e t o hi m sel f T h ere is h o w e ve r .
, ,

in t h eo re t ical w ri t ers o f c o n s id e rabl e w eigh t an d ,

o u t s id e o u r o w n law s u pp o rt t o b e fo u n d fo r t h e
,

vi e w t ha t enj o y m e nt as o f righ t e v en o f i n c o rp oreal

, ,

adva n t ag e s which a re n o t e xcl u s iv e in t h ei r n a t ure ,

m ay b e t re at e d a s re ally a n al o g o u s t o p os s ess i o n ,

p ro vid e d t h e e x erci se o f t h e all eg e d righ t is as

1
Se e H ol m e s , Th e Co mm on La w , p 241 ; Lo rd H a t h erl e y in .

L a d y ma n v Gra ve ( 1 8 7 1 ) L B 6 Ch a t pp 7 6 8 , 7 6 9 Gree n h a l gh
. . . .

v B ri nd l ey [ 1 901 ] 2 Ch 3 24 T h e e xp e c t a t io n o f a c q uirin g a n
. . .

c t erm o f p c pt io n “
e as e m e n t a t the en d of a urren t re s ri is not an

in t ere s t in l an d o r e as eme nt k now n to h ere is n o

t h e l aw “
t
in t erm ed ia t e s t a g e w h ich h a s a n y l e g a l e x is t e n c e T h is is q ui t e .

c o n sis t e n t w it h a l ic e n s e e h a v in g in s o me c irc um s t a n c e s a
, ,

p ers o na l righ t o f a c t io n a g a in s t a s t ra n g e r w h o in t e rfe re s w it h h is

enj o y m e n t .
 FIR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

w hich some d e fi n it e origin o t h er t ha n t h e charac t e r

and c ont igui t y o f t h e t w o t e n e me n ts mu st b e
show n . In e i t h er ca se e nj oy me n t o f s u ch rights

c an o ffe r a t m o s t a pa rt ial a n d i mp e rfe c t a n al o gy

t o p o s ses s i o n F o r t h e l e gal id e a o f p ossess i o n

.

an d it s c o n s e qu e n c es is fo u n d e d o n a S i t u at i on
n o t o n ly o f u s e an d e nj o y m e n t b u t o f e fi e c t iv e

c on t ro l In t h es e ca se s h o w e v er t h e p erson wh o
.
, ,

p ro fi t s by h is n eighb o ur s forb e aran c e t o l et d o w n ’

t h e adj a c e n t g rou n d t o e re c t b u ildi n g s w hich

,

bl o ck h is ligh t s an d s o fort h o bvi o u sly h as n o

, ,

n a t u ral c o n t ro l in t h e m a t t er at all : for h e c an

e x e rci se c o n t ro l o n ly wi t hi n h is o w n b ou n d a ri e s .

H is p ow e r is j u s t w ha t e v er p o w er t h e l aw m ay
give h im o f clai min g re d re ss by l egal pro ce s s in
t h e e v e n t o f di s t u rban c e A gai n t h e g e n eralit y o r
.

i mp ers on alit y o f t ru e p oss ess i o n is w an t i n g for t h ere ,

is n o t hi n g which is e nj oy e d an d n o t hi n g which c a n

b e p ro t e c t e d a s agai n s t t h e w o rld a t larg e Th e .

o n ly re al s u bj e c t o f p os s ess i o n is t h e t en e m e n t t o

w hich adva n t ag e s o f t hi s ki n d m ay b e i n cid e n t

1
.

1
A s y s t em o f l a w t h a t rec o g nis ed e as em en t s in gro ss ( s e e p “
.

1 9 0 a b o v e ) w ou ld n e e d a n e n t ire ly d iffere n t d o c t rin e ; I d o n o t

k n o w t h a t s uch a s y s t e m e x i s t s O ur l a w a n d t h e Rom a n l a w
.

a gre e i n e xcl u d in g t h e m s e e p 1 90 a b o v e
, . s o d o es m o d ern G erm a n

l a w En d e m a nn op c i t ii p 23 1 :
, , . . .
“
. E in e s el b s t s t and ig e U eb e r'

t ra gu n g v o n G run d d ie n s t b a rk e it e n is t a u s g e s chl o s s e n s ie fo lg e n

d e m h e rrs ch en d e n G ru nd s t iick
”
.
 RE LAT I ON OF PERSON S TO TH IN GS

On e p furt h er b rin gs u s t o mo n Op olies an d M

st e o no po lies .

“
fra n chi s e s w hich res emble n a t u ral righ t s or

“
n ega t iv e e as e m e n ts in t h e cha rac t e rs j u s t men
”

t io n e d or s o m e o f t h e m b ut are di s t i n c t i n c o rp ore al
, ,

t hin g s n o t a n n e xe d t o a ny c orp ore al t hi n g AS .

w e hav e al re ady p o i n t e d o ut 1
s u ch righ t s,
are

capabl e o f h a vi n g a p erfe c t ly d e fi n i t e val ue an d

b e in g d e alt w i t h as o bj e c t s o f c o mmerc e An .

e xcl u s iv e righ t t o fe rry pa ssen g ers acros s a riv e r

a t a p art ic u lar plac e m ay b e t ak e n as an an ci en t

e xa m pl e of t h e class C opyrigh t in a b ook
.
,

p e rfo rmin g righ t in a play t h e right t o a t rad e ,

m a rk a re fa milia r in m o d ern b us i n e ss an d l i t iga

,

t i on
. H ere t h ere is s o me t hi n g m ore lik e p o ssess i o n
t han in t h e ca se o f n e ga t iv e e as e me n t s ; for t h e re

a re t h e w ill a n d t h e l e gal p o w er t o e xcl u d e t h e

w o rld at larg e fro m i n t e rfe re n c e or c o m p e t i t i o n

w i t h t h e e xcl us iv e p rivil e ge w ha t e v e r it m ay b e
, .

B u t s t ill t h e l e gal p o w er is n o t m o d e ll e d o n a ny
n a t u ral p o w e r . A part fro m t h e righ t t o s et t h e
l a w in m o t i o n an d p ro c ure t h e appli ca t i on o f

c oercive l egal p ro c e s s t h e au t h or o r p u bli sh er o f

,

a b o o k h as n o c o n t ro l in fac t o v er t h e mul t ipli

cat i on o f co pi es by u nl ic en s ed p erson s ; rat h er
p u bl icat io n i n v o lv es as m at t er o f fac t t h e aban d on
, ,

S ee p . 1 37 a b o ve .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

m ent o f an y p revi ou sly e xist i n g c on t rol St ill l ess .

c a n it b e s aid t ha t t h e p ri n t er o f a pi ra t e d e di t i o n

h a s u surp e d o r en t ere d u p o n t h e au t h or s righ t s

’ '

He h a s m e rely c omm i t t e d a w ro n gful ac t ; h e h as

“
n o t acq u i re d an yt hi n g an al ogou s t o t h e est at e
”
by wro ng of an i n t ru d er o n lan d On t h e .

wh ol e it s eem s that t h e a n al o gi es o f p o ss ess i o n

cann o t b e s afely or p ro fi t ably appli e d t o rights
o f t hi s ki n d t h o ugh o n e al mos t re g re t s t hat c o py
,

righ t cam e i n t o t h e l e gal w o rld t oo la t e t o e x e rci s e

t h e i n g e n u i t y o f m e di e val lawy e rs No o n e e ver

.

h e ard o f an aut h or or p u bli s h er b ei n g di s p en s e d

fro m reg ular p roo f o f h is c o pyrigh t e v en agai n st ,

t h e m os t arra n t pi ra t e by s h o w i n g t hat h e h a d
,

act e d a s if it b el o n g e d t o h im a n d o t h er p e o pl e had
re c o g n i se d h is clai m .

T h e re is n o re a so n h o w e v e r why s u ch ri gh t s
, ,

s h o uld n o t hav e i n cid e n t s m o d ell e d o n t h o s e w hich

a t t ach t o o w n ers hip in t h e ca se o f c o rp ore al t hi ng s .

Wit h out s u ch i n cid e n t s in fac t t h e y w o uld b e

, ,

of c o m para t iv e ly lit t l e val u e R igh t s h o w e v e r

.
,

p ro fi t abl e w hich can n o t b e t ran s ferre d by s al e

,

are a c u m b ro u s i n v es t m en t e v e n fo r a ma n s o w n
’

life t i m e ; righ t s which w ill n ot p a ss by s u cc e ss i o n

o r b e qu es t are u s e l es s as a p ro vi s i o n fo r a m an s
’

fam ily We fin d in fac t t hat t h es e in c o rp o re al

.
, ,
 F IRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

lit t le if a ny ligh t s ee ms t o b e th ro wn by t h e
, ,

in s t i t u t io n o f o w n ership in c orp o re al thi ngs n o t ,

w i t h s t an di n g t ha t t h e an al o gy h as b e e n d w e lt

u p on as a valid o n e by s o me c o n sid erabl e

au t h orit i es 1
.

T h e righ t o f p re v e nt i ng t h e p u blicat i o n O f

u n p u bli s h e d m a t e rial s is o f a di ffere n t k in d ; in

E n gli s h au t h ori t ie s it is c omm on ly d eriv e d a s ,

rega rd s m a n us c rip t s o rigi n al d rawi n g s a n d t h e lik e

, , ,

fro m an o wn e r s g en e ral righ t o f res t rain i ng t h e

’

w orld a t la rg e fro m a n y ki n d o f u n a u t h o ri se d i n t er

m e ddli n g wi t h h is p ro p e rt y Ye t t hi s p ri n cipl e .

is ha rdly s u ffici e n t for all ca s e s T h e re is n o .

d ou b t t ha t t h e re c e iv er or h o ld e r o f a p rivat e
l e t t e r m ay n o t p u bli s h it w i t h o u t t h e w ri t er s ’

c o n sen t alt h o ugh t h e re is al so n o d o u b t t ha t t h e

,

pap er m ay b e h is p ro p ert y fo r all o t h er p urp oses ;

h e ca nn o t b e re q u i re d fo r e xa m pl e as b e t w e e n , ,

hi ms elf an d t h e w rit e r t o p res erve it We have , .

1
M ch u d i s c u s s io n o f the p rin c ipl e s in v o lv e d
in t h e q u e s t io n
“
of c o py righ t a t c o m mo n l a w m y b e f ”
a g c o u n d in t h e re a t ase

o f J efl ery s v B oos ey
. 4 H L C 8 1 5 9 4 R R 3 8 9 w h ere
. . .
, .
, ,

h o w e v e r it is u n a v o id a bly m ix ed u p w it h p o in t s o f d e t a il aris in g
,

o n t h e fa c t s T h e a rg um e n t s fo r a n d a g a in s t t h e e x is t e n c e o f s u ch
.

a righ t a re m o re d is t in c t ly
p u t in t h e o p i n io n s o f E rl e J M a ul e J , ,

a n d C o l e rid g e J (p ro ) a n d P o ll o ck C B Lo rd B ro u gh a m a n d
, .
, . .
, ,

Lo rd S t Le o n ard s ( c o n t ra )
. T h e n e g a t i v e c o n cl u s io n is n o w
.

g en era lly a cc e p t e d by la w y ers Herb e rt S p e n c er w h o s e ph ilo s o phy

.
,

o f p o l i t ic a l a n d l e g a l in s t i t ut io n s re a lly b e l o n g s t o t h e e igh t e e n t h

c e n t ury c o n s is t e n t ly m a in t a in ed t h e o ld e r v ie w
, .
 RE LAT I ON OF PERSON S TO TH IN G S

t h en t o s ay t ha t
a l et t er is given by t h e w ri t er
t o t h e rec e iv e r u n d er an i mpli e d c o n di t i on t ha t

it is n o t t o b e p u blish e d w i t h out t h e w rit er s c o n ’

s e nt B ut it is hard t o se e o n an y acc e p t e d l egal

.
,

p ri n ciple s h ow s u ch a c o n di t ion c an b e en forc e d

,

agai n s t any t hird p erson i nt o w h o se han d s t h e

le t t er may c ome Th ere is m u ch t o b e s aid fo r
.

t h e s u gg es t i o n re c e n t ly m ad e in A merica an d ,

s u pp ort e d w i t h gre a t abili t y a n d i n g e n u i t y by it s

a u t h ors t hat e very cit iz e n is e n t it l e d t o a c ert ai n

,

m e as ure o f p rivacy in h is o w n a ffai rs as a b ra n ch ,

o f t h e g e n e ral righ t t o p erso n al i mmu n i t y ; t h a t

t his righ t a s appli e d t o t h e c ommu n icat i o n o f

,

o n e s t h o u gh t s or s en t i me n t s t o t h e p u blic
’
is n o t ,

limi t e d t o cas e s w h e re t h e e xpressi on o f t h e m

happ e ns t o b e e mb o di e d in s ome t an gibl e rec ord
s u ch as a m a n u s c rip t o r d ra w i n g ; a n d t ha t it is

i n d ep e n d en t o f t h e righ t o f p ro p ert y in an y su ch
t a n gibl e o bj e c t l
Of c o urs e t h ere is n o o bj e c t i on
.

t o t h e righ t o f p ro p e rt y wh ere it d oe s happ e n

,

t o b e availabl e be i n g u s e d in aid o f t h e m ore

,

g en eral an d p erson al righ t ; an d as t his is t h e s afe r

c ou rse w h en it is p o s sibl e a l o n g t i me m ay y e t
,

elap s e b e fo re t h e fu n da me n t al q u es t i o n is d e cid e d

1 “
R P
T h e igh t t o ri v a cy , by Sam u e l D . Warre n a n d Lo u is D .

B ra n d e is H a r v L a w R e v i v 1 93
, . . . .
 F IRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

i t h er by au t h orit y or by a c o n sen su s o f rea so n e d

e .

o pi n i o n .

I c p l
n o r o rea T h e re are y et o t h er i n c orp o re al t hi n g s t o which
p p ty
ro er

c i t i g t h e an al ogy o f o w n ership is larg e ly appli e d

on s s n In
.

i
n obl ig a

ti
on s . t h e la n gu a g e o f c o mm o n life an d b u s i n es s w e hav e

n o di ffic u l t y a n d n o s e n se o f i n c o n gru i t y in s ayi n g

t ha t a m an o wn s o r p o s se s s es m o n ey in t h e fu n d s ,

railway s ha re s o r d e b e n t ure s o r o t h e r i n v es t m e n t s
'

w hich re ally c on s i s t in a claim t o i n t e re s t or t o a

’

Sha re o f p ro fi t s in p ro p o rt i o n t o t h e capital su m

i n v est e d N o w aday s it is n o t us u al a n d m ay s eem

.
,

hardly n at u ral t o call a merchan t t h e o wn e r o f t h e

,

d e bt s g ro wi n g d u e t o h im in t h e c ou rs e Of h is
b u s ine s s ; t h ere is n o d ou b t h o we v er t hat s u ch
, ,

d e bt s c oun t a s a part o f h is p ro p ert y ; t h ey are

a s s e t s ; t h e y ma y w ell form a c o n s id erabl e part
o f all h e is w o rt h An d in t h e ca s e o f m an y
.

s e c uri t i es a n d i n v e s t m e n t s t h e re is a t ru e p o s s e s

si on an d o w n ership o f t h e d o c u m e n t s by which
t h e righ t o f t h e h old e r is
. p ro ve d What is.

m ore in s om e cas es n am ely t h o se o f n ego t iabl e

, , ,

i n s t ru men t s o w n e rship or e v en p o s s ess i o n o f a

,

m a t e rial d o c u me n t is t h e o n ly n o rm al p ro o f o f
righ t t o t h e pay m e n t s e c u re d or p ro m i s e d by

it s t e rms T h u s t h e re se mblan c e t o o w n e rs hip

.

o f c o rp ore al g o o d s is v ery s t ro n g at fi rs t s igh t .

 C H A P T E R V III

CL AI M S OF P ERSON S ON P ERSONS : R ELAT I ON OF

OB LI G AT I ON S TO P ROP ERTY

IN t h e las t chap t er w e s pok e o f righ t s avail a bl e

again s t t h e w o rld a t larg e . M ut u al d u t ies an d‘

righ t s b e t w ee n c ert ain p e rs on s an d gro u p s o f

p ers o n s n o t s ha re d by t h e w o rld at larg e lik e
, ,

wis e e xi s t by l aw an d c u s t o m in all s e t t l e d
c o mmu n i t i e s
. T h e y m ay b e s ee n at o n c e to

fall i n t o t w o cla s s e s n am ely t h ose which are

, ,

d e fi n i t e an d t h os e w hich are i n d e fi n it e . Th e
re la t i o n s of h us ban d a n d w ife a n d pare n t a n d
child giv e ri s e t o d u t i e s an d clai ms which are
s t ric t ly p ers on al
. B u t t h es e are n o t se para t e

an d i n d ep en d en t d ut ies T h e y are i n cid e n t t o

.

t h e c on t in u o us re la t i o n of the part i e s ; t h e y
can n o t b e e xhau st e d by any en u m erat i on of
part ic u lars ; an d t h ey can n o t b e b rou gh t t o a n
en d e xc e p t by t h e e xpi ra t i o n or d e t ermi n a t ion
204
C HA P V II I
. C LA I MS OF PER SON S ON PERSON S

of the p ers o n al rela t i on t o which t h ey a re

i n cid en t T h e adva n t ag e s an d b e n e fi t s a ri s i n g
.

from t h em are n o t re c og n ise d by l aw n o t by ,

m o d ern l aw at an y ra t e a s a p o ss ibl e s u bj e c t ,

m a t t er o f s al e b art er or t raffic o f an y ki n d o r
, , ,

o f ad e qu a t e p e c u n ia ry es t i m a t i o n H e n c e t h o se
1
. .

adva n t age s an d b en e fi t s h o w e v er im p ort an t t o

,

i n divid u a l s an d t o so ciet y are n ot t hi n gs in ,

t h e l e gal s en se B e s id e s all t hi s t h e fam ily

.

re l a t i o n s b e l o n g t o a la rg e e x t e n t t o t h e Sph ere
, ,

o f m o ra l as di s t in c t fro m t hat o f l egal j u s t ic e

a n d righ t C o urt s o f l aw c an d eal o nly w i t h
.

t h e gro sser i n frac t i o n s an d s h ort c o m i n g s t h at

o cc u r in fam ily a ffairs I t is t ru e tha t t h e

.

Chu rch of R o me h as a t t em p t e d a n d in t h e ,

Middl e A g es did h abit u a l ly acc om plis h a grea t ,

e x t e n s i on o f fo rm a l d o c t ri n e a n d j uri s dic t i on as
re ga rd s m a rri a g e a n d s e x ua l m o ra li t y g e n e rall y .

Th e re s u l t s are m a t t e r o f hi s t o ry an d app e ar , ,

t o t h e E ngli s h l ay m i n d a t a n y ra t e t o s t an d as ,

w arn i ng ra t h e r t ha n as e xam pl e .

F am ily rel at i on s a nd t h e d ut ies ari si ng from

t h em p re s en t in s h o rt a n al o gi e s t o t h e righ t s o f
, ,

p ro p ert y a n d p oss e s s i on o n t h e o n e han d a n d t o ,

1
Th e re m e d ie s ll o w ed by t h e Co mm o n La w for v io l a t io n o f
a

m arit a l o r p a re n t a l righ t s a re d irec t ed o n ly t o c e rt ai n in c id e n t s o f

t h e rig h t n o t t h e rig h t as a w h o l e
, .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI S PRU DEN CE C HA P .

r igh t s c re at e d by agre em en t o f pa rt i es o n t h e Ot h er ;
,

b u t t h e y are al s o m ark e d by e s se n t ial diffe re n c es

w hich plac e t h e m apa rt a n d m a k e it da n g e ro us
,

t o t rus t a n y s u ch a n a l o gie s fo r t h e p u rp o se o f

d ed u cin g c o n s e q ue n c es .

T h e o t h e r g re a t cla ss o f d ut i es a n d righ t s

t aki n g e ffe c t b e t w een as c ert ain e d p ers on s are

t h o se w hich hav e re g a rd t o s o m e d e fi n i t e p e r

forman c e or o b se rva n c e t o b e re n d e re d b y o n e

pa rt y t o a n o t h er Wh en w e s ay t ha t t h e
.

p erform an c e or o b servan c e is d e fi n it e w e m ean ,

t hat it is d e fi n i t e e n o u gh for t h e law t o p ro .

n o un ce in ca se o f di s p u t e wh e t h e r it is d u ly
, ,

ful fille d o r n o t a nd als o t o s e t a p e cu ni ary

,

valu e u p on it T h es e di s t in c t i on s have alre ady

.

b een p o in t e d o u t in c o n sid eri n g t h e c urre nt

divi si o ns o f l egal ru les 1
.

O bl ig t ion s
a At fi rs t s igh t it w o u ld see m t hat a clai m w i t h a
m ly
e re

p s o n l in
er a c o rre s p on di n g d ut y s u b s i s t in g b e t w e en t w o d e fi n i t e
,

e arly l a w
p erso n s c o n c ern s t h o s e t w o p ers on s o n ly an d t h e
.

, ,

righ t s c o n s t i t u t i n g o r fl o w i n g fro m s u ch a clai m

can n o t hav e any re se mbl an c e t o t h e righ t s o f an

o wn er . T hi s is in fac t t h e vi e w t ak e n in a ll o r

al mos t all e arly s y s t e m s o f l aw R o m a n l aw .

,

t h o ugh m o difi e d in p rac t ic e i n t h e la t e r clas s ic a l

1
Ch iv
. . p . 81 a bv
o e.
 F IRST B OO K OF J U R ISP RU D ENCE

ag ree m en t is app ro p riat e in t h e u n qu alifi ed form

,

o f t h e cla s s ical R o m a n d o c t ri n e o n ly t o a w o rld

,

w h e re t h e re is w e n ee d n o t e v e n s ay n o c re di t or
,

no m o n ey b u t n o c o mm o n m e a su re o f val u es In
,
.

m o d e rn l a w w e hav e t o di s ti n gu i s h for t hi s p u rp o se
b e t w e en di ffe ren t ki n d s o f c on t rac t s n a mely t h o se
, ,

w hich a re fo r s p e cial p e rforma n c e s or s e rvic es t h o s e ,

w hich are fo r t h e t ra n s fe r o f p ro p ert y a n d t h o s e ,

w hich a re fo r t h e pay m e n t o f m o n e y ; a n d w i t hi n ,

t hi s la s t cla s s t h o s e w hich are o n ly fo r t h e se t tl e

,

m en t o f p riva t e a ffai rs an d t h o se w hich are i n t e n d e d

t o c re a t e e xchan g e abl e val ue .

So me agree me n t s are re ally s u ch t hat t h e y c an

b e p e rform e d o n ly b e t w ee n t h e o rigi n al part i e s ,

i n a smu ch as t h ey i n vo lv e t h e e x e rcis e o f p e rs o n al
s ki l l in a S p e cially d e sig n a t e d m a n ne r o r m u t u al
,

re la t i o n s o f p ers o n al c o n fid en c e o r b o t h
,
E xampl es
.

o f t hi s a re u n d ert aki n g s t o e x e c u t e a w o rk o f

li t era t u re o r art an d agreemen t s t o e n t er i n t o

,

act ive part n ership in a b u s i n ess re qu iri n g s p e ci a l

k n o w l e dge o r t rai n i n g . Obvi o u s ly t h e righ t s
ari s in g o u t o f s u ch t ra n s actio n s a re n eit h er p rop er
n o r p rac t icabl e o bj e c t s o f e xcha n g e No t p ro p e r
.
,

b e cau se t h e p erso n w h o is b ou n d is ge n erall y m ore

o r l e ss i n fl ue n c e d by p ers on al c o n s id e ra t i o n s It is .

by n o m ean s t o b e a ssu med t hat a pai n t e r w h o h as

V II I CLA I MS OF PERSON S ON PERSON S

un d ert ak e n t o pain t a pic t ure s a y for t h e t o w n hall

,
-

o f hi s n at iv e ci t y w ould hav e ch os e n t o p ai n t it
,

fo r a s t ra n g e r o n t h e s a m e t e rms or at all ,
No t .

p ra c t icabl e b ecau s e t h e righ t t o a s p e ci al an d

,

p erson al p erforman c e is va l u abl e o n ly t o a lim i t ed

cla s s o f p e rs on s or t o o n e p erso n e v en w h en t ha t ,

ki n d o f p e rforma nce is s o far in g e n e ral re qu e st a s

t o hav e a m ark e t o f it s o w n an d an a s c ert ai n abl e

m ark e t val u e T h e re is n o diffic u l t y in k n o w i n g

.

a pp ro xi m a t ely for w ha t pric e a g o o d t a il or w ill

m ak e a s ui t o f cl o t h es ; b u t w h en a m an h as b een
m e a sure d for a s ui t o f cl o t h es t h e righ t t o h a v e
,

t ha t part ic u la r s u i t is n o t w o rt h t h e t ail or s p ric e

’

or a n y t hi n g lik e it t o a n y o n e b u t hi m s elf
,
A gain .
,

t h e p ric e o f a rail w ay t ick e t ( t h at is o f t h e rail w ay ,

c o mpan y s u n d ert akin g t o carry o n e w i t h d u e c are

’

, ,

a n d o n o t h e r e xp re ss a n d i mpli e d t e rm s o f re cip

ro c al d u t y b e t w e e n t h e s p e cifi e d s t a t i o n s is as fix e d
, )
a s a n y p ric e c a n b e ; b u t a rail w ay t ick e t fro m
O xford t o Ply m ou t h is in fac t w ort hl e s s t o a m a n
1

a t O xfo rd w h o d oe s n o t w a n t t o
go t o P ly mo u t h .

Or t o go back t o m o re p erso nal rel at i o n s t h e

, ,

1
As t h in g s a re b u t c o n d it io n s m ay w e ll b e c o n c ei v e d (e g
. . a

s y s t e m o f St a t e o r m u n ic i p a l ra i l w a y s w it h u n i fo rm
“z n fa re s
o e ,

a n d t ick e t s a v a il a bl e o v e r a c o n s id era bl e t im e fo r a n
y o n e o f s e v e ra l
l in e s ) u n d e r w h ich rail w a y t ick e t s migh t b e c o m e a n a u x il iary
c urre ncy a s po s t a g e s t a m p s n o w a re t o a c ert ain e x t e n t
, .

P
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI S PRUDEN C E

s er vic es o f a q u alifi e d c o n v ey a n ci n g c l erk are w ort h

m u ch in a s olici t o r s o ffic e b ut w o u ld b e w o rt h
’

n o t hi n g in an e n gi n eer s In all t h es e case s

’
.
,

t h e re fo re t h e p erso n e n t i t l e d t o t h e p e rfo rm a n ce
,

o r s e rvic e ,
w ha t e v e r it m ay h e ca n n o t b e s aid t o
,

b e in a p os iti on lik e a n o w n e r s T h e p e rform a n c e

’
.

will giv e h im s o me adva n t ag e o r p rofi t s o m e t hi ng ,

t ha t h e w a n t s a n d h a s a val u e fo r o r h e w o u ld n o t ,

h av e bargain e d for it ; p erhap s it w ill m ak e h im

"

t h e o w n er o f a t hi n g n o t o n ly val u abl e t o hi m se lf

in t h e w ay o f p e rs o n a l u s e o r pl e a s ure b u t h a vi n g ,

a c on s id erabl e v al u e in e xcha n g e a s in t h e cas e o f ,

a pic t u re t o b e p a i nt ed B u t in t h e m e a n t ime h e
.

h as n o t hi n g u n d e r h is o w n c o n t ro l a n d e xc e p t by , ,

s o me u n u s u a l a ccid e n t n o t hi n g t hat h e c an c o u n t
,

o n b e in g abl e t o di s p os e o f .

Ne x t l e t u s c o n s id e r t h o s e ag reem en t s w hich are

di re c t e d t o a cha n g e of o w n ership a s t h e ir m ai n
o bj e c t : t ha t is a g reem e n t s fo r s al e a n d p u rcha se
, .

H e re w e hav e a c on n e c t i o n w it h o w n ers righ t s a n d

’

a v e ry cl o s e o n e . A b u y er o f a s p e cific t hi n g w h o
h as paid o r is re ady a n d w illi n g t o pay o r t o
, ,

w h o m c re di t h as b e e n giv e n by t h e s e ll e r m ay call ,

a t a n y m o me n t fo r t h e t hi n g h e h a s b o u gh t Or .

h e m ay di re c t t h e s e lle r t o d e al w i t h i t o n h is

b eh alf t o m ak e it o v e r t o s o m e t hi rd p e rs o n for
,
 FIR ST B OO K OF J UR ISPR U D ENCE C HA P .

Cha n c ery w as re ady t o c o mp e l t h e s ell er t o m ak e

,

go o d h is agre e me n t an d c o n v e y t h e lan d t o t h e
re ady a n d w illi n g b u y e r B u t it did m ore ; it
.

t re a t e d t h e b u y e r in t h e m ea n t i me as o w n er for all

su b s ta n t i a l p u rp o s es I t l o ok e d o n h im a s havi n g
.

an e qu i t abl e e s t at e in t h e la n d n o t a m ere ,

p ers on al claim Th e b u yer h as a n i n t eres t w hich

.

h e c an re s ell s e t t l e o n h is fa m ily in h is life t i m e

1
, ,

or di s p o s e o f by w i l l H e h as e v erythi n g e xc e p t
.

t h e c o m pl e t e s e c u ri t y o f an o w n e r a s aga i n s t t h e

w orld at larg e : t h e C o u rt o f Cha n c ery c oul d n ot

“ ”
giv e h im t h e l egal es tat e w hich o n ly a re al
d e liv ery o f l egal p o s sessi o n o r s o me t hin g e qu ival en t
, ,

c a n t ak e fro m o n e h o ld er an d c o n fe r o n a n o t h er .

“
Th e ba rri er t h a t s t an d s b e t w ee n a n e q u i t abl e
”
o w n er an d full o w n ership is t h e ris k o f b ein g
di splac e d by a pu rcha s e r for val ue wi t h ou t n ot ice ,

t o w h o m t h e p ro p ert y is s o ld o r m ad e a s e c u ri t y by

t h e fra u d o r o t h e r fa u l t Of t h e l e gal a n d app are n t

o w n er , b u t w i t h o u t a n y fau l t o r n e gl e c t o f t h e
p urcha s er 2
Subj ec t t o t ha t ri s k t h e m an w h o
.
,

h as an e ffe c t u al righ t by c o n t rac t t o b e m ad e t h e

1
Se e Wood v . Grifiit h ( 1 81 8) 1 S w 4 3, 1 8 R R
. . 18 .

2
D l
e t ai s o f o u r d o c t rin e
h es e m a t t ers a s u bt l e d o c t rin e b u t
on t , ,

a j u s t a n d s a l u t ry o n e i n t h e m a i n w o u ld b e o ut o f pl a c e h ere
a , .

P i tch er v R a w l in s ( 1 8 7 2 ) L B 7 Ch 2 5 9 c o n t a in s t h e l ea d in g
. . . .
,

au t h o rit a t i v e e xp o s it io n o f t h e p rin c i pl e s .
 CLA IMS OF PERSON S ON P ERSON S

o w n e r o f re al c o u n t ri e s u n d er t h e C o m m on
es t a t e in

Law h as t h e righ t s a n d adv a n t age s o f p ro p ert y

w i t h o u t w a i t i n g fo r t h e ac t u a l t ran s fe r A cc o rd .

in gl y t h e b e n e fi t o f an o bligat i o nw h o s e o bj e c t is t h e

t ra n s fe r o f p ro p e rt y n o t o n ly h as a d e fi n i t e val u e
a n d is p ro p e rt y in t h e larg er s e n s e b u t c a n n o t hav e ,

t h e n a m e o f p ro p e rt y re fuse d t o it e v e n in t h e

s t ric t e r s e n se .

Le t u s n o w p ro c e e d t o c o n t rac t s w h o s e o bj e c t is C o n t ra ct s
t o m ak e a m an o w n er n o t o f g o o d s o r lan d h a vi n g

an as c ert a in abl e v al ue b u t of t h e m e di um a n d
,

m e a s u re o f e xcha n g e abl e val u es i t s elf : in o t h e r

w o rd s c on t rac t s for t h e pay m e n t o f m o n e y
,
Th e .

righ t t o call for a c e rt ai n s u m o f m o n e y s u pp o s i n g ,

t h a t p ay m e n t ca n b e c o u n t e d o n is a s u s e fu l a n d ,

“ ”
v al u abl e e xc e p t for m erely p e t t y cas h t ran s ac
,

t i o n s as t h e m o n e y i t s e lf
,
In m an y w a ys an d o n
.

m an y o cca s i o n s i n d ee d it is e v e n m ore u s e fu l
, , .

A n d lik e t h e mo n e y i t self it m u s t b e t ak e n fo r all

, , ,

p urp os es capabl e o f re d u c t i o n t o ge n e ra l s t a t em en t
o r ru l e an d t h e refo re fo r l egal p u rp o s e s
,
am o n g s t
o t h e rs t o hav e t h e s am e val u e fo r e v ery o n e
,
.

T h e re fo re it is by it s n at u re a n e xch a n g e abl e

c o m mo dit y M en o f b us in e ss w ill t re at it a s s u ch
.
,

an d t h e l aw o f m o d e rn c o mm erci a l St at es m u s t

re c o g n i s e it as s u ch e ve n at ,
t h e c os t o f d o i n g
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

appare nt vi ol en c e t o p ri n cipl es d eriv e d from a

di ffe ren t kin d o f e xp eri e n c e T h e C ommon Law .
,

b e fo re t h e middl e o f t h e e igh t eent h c en tury w as ,

s l o w t o b ri n g i t s e lf i n t o li n e wit h t h e u s ag e o f
m an ki n d b u t u n d er t h e i m p u l se giv en in a c ri t ical
,

p eri o d by Lord M a n s fiel d s g e n iu s t h e e xpan s i on

’

, ,

wh e n it cam e w as s wift an d fu ll
,
1
C re di t h as .

b e c ome c u rren cy in l aw as w e ll as in fac t .

We hav e s aid t hat pay me n t o f t h e d e b t m us t b e

a s sum e d a s p ract ically c e rt ai n ; o r t o Sp e ak m o re ,

e xac t ly t h e ri s k o f d e fa u l t m u s t a t mo s t b e s m all
,

e n o ugh t o b e o u t w e igh e d by t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f

d o i n g b u s in e ss b et w ee n di s t an t plac es wi t h o u t t h e
ri s k a n d c os t o f c o n st an t ly t ran s mi t t i ng c o in e d
m e t al o r b u lli on No w t his ri s k a n d c ost w hich
.
,

a re c o n s id e rabl e e v e n a t t h e p res en t day w e re so ,

gre a t in t h e Middl e A ges t ha t a v e ry mo d e ra t e

s t a n da rd o f c re di t m igh t w e ll s u ffic e t o mak e t h e

u se o f c re di t p re ferabl e B u t t h e re m u st b e s o m e
.

m e a n s o f k e e pi n g c re di t at a fairly u n ifo rm w o rki n g

l e ve l by e xcl u di n g dis p u t es in m at t er o f fac t No .

m an will t ak e a b oo k d e b t d ue t o a t rad e s m a n
a s e q u ival en t t o t h e n o min al a m o u n t o f t h e bill .

1
Th e F re n ch d o c t rin e
g o t ia bl e i n s t rum e n t s h a vin g b e e n
of ne ,

p rem a t ure ly c o d ifi e d is s t ill m u ch l es s ad v a n c e d fro m a m e rc a n t il e

,

p o int o f v ie w t h a n t h e E n gl is h o r A n glo A me ric a n See C h a lm ers

-
.

o n B i l l s of E x ch a n g e I n t ro d u c t io n a t pp l i v lv
, , . 4t h ed 1 8 9 1
. .
, . .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E

i n g enui t y o f Me di t erra ne an t rad ers p ro vid e d for

all t h e se re qu irem en t s by e s t abli shin g t h e m ai n
fe at ure s o f bill s o f e xch an ge o u t o f which t h e
,

w h o l e sy s t e m o f m o d e rn c re di t h as g ro w n 1
R isk .

o f t h e pa rt i e s o rigi n a lly o r u l t i m a t e ly liabl e b e i n g

i n s ol ven t ca n o f c ou rse n o t b e w h o lly e li mi n at e d

, , ,

t h o u gh m e as u re s o f p re ca u t i o n a n d m i t igat i on a re

p os s ibl e R i sk s o f frau d an d forg ery lik e w ise e xi st

.
,

b u t t h es e di ffe r o n ly in d e gre e fro m t h e ri s k o f t a k

in g bad m o n ey w h e n o n e is d e ali n g wi t h hard ca s h .

B u t it is n ot e n o u gh t o giv e t h e o rdi n a ry

i n cid e n t s o f p rop ert y t o c o mm ercial o bligat i o n s if

t h ey are t o b e e ffe c t iv e i n s t ru me n t s o f c o mm e rc e

a n d adj us t e rs o f m u t u a l c re di t s A cu rre n cy m u s t
.

hav e m ore t han t h e c o mm o n capacit y o f pa s s i n g by

t ran s fe r . I t m us t pa s s w i t h ou t di s c u ss i o n o f t h e

h old er s o w n ers hip s o l o n g as it is gen ui ne T h e

’

, .

v e ry p urp os e o f c u rren t c o in is n o t m erely t o

m e as u re val ues b u t t o fre e t h e re c e iv e r o f a pay
,

m e n t fro m havi n g t o t rac e back t h e p a y er s righ t

’

t o w hat h e han d s o v e r .Su ch is t h e re al di ffere n c e

b e t w e e n s al e an d bart er : a n d s o n e e dfu l t o c u rre nt
m o n e y is t hi s q u ali t y o f di s pen s i n g wi t h p ro o f o f t i t l e ,

or as o u r a n c e s t o rs w o uld h av e s aid n ei t h e r re q u i ri n g
, ,

1
Se e x am pl e s a n d re fere n c es c o ll e c t e d by M r E J enk s E a rly
e . .
,

H i s t o ry o f N e g o t ia bl e I ns t rum e n t s L a w Qu a rt R e v x 7 3 s qg
”
. . . .
,
 CLA IMS OF PERSON S ON PER SON S

nor a dm i t t in g
arrant y t hat it is a s su m e d in e v e ry
w ,

sy s t e m o f l aw a s b e i n g t o o e l e m e n t ary t o call fo r

d efi n i t i on o r a u t h o ri t y C re dit h as b ee n p u t o n an
.

e qu al fo o t i n g w i t h m e t allic c u rre n cy in t hi s re s p e c t

by m aki n g h ill s o f exchan ge a n d o t h e r lik e d o c u

m en t s n ot o n ly t ra n s ferabl e b u t n e go t i a bl e P ap er .

m o n e y an d o t h e r i n s t ru m e n t s payabl e t o b e a rer a re
t ra n s ferabl e n o t lik e o rdi n ary g oo d s b u t lik e t h e ,

c o i n w hi ch t h e y p o t e nt ially rep res en t a n d t h e

1
,

righ t t o re c eiv e w h a t is e xp re s s e d t o b e d u e p a ss e s

wi t h t h e d o c u me nt an d is i n sep arabl e from it .

T h u s w e hav e a large a n d m o s t i m p o rt a n t cla s s o f

i n c o rp ore al t h in g s an d m ore o v e r t hi n g s c on si s t i n g
,

in o bliga t i on w hich are n ot o n ly ali e n abl e b u t

, ,

m o re fu lly an d fre ely ali en abl e t h an a l m o s t e v e ry

ki n d o f c o rp ore al t hin gs a n d s o c o n n e c t e d w i t h
,

part ic ular c orp ore al t hin gs—n a m e ly t h e n ego t iabl e ,

d o c u m en t s t h ems elv e s —t ha t p o s s es s i o n o f s u ch a
t h in g in g oo d fai t h an d for val u e c o n cl u s iv e ly

d e t ermine s t h e righ t A l t h ou gh t his d o es n o t

.

m ak e it c orre c t t o s ay t ha t t h e h o ld er o f a bill o f
e xcha n g e h as a t hi n g in p os s e s s i o n a c t u al
( fo r t h e

1
P lly b ec au s e n e go t iabl e p a pe r c a n a c t ua lly re pre s e nt
o t e n t ia

n o t h i n g b u t c re d it h o we v er g o o d t h e c re d it m a T h e p ro m ise
, y be .

o f t h e B a n k o f E n gl a n d t o p a y £ 5 is a s g o o d a s £ 5 in g o l d b ut
,

s t ill a p ro m is e An d t h is re m in s t rue e v e n w h e n w e a re b o u n d
. a

by l a w t o acc e p t t h at pro mis e a s l eg l t end er

“
a .
 FI RST B O O K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

pie c e p ap e r b ein g val u abl e o n ly for t h e s ak e o f

of ,

t h e in c orp o re al righ t w hich it re p re s e n t s d o e s n o t ,

c ou n t as a c orp ore al t h i n g o f val u e) t h e fac t o f

1
,

righ t s a ri s i n g fro m c o n t rac t b e i n g t h us i n t i m a t e ly

a s so cia t e d w i t h p o s s e s s i o n an d phy s ical d eliv e ry

s h o w s h o w far m o d e rn d ev e l o p m e n t s o f b u s i n e s s
h a v e t aken u s fro m t h e o l d p e rso n al an d i n ali e n abl e
ch a ract er o f o bligat i on s .

An o t h er ki n d o f ali en abl e o bliga t i o n s a re t h os e

w hich c o n s t i t u t e t h e gre a t b u lk o f p e rma n e n t

i n v e s t me n t s G o v ern me n t a n d o t h er s e c uri t i e s
.
,

j oin t st o c k Share s an d t h e lik e are n o t hi n g e l s e

-
, ,

a part from a n v n t u al li abili t y t o w hich t h e y

( y e e

may e xp o s e t h e h o ld e rs in s om e c as e s ) t h an t h e
righ t t o re c e iv e a fix e d ra t e o f i n t e res t o r a n n u i t y ,

o r a divid e n d or s hare o f p ro fi t s n o t fix e d b u t ,

o ft e n c a pabl e o f app ro xi m at e es t i m at i o n be fo re han d .

Su ch righ t s a re as m u ch p ro p e rt y a s t h e cap it al
in v e s t e d ; w h e t h er t h e y are a g o o d e qu iv al en t fo r
it is a qu es t i o n o f fa c t w i t h w hich l e gal p ri n cipl e

1
On t h e oth er h an d t h e o ffe n c e o f t h e ft w a s d e fi n e d a t a
re l a t i v e ly e arly s t a g e i n t h e h i s t o ry o f E n gl is h l a w ,
a nd ,
as

d e fi n ed in v o lv e d a w ro n gfu l ch a n g e o f p os s ess io n i n a c o rp o re a l
,

t h in g o f v a l ue . T h e re s u l t o f d iffere n t p a rt s o f t h e l a w re m a ini n g
i n s u ch d ifferen t s t a t es o f d ev e l o p m e n t w as t h a t u n t i l a re m e d y
,

w a s pro v id e d by l e g is l a t i o n n o t a k in g o f d o c u m e n t s w h o s e s o l e
,

v a lu e w a s in “ t h eir e v id e n t iary ch a ra c t e r c o u ld b e t h e ft a n
”
:

a b s u rd b u t n o t a c a p ric io u s re s u l t .
—
S e e P o ll o ck an d Wrigh t o n
P os s es s i on , 233 5 -
.
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E
“
m igh t hav e k ep t a b orro w e d h o rs e or h e ld o v e r .

in t h e o cc u pa t i on o f a pi e c e o f lan d P oss es s i o n
.

o f la n d an d paym en t o f m on ey w ere clai me d in

p re cis e ly s i milar fo rms o f w ord s H ere p o p u lar .

archai s m rein forc es t h e m o d ern b u s in es s w ay o f

t re at i n g a ffai rs .Wi t h t h e grea t maj ori t y o f in
v es t o rs in e i t h er t h e p u blic fu n d s o r t h e d e b e n t ures

o r s h ares o f a c o m pa n y t h e di ffic u l t y w o u ld b e n o t ,

t o p e rs u ad e t h e m t ha t t h e i r i n t ere s t s are re ally

p ro p ert y b u t t o m ak e t h em u n d ers t a n d h ow t h ere

,

c a n b e a n y t hi n g ab o u t s o s i mpl e a fac t t ha t n e e d s

e xpla n a t i o n . Su ch i n t eres t s are ali e n abl e an d are

l arg ely b ou gh t an d sold e v e ry day ; t h e y are o ft en
t h e s t apl e o f m en s es t a t e s a n d a re m ad e t h e
’

p ro vi s io n o f fa milie s In s om e ca s es p erm an e n t
.

s e c u ri t i e s a re n o t o n ly ali en abl e b u t n e g o t i a bl e ;
1

s u ch ca se s a re e xc e p t i o n al in E n gli s h u s ag e b u t by ,

n o m e a n s u n c o mm o n in A m e rica .

A cc ordin gly righ t s t o p erform an c e o r pay men t

c re at e d by agreem en t are t hi n g s in c on t e mpla t i on

1
Th e d ifferen c e b e t w e e n l e n d in g o n t h e s ec u rit y o f a n u n d e r
t a k i n g ( a s o u d e b e n t ure s ) a n d a dv e n t urin g o n e s m o n e y in t h e
’

u nd e rt a k in g ( as in o rd i n a ry s h a re s ) is o f m in o r im p o rt a n c e fo r o u r

g en eral pu rpo s e H ere w e m us t s ay “ s e c u rit ies

. o rd in a ry

s h a r s o r s t o ck c a n n o t b e n e g o t ia bl e fo r w a n t o f a d e fi n it e a n d
e

u n c o n d i t i o n a l p ro mis e t o p a y. I f n o t fully p aid u p t h ey in v o l ve

,

a c o n t in g e n t l ia b il it y w h ich w o u ld m k e a n o t h er fa t a l o b s t a cl e t o
a

t h e i r be in g n e g o t ia bl e a s d is t in c t fro m t ra n s fe ra bl e
.
V I II CLA I MS OF PER SON S ON PER SON S

of l aw , so far as t h ey
hav e a value for t h e p ers o n
en t it l e d w hich c o u rt s o f j u s t ic e will d e fi n e or
,

re c o g n i se a s d e fi n e d by t h e pa rt ies An d b ey o n d .
,

t hi s d e fi n i t e righ t s ari s i n g fro m ag re em e n t n o t o n ly

,

a re t hi n g s b u t c an b e m ad e e xchan g e abl e t hi n g s
, ,

p ro p ert y in t h e full e st s en s e if su ch is t h e i n t e n t i o n ,

o f t h e p art i e s a n d if t hat i n t e n t i o n is re c o g n i se d by
,

ru l e s o f l a w a s d ese rvi n g e n c o u rag em e n t o n gro u n d s

o f g e n e ral c o n v e n i e n c e Obl ig a t i o n s i n d ep e n d en t
.

o f t h e c o n s e n t o f part i e s re m ai n t o b e c o n s id ere d

u n d er t h e s am e a s p e c t Th e righ t in t h e se cases .

may b e a righ t e i t h er t o s p e cific rest i t ut i o n in s o me

fo rm o r as it is mu ch m ore c om m on ly t o c o mp e n
, , ,

s a t i o n in m o n e y P rivat e righ t s t o re c e iv e fix e d
.

s u m s o f m o n ey by way o f c o m p e n s a t i o n o r fo rfe i t u re

are al so p o ss ibl e b u t in mo d ern law n o t v e ry,

fre qu en t 1
I n an y
. of t he s e alt ern a t iv e s t h e
pl aint iff s righ t is at l e as t c apabl e o f b ei n g as s e sse d
’

in t erm s o f mo n ey ; h e w ill ge t m on e y o r m o n e y s
’

w o rt h H e is b e t t er o ff by an a s s ign abl e a m oun t

.
, ,

t h a n if h is righ t w e re n o t re c o g n i se d by l a w 2
So .

far t h e re d o es n o t app e ar an y re a s o n fo r re fu s i n g t o

in clu d e o bliga t i on s o f t hi s ki n d in t h e ca t eg ory o f

“
In o ur l aw stp u l a t ion s fo r fix ed p e n a l t ie s o r l iqu id a t e d
i
d am a g e s a re c o n s t a nt ly t re a t ed a s o n ly fix ing a m ximum . a

c o m pe n s a t io n .

2
Se e D r . M yl o e s
’
J u s t i n ia n , 4 t h ed . p . 1 87 .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E

t hi n g s . If t h ey w e re
furt h er re c ogni s e d by l a w ,

like p e c u n ia ry righ t s c re a t e d by agre em e n t a s ,

p oss ibl e o bj e c t s of e xchan ge an d t raffic t h ere c ou ld ,

b e n o h e s i t at i o n ab o u t i n cl u di n g t h e m B u t t h ey .

a re di s t i n c t ly n o t s o re c o g n i s e d It is n o t t h ou gh t
.

g o o d fo r j u s t ic e p e ac e o r fair d e alin g t ha t h o s t il e
, ,

righ t s o f ac t i o n clai m s fo r t h e re d re s s o f p ers o n al

,

i nj u ri e s as di s t i n c t from clai ms w hich are in s u b

s t a n c e fo r da m ag e t o p rOp e rt y s h o u ld b e m a rk e t abl e
l
.
,

T hi s p ri n cipl e is fo u n d I b e li e v e in all civili se d

, ,
.

la w s it is a t t h e b o t t om o f t h e rul e s o f t h e C o mm o n
”
Law aga i n s t m a i n t e n a n c e a n d cha m p ert y ru l e s ,

w hich at fi rs t s igh t l o o k t e ch n ical an d e v en

cap rici o us b u t w hich w e re call e d fo rt h by re al
,

dan gers a n d ab us e s No d o u b t it m ay b e hard t o

.

d ra w t h e lin e b et w een a g en u i n e s al e of p ro p ert y

wi t h a t i t l e m ore o r l e s s capabl e o f d o ubt a n d t h e
s al e o f a s p e c u la t iv e la w s u i t Ou r a n c es t o rs w ere
.

disp o s e d t o d ra w it by re qu irin g ac t u al p oss es s i o n

a s a c o n di t i o n o f e ffe c t u ally d e ali n g w i t h p ro p ert y ,

o r in t h e ca se o f i n c o rp o re al t hi n g s t h e n e a res t

p oss ible e qu ival e n t o f p o s se ss i o n Wh et h er mo d ern .

'

lawy ers c an acc e p t so t ren chan t a s ol ut i on o r n o t ,

t h e li n e s t ill h as t o b e d ra wn s o m e w h e re ; a n d

1
Th e fo rm of a c t io n d o es n o t s ee m a s u f fic ie n t t es t in o ur law .

Se e L Q R
. . . xx i. 1 01 .
 FIRST B OO K O F J U R ISP R U D ENCE C HA P V III
.

of l aw w i t h o u t gard t o t h e w ill of t h e part i e s h as

re ,

al ready b ee n m en t io n e d an d a t t e n t io n h as b een
,

call e d t o it s i n c re a s in g i mp ort an c e in mo d ern affairs .

I t w o u ld a t t ai n a f urt h er d e gree of re c o gni t i o n as ,

it w ere a n add e d e m pha s i s if t h e vi e w n ow

,

s ugg e s t e d w e re g e n erally ad o p t e d ,
an d,
i n s t e ad o f
s ayi n g w i t h t h e R o m a n s t ha t c e rt ai n t hi n gs hav e

n o t e xcha n g e abl e val u e o r are n o t all o w e d t o b e

e xcha n g e d , w e s aid t ha t w hat e v e r h as n o t l a w fu l

e xch an g e abl e val u e b e it c orp o re al o r i n c o rp o re al

, ,

is n ot a t hi n g in t h e e y e of t h e l aw .
 P AR T

LEGAL
 FIRST B OO K O F J U R ISP R UD EN CE C HA P .

F orms o f an y s y s t em of l aw m ay be g e n erally class ifi ed

g law
s t a t in .

th us
A . C om m a n d .

B . Maxi m or t e x t .

0 . I n t e rp ret ati o n .

We t ak e t hi s
a cla s s ifica t i o n o f o b s erve d
as

fa c t s a n d w i t h ou t rega rd fo r t h e i mme dia t e p urp ose

, ,

in han d t o t h e c o n t ro v e rt e d q u e s t i o n o n w hich w e
,

hav e al re ady t o u ch e d b u t w hich b el o n gs re ally

l
,

not t o j u ri s p ru d e n c e b u t t o t h e phil oso phy o f ‘

p o li t ic s w h et h er an d t o wha t e x t e n t p o s itiv e l a w
,

c a n b e acc o u n t e d for a s a w h o l e by t h e e xp ress o r

implie d c o m ma n d o f t h e s o v ereign p o w e r in th e
c o mmo nw eal t h T h ere c an b e n o d ou b t t hat in
.
,

p o i n t o f form s o me s t a t e m e n t s of l aw are c omman d s

,

an d o t h e rs are n o t Th e form e r ( A) ma y c o n
.

v e n ie n t l y b e call e d i mp era t iv e t h e la t t e r ( B a n d C ) ,

dis c urs iv e .

C o mman d s .
C o mman d p urp ort s t o p ro c ee d fro m a nd t o
e xp ress t h e w ill o f s o me p o w e r clai mi n g o b e di e n c e

a n d e xp e c t i n g t o b e o b ey e d
2
.

1
P art eh . i .

9
Th ese a re n o t the sa m e t h in g D
. urin g
grea t p a rt o f t h e a

e igh t e e n t h c en t u ry t h e P re t e n d e r cl a im e d t h e o b e d ie n c e o f E n gl is h

m e n as h is s ubj e c t s b ut e xp e rie n c e p ro v e d t h a t h e c ou ld n o t in
,

fac t e xpec t t h e maj o rit y o f t h em t o ob e y h im .

 T HE EXPRESS FORM S O F LAW

A l eg a l m axi m or t e xt m ay or m ay n ot p u rp ort M xim

a s.

to be d erive d e i t h er dire ctly o r rem o t e ly fro m t h e

c o mm an d o f a l egis lat or .

I n t e rp ret at i o n is t h e s ci en t ific p ro c es s o f applyi n g I t p t n e r re a

“ on .

l egal ru l e s in d e t ail It n ec e s s arily as sum e s t h e

.

e xi s t e n c e a n d a ut h o ri t y o f t h e ru l e s w hich it
1

e xplai n s an d appli e s I t m ay o r m ay n o t clai m o r

.

p o ss es s au t h orit y o f it s o w n .

“
Wri t t en l aw as t h e ph rase is c omm o nly u sed W it t
,
”
, r en

l w a .

d oes n o t me a n ru l e s of l aw e xp re s s e d in w ri t in g ,

b u t w h a t w e hav e ca l l e d i mp era t ive l aw a n e xp re s s ,

p re c e pt w hich n o t o n ly d e clares o r c o n t ai n s b u t ,

in it s v e ry w o rd s c o n st i t ut e s t h e l aw .

U n w ri t t en l a w i n clu d es all d iscu rsive e x U w it t n r en

l m a
p re ss i on s o f l aw h o w e v er c are fully th ey m ay b e
,

re d u c e d t o w ri t i n g a n d w h a t e v er t h e i r p ro fe s s io n al
,

a u t h orit y or w eigh t m ay b e T h u s a n Ac t o f .

P arliam en t a b y law o f a l o cal au t h ori t y t h e

,
-
,

art icl es o f an in c orp orat e d c ompan y are w ri t t e n ,

law s ; a j udg m en t o f t h e C ourt o f A pp e al d e liv ere d ,

aft e r c o n s id erat io n a n d p ri n t e d in t h e c urre n t

,

“ ”
re p o rt s ,
is u n w ri t t e n l aw Th e t erm t h ou gh
.
,

1
Su ch a s s um p t io n m ay b e l imit e d or re l a t iv e a s wh en En gl is h ,

P ro t es t a n t j ud g es in t erp ret R o ma n c a n o n l a w e g in a M a l t e s e , . .

m arria g e c a s e o r it m a y b e fo r a rg um e n t s s a k e o nly a s w h e n it
’

is s o u gh t t o s h o w t h a t a pro p o s e d ru l e c a n n o t b e l a w b e c a u s e i t
l e ad s t o a b s u rd c o n s equ en c es .
 FIRST B OO K OF J U R ISP RUD ENC E

e sia ly fi rs t s igh t p arad o xical

m i s u n d ers t o o d , an d a t ,

i s n o t i mp ro p er F or t h e w o rd s o f t h e j u dg m e n t
.
,

h o w e v er p re ci s e are s t ill an e xp o s it i on o f t h e law

,

an d n ot t h e l aw i t se lf On ly t h e p ri n cipl e
.

p o un d e d an d appli e d by t h e c ourt is law ; t h e

w ord s in w hich it is e xplai n e d are n o t bi n di n g o n

an one
y .

Le t us now m ark so me w hat m o re cl ose ly t h e

s p e cial charac t ers o f t h e form s o f law w e hav e
n ot ed .

A C o m ma n d in t h e way o f s y s t e m atic l e gi s la
.
,

t i o n h as b e en s aid t o b e t h e form o f l aw w hich

,

t e n d s t o p re va il in m o d e rn t i m es B e t ha t as it .

m ay w e can n o t say t ha t an y o th e r form is m o re

,

a n cie n t Archaic law s o far a s p res erve d t o u s

.
, ,

is q u i t e c omm o n ly t h u s e xp re s se d T h e Te n C o m.
e

m a n d me n t s an d t h e T w e lv e T abl es w id ely s epara t e d ,

a s t h e y are in plac e an d ti m e are t h e m os t: fa m ilia r ,

e x a m pl e s H o m i n e m m ort uu m in urb e n e s ep el it o
.

n e v e u rit o is t h e p re c u rs o r in form a s in s u b s t a nc e

( w h e t h er t h e re al m o t iv e o f t h e p ro hibi t i o n w e r e

s a n i t a ry or re ligi ou s u r la t e s t P ublic H e al t h
) o f o

Act s .

No t o nly t his b u t t h e re is a m a rk e d t en d e n cy
,

e v e n in re la t iv e ly m o d ern ti m e s t o r e fe r e xi s t i n g

rul e s o f l a w a n d c u s t o ms t h o u gh n o t p res e rv e d in
,
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

Ac t of P arliam e nt . T h e mi s t ak e w as p o i nte d o ut
m an y c e n t u ri es ago by P a u l us an d ,
n o t v ery m a n y

y e ars ago by Lo rd E s h er .

“
R eg ula e s t q u a e re m q u a e e s t b revi t er e narrat .

No n ex re g ula iu s s u mat u r s e d e x i ure qu o d e s t ,

”
re g ula fl a t
1
.

“
I d e t es t t h e at t e m p t t o fe t t er t h e l a w by
m axi ms .T h e y are al m o s t i n variably m i s l e adi n g :

t h e y a re fo r t h e m os t part s o la rg e an d g e n eral in

t h e ir l a n g u ag e t h a t t h e y al w ay s i n cl u d e s o m e t h i n g
‘

w hich re ally is n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e i n cl u d e d in

them 2 ”
.

A n o t h e r c o m m o n m i st ak e is t o ci t e m axi m s as
if t h ey c o n t ain e d t h e re a s on o r e xpla n a t io n o f t h e
ru l e s e m b o di e d by t h em w h ere as t h e y s e ld o m ,

e xplai n a n y t hi n g a n d are a l m os t alway s s u bj e c t t o

,

i mpli e d e xc ep t i o n s an d li mi t at i on s T h us t h e .

s e n t e n c e Qn i fa ci t p er a lin m fa ci t p er se may b e

u s e ful a s a rem i n d e r t h a t a c t s o f a s e rv a n t ab o u t

h is m as t e r s b u si n es s are ( w i t hi n c ert ai n li m i t s )
’

i mp u t e d t o t h e m a st er s o a s t o m ak e h im an s w er
abl e for t h e m w h et h er t h ey w ere in fac t au t h ori s e d
,

by t h e m a st er or n o t B ut it d o es n ot m ak e t h e .

rul e in a n w a m o re i n t e lligib l e t h ro w n
y y o r a y ,

1
D 50 17 d g i 1
.
, ,
e re . a r. .

2
L d E h
or s M R Y m th v F
er, . .
,( 1 88 7 ) 1 9 Q B D i
ar ou . ra n ce . v .

65 3 .
 T HE EXPRE SS FO RM S O F LAW

ligh t on it s igi n Sic a t ere t u o n t a l iena m n on

or .
'

l aed as is a p re c ep t o f l aw in t h e n a t ure o f a m axi m ;

it h old s l a rg e ly b u t by n o m e an s u n iv ers ally fo r ,

t h o u gh a m an m ay n o t al t o g et h er d o what h e w ill

w i t h h is o w n t h ere are m an y t hi n g s h e m ay d o
”
,

w i t h o u t b e i n g b o un d t o s av e h is n e ighb o urs ha rm

l e s s fro m an y l oss o r i n c on v e ni en c e t hat m ay re su l t

n u ll n s vi d et u r
'
d ol e fa cere qn i s no i u re n t i tu r .

What t h e m axi m re ally t ell s u s is t h at t h e l aw

d oes s et s o me li mi t s in t h e i nt eres t o f t h e n eighb o urs
,

a n d m a n ki n d at l arg e t o an o w n er s u s e o f h is
’

p rop ert y for h is o w n p u rp os e s an d e v e ry o w n er ,

m u s t k e e p w i t hi n t h os e li mi t s a t h is p eril Th e .

m axi m d o e s n o t p ro fe s s t o t ell us w hat t h e y a re .

In fac t w e hav e h ere a v e rbal c o n flic t b e t w e en

diffe rent m axim s o r pro v erb s Th e s t a t em en t o n .

e i t h er s id e if t ak e n al o n e is far t oo w id e ; if w e t ak e
, ,

b o t h s id es t o get h er t h e y ro ughly limi t o n e an o t h er .

A c ert ain n u m ber o f l egal t ex t s n o t b ei n g t h e G wth ro of

mi
dire c t u t t eran c e o f a n y s u preme p ow e r or law giv e r :E fiifi
c

are n e v e rt h e l e ss re ga rd e d a s m o re or l es s a ut h e n t ic

s t a t e m en t s o f t h e l a w Su ch t e x t s hav e fo r t h e
.
,

m o st part b een origi n ally n ot hin g b u t p riva t e

,

c om m en t o r i n t erp re t at i on ; o ft en t h ey hav e b ee n
t h e w ork o f p ers o n s w h o e xp res s ly di s clai me d an y

p re t e n si on t o s p e ak w i t h au t h ori t y a s in o u r o w n, ,
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E

c o un t ry Lit t let o n In s o me case s au t h ori t y h as

, .

b e e n c o nferre d o n t h e m by s p e cial ac t s o f t h e
s o v e re ig n p o w er ; t h e gre at e x a m pl e o f t hi s is t h e

t re at me n t o f t h e w ri t i n g s o f t h e cla s s ical R o ma n

law y ers w hich hav e c o me d o w n t o us in t h e D ige s t

o f J u st i n ia n . In o t h e r ca s es p riva t e wri t in g s hav e

b ee n app ro v e d a n d re li e d on by lawy ers a n d j udg es

u n t il t h e y hav e acq u i re d an i n t ri n s ic valu e a n d ,

t h e i r s t a t e m en t s are acc e p t e d as a ut h e n t ic o r at

l e as t p re s um ably c o rre c t T hi s h as happ en e d with

.

t h e E ngli s h law t e x t s k n o w n a s b o o k s o f a u t h o ri t y
-
“
,

o f w hich w e Shall s a m o re a t a lat er s t ag e

y .

I n t erp re t a t i on is t h e p ro c es s o f fix in g t h e
applicat i on o f l egal prin cipl es in c o n c re t e ca ses ,

wh et h er t h e p ri n cipl es b e laid d o w n in pre ci s e an d

i mp era t iv e t erms by a law giv er o r i mplie d in a ,

cu rren t ru l e which h as t o b e s o u gh t in u n wri t t en

law . So me s uch p ro c e s s is re qu i re d by t h e m u l t i
t u d e an d vari e ty o f h u m a n affai rs a n d it is n o t ,

n e c e s s a rily c o n n e c t e d w i t h a n i m p e rf e c t i o n in t h e
y
l a w i t se lf . All la w s w ri t t e n a n d u n w ri t t e n hav e
, ,

”
n e e d o f i n t erp re t a t i o n I f t h e lawgiv er s a ys
1
.

“
t h o u s hal t d o n o m urd er it h as t o b e se t t l e d w h a t
,

“ ”
killin g is m urd er I f h e s ay s t h o u s hal t n o t s te al
.
,

it h as t o b e se t t l e d w hat ki n d s o f t aki n g o r app ro

1
Ho b b es , Levi a t h a n , ch . 2 6, 8 .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

d e cid e d t hat t h e t wen t y o n e y e ars w ere an ab so l u t e

-

“ ”
t e rm in gro s s a n d n e e d n o t hav e re ga rd t o a n y

m in ori t y 1
.

E very ques t i on of in terp ret a ti on m ay b e re d u c e d

u l t im a t ely t o t hi s fo rm : G iv en a ru l e o f law t hat
c on di t i o n s g en erically d e s crib e d a s A p ro d u c e a
c ert ai n l egal liabili t y or o t h er c on s e qu e n c e X d o es ,

t h e s p e ci fi c fac t o r g ro u p o f fac t s n fa ll wi t hi n

t h e gen u s A ?

I n as mu ch as n o g en eral rul e c an an t icipate all

p o s s ibl e qu e st i o n s o f thi s ki n d t h e n e e d o f i nt e r ,

re t a t io n is n o t in i t s e lf a n re p roa ch t o t h e law
p y .

R at h er l aw w i t h o u t i n t e rp re t at i o n is b u t a Sk el e t o n

w i t h o u t life a n d i n t e rp re t at i o n m ak e s it a livi n g
,

b o dy ?

It m ay wi t h e qu al v erbal c o rre ct n e s s b e a fii rme d

in o n e s e n se an d d e n i e d in a n o t h e r that i nt erp re t a
, ,

t i o n ( wh e t h e r p erform e d by j u dg es o r by t e x t

w ri t ers ) m ak e s n e w l aw T h e qu es t i on m ay b e .

i mp o rt an t in a p ure ly phil o s o phical di s c u s s i o n of

l aw b u t fo r an y o t h e r p u rp o s e it is lik e di s c u ss i n g
,

wh et h er t h e J o h n Mil t o n w h o w ro t e Sa mson
Ag onis t es w as re ally t h e s a m e J o h n Milt on w h o
w ro t e Ly cid as On p ri n cipl e h o w e v er it see ms t ha t
.
, ,

1
Cad e l l v . P a l mer ( 1 8 3 3 ) 1 C l . F . 3 7 2, 3 6 R R
. . 1 28 .

z
C p So h m I n s t i t u t es R o ma n La w ,
’
. s f
o 8 .
 T HE EXPRESS F OR M S OF LAW

th e res u lt o f au th en tic i n t erp re t at io n w h e t h e r it is ,

t o b e t re at e d a s al w ay s havi n g b ee n l aw o r n o t is a n ,

i nt egral part o f t h e law fro m t h e momen t w h e n it is

fixe d s o that a c ou rt which h as t o t ak e acc o u n t o f
t h e l a w o f a n ot h e r c o u n t ry m u s t acc ept t ha t law

as i n t erp re t e d in its p ro p er j u ri s dic t io n a n d n ot ,

a t t em p t an in t erp re t a t io n o f it s o w n un le ss lo cal
a uth ori t y is silent o r o ffers c o nfli c t i n g sol u t ion s 1
.

Th e const ru ct ion o f w ri t t e n d o c um e n t s w h e t h e r ,

o f p u bli c a u t h o ri t y o r bi n di n g as b e t w e e n p riva t e

p ers o n s is a sp e cia l b ra n ch o f i n t erp re t a t i on a n d a

, ,

highly i mp ort an t o n e b ut m u s t by n o m e an s b e
,

s upp o se d t o b e t h e wh o l e o f it I n divid ual ac t i on s

.
,

o r a c o urs e o f c o n d u c t may b e t h e s u bj e c t o f i n t e r
,

re t a t io n n o l e s s t ha n w o rd s
p .

I n t erp re t a t i on m ay b e carri e d o n an d it s res ul t s ,

p res erv e d for u se in m ore t han o n e w ay an d in fac t

, ,

t h e re h av e bee n c o n s id e rabl e di ffe ren c e s o f m e t h o d

acc ordin g t o t i m e plac e an d t h e s ys t e m o f l aw in

, ,

fo rc e In En glan d an d c o un t ri e s w hich hav e d eriv e d

.
,

t h e ir l aw fro m E ngla n d o r c o m e u n d er t h e i n fl ue n c e
,

o f E ngli s h j u dicial habi t s t h e d e ci s i o n s o f s u p e ri o r

,

c o urt s o f j us t ic e a n d t h e re aso n s giv en for t he m are

, ,

chi e fly reli e d o n for t his p u rp os e a n d are t reat e d a s ,

1
Se e t h e re m a r k s o f M r M u nro e Smit h in
. a l earne d re v ie w of

th e fi rs t e d it io n o f t h is b o o k : P o l S ci Qu a r t
. . . x ii . 7 03 , 7 04 .
 FIRST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

havin g e mi n en t an d all b ut e xcl u s ive au t h ori t y A .

j udg me n t p re pa re d by a n E n gli s h j u dge a n d d eliv ere d

in an ac t u al ca se b efore t h e c o u rt or e v en d eliv e re d ,

w i t h ou t p re parati o n is o n a qu it e dis t i n c t foo tin g

,

fro m an y Opi ni on w hich t h e s am e j u dge may e xp ress

o u t o f c ou rt o n t h e s a m e s u bj e c t s a y in a pu bli s h e d ,

t re a t i s e o n t ha t b ran ch o f t h e l aw Th e j u dicial .

d e liv era n c e is o f au t h ori t y u n l es s an d u n til it b e ,

re v e rs e d o r o v erru l e d by a high e r c ou rt t ha t is o t h er ,

j udges w ill foll o w it in s i milar cas es wh en th e y

o cc u r Th e e x t ra j u dicial o pi n i o n h o w e v e r care fully
.
-
,

fo rme d an d e xp re ss ed is a mere rep ert ory o f arg u ,

m e n t s ; law y ers may fin d t h e m u s e fu l j u dges may ,

fin d t h em c o n vi n ci n g an d d e cid e a cc o rdi n gly ; b u t

t h e o pi n i o n as a n o pi n i on is n o t bi n di n g o n an y
, ,

o ne
l
. We s hall e xplain m o re fully in a s u b s e qu en t
ch apte r t h e d et ails o f E n gli s h j u dicial u s age a s t o
t h e fo ll o w i n g o f d e cid e d c a s es It is e m in en t ly a .

1 “T h ere is ft e n e xpres s ed wit h re g ard t o w o rk s

o n e n o t io n o

w rit t e n o r re v is e d by a ut h ors o n t h e B e n ch w h ich s e e m s t o m e in

p art a t l eas t erro n e o u s—t h e n o t io n I me a n t h a t t h e y po s s e s s a
, ,

q u a s i j u d ic ia l a u t h ori t y
- — Pre fa c e t o F ry o n S p ec ific P erfo rm
.

a nce ,
c it e d by Kek e wich J Un i on B a nk v M u n s t er ( 1 8 8 7 )
, .
, .

3 7 Ch D at p 5 4
. . . En gl i s h l a w y ers m ay find a n a cc e p t a bl e s e n s e
.

fo r H o bb es s d ic t um t h a t t h e a u t h orit y o f writ ers w i t h o u t t h e

’

a u t h o rit y o f t h e Co m m o n w ea l t h m a k e t h n o t t h e ir o p in io n s l a w b e ,

t h e y n e v er s o t ru e ( L ev ch B u t Ho b b es s i n t e n t io n as
” ’
. .
,

s ho w n b y t h e c o n t ex t w a s t o d e n y t h a t p ro fess i o n a l o r j u d ic ia l
,

o p in io n i n a n y fo rm c o u ld h a v e a n y b i n d in g a u t h o rit y w h ich w a s
c o nt rary t o t h e fa c t t h e n a nd is s o s t ill
,
.
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

j udg e s w ere no t p ro fess i o n al lawy ers n o r ( in t h e ,

e a rli er p e ri o d ) p e rm a n en t o ffic e rs o f th e Stat e ;

th ere fore t h e i r d e ci s io n s w ere o f n o part ic ular
w eigh t an d t h e s ci en t i fic d ev e l o pm en t o f l aw w as
,

carrie d o n n o t in c o urt b u t ( as w e s h o uld say ) in

,

cha mb ers by t h e l e ading la w y ers a n d in t h e b oo k s

, ,

an d c omm e n t ari es p e rhap s o riginally m e ant o n ly

,

fo r p riva t e u s e which t h e y p ro d u c e d
,
T h e fo u n d a .

t i o n o f t h e C o rp us J u ri s w a s laid n o t in t h e d e

c is io n s o f c o u rt s b u t in t h e o pi n i o n s a n d di s c u s s i o n s

o f adv o ca t e s As t hi s b o o k is n o t a n i n t ro d u c t i o n
.

t o R o m a n l a w w e p u rp os ely s ay n o t hin g o f t h e
,

st ep s by which t h e p u bli s h e d o pin i o n s of t h e

p ri n cipal R o m an j uri s t s acqu i re d a charac t er o f
p os i t iv e au t h ori t y an d u l t i m at ely s o far as s e l e c t e d
, ,

and p re s erv e d by Ju s t in ia n b eca me ,writ t e n

” 1
l aw .

Th e p ure R o m an sy s t em a s w e may call it , ,

o f i n t erp re t a t i o n fo un d e d o n e x t ra j u dicial o pi n i o n -

h as n ot p re vail e d t o a n y gre a t e x t e n t in m o d e rn

t i mes In m o s t c o n t i ne n t al c o un t ri e s t h e d e ci s i o n s
.

o f t h e c ou rt s a re re fe rre d t o an d u s e d in a rgu me n t

o r di s c u s s i o n t h o u gh t h e c o urt s are di s t in c t ly n o t
,

b o u n d t o fo ll o w p re viou s d e ci s io n s E xac t ly s p eak .

ing d e ci s i o n s hav e n e i t h e r m ore n or l e s s a u t h ori t y

,

1
Se e So h m , I n st i t u t es f
o R oma n La w , 1 5 , 1 6.
 T HE EXPRESS F ORM S OF LAW

in Fra n ce G e rm an y
, ,
or I t aly , p re s e n t d a y
at t he

t h a n t h e o pi n i o n s o f l e a rne d p ers o n s e xp re s s e d

in an y o t h e r form I n F ra n c e acc o rdi ngly it is

.
, ,

n ot u n c o m mo n t o ci t e t h e j u dg m e n t o f a fo re ig n

t rib un al ad m i n i s t eri n g w ha t is re ally t h e sam e

l a w ; fo r e xa mpl e t h e c o n s t ru c t i o n p u t o n a n
,

art icl e o f t h e C o d e Na o leo n by a B elgi a n c o u rt

p
an d t h e re w ou ld b e n o fo rm al o bj e c t i o n t o ci t i n g

fo r th e s a me p u rp os e a j u dg m e n t o f o ur o w n

J udicial C o mmi t t e e o n app e al fro m Ma uri t iu s o r

t h e P ro vi n c e o f Q u e b e c In p rac t ic e h o w e v er
.
, ,

it is fo u n d t ha t w h e re v e r d e cid e d ca s e s are m a d e

a cc e ss ibl e by re g ula r re p o rt in g t h e i r i n fl u e n c e t e n d s

“
t o gai n o n o t h e r fo rm s o f s ci e n t ific l a w and ,

j uri s prud en c e t o a ssume a mo re d is t i nc t ly n at i o n al

ch arac t er .

Poli t ic al an d ad mi n is t ra t ive chan ge s w hich

!

s t re n g t h e n t h e c ou rt s i nc re as e t h e p ro p ort i o n o f
,

e n ac t e d t o c u s t o m ary l a w an d mag n ify t h e im

,

p ortan c e o f pa rt ic ular j u dicial c e n t res hav e t h e ,

lik e e ffe ct This h as b e en n o t ably t h e c as e in

.

G erm an y d uri n g t h e l a s t g e n erat i o n It is p erh ap s .

n o t t o o mu ch t o s a t ha t m o d e rn G e rm a n l a w n o w
y
t e n d s t o c o n s is t o f c o d e s or s t a t u t e s an d ca se l a w -
.

As m a t t er o f hi s t ory t h e re is n o re a s o n t o d o u b t
,

t ha t o ur o w n p e c uliar a n d d e fi n i t e sy s t e m o f c as e
R
 F IRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P I
.

l aw d ue t o a ly a s s ert i on o f s u prem e
th e
5:: t
1 of Is e r
0

aut h it y
or au t h orit y in mat te rs o f j u s t ice by t h e kin g s c ou rt s ’

,
m E gl d
n an '

a n d t o s ui t s b ei n g b ro u gh t o n t h e o n e han d from
, ,

e v ery pa rt o f t h e ki n gd o m b e fore a c o m pa ra t iv e ly

“
s m al l n u m be r o f j u dg es h avin g t h e ir c ert a i n
”
plac e 1
a t W e s t m i n s te r a n d o n t h e o t h e r ha n d
, , ,

d e al t w i t h in e very part o f t h e ki ng d om by t h e
s a m e j u dg e s o n t h e i r ci rc u i t s .

I t w o uld n o t b e app ro p ria t e h e re t o di s c u ss

t h e re lat iv e adva n t ag e s o f t h e E n gli s h ( o r as it ,

s h o u ld n o w b e call e d A n gl o A merican ) a n d t h e
,
-

c o n t i n en t al u s age Wi t h t h e c o n t in en t al m e t h o d
.

it is o r o u ght t o b e e a s i e r t o c o rre c t a n o m ali e s

, ,

a n d re v e rse o r a rre s t w ro n g t e n d e n ci es b e fo re th e y

b e c o me i n v e t era t e Wi t h o u rs t h e l aw w h e n o nc e
.
,

d e fi n e d by aut h ority o n a n y p o i n t is o r o u gh t ,

t o b e m o re c ert ai n On t h e o t h er han d wh en
.
,

ca se l aw h a s t ak e n a w ron g t urn t h e c o rre ct io n

-
,

o f it by e xp res s l e gi s lati o n a t a n y rat e w ith o u r

,

E nglis h parliame nt ary p ro c e du re is b o t h an in c o n ,

v e n ie n t a n d an u n c ertai n o p e ra t i o n .

1
T h e w e ll -
k no wn ph ra s e o f M a g na Cart a, c . 17 .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

x ci se
e er p o w e rs c on fe rre d b y
of
'

Parliame n t St at u t es o fU n iv ers i t ie s
,

a n d C o ll e g es a n d t h e lik e
, .

By cu st oma ry aut h o ri t y (n o w o f litt l e

i mp o rt an c e) 1
.

I t is n e c es s a ry in c o n s t it u t i o n al l a w t o d is
, ,

t in guish d el eg a t ed a u t h o ri t y fro m t h e ki n d o f au t h o ri t y

w hich t h o u gh c re a t e d by t h e I m p erial P a rlia m e n t

, ,

a n d in p o i n t o f s t ric t law re v o c abl e or va riabl e by

it s ac t al o n e is n o t d el eg a t ed b ut ra t h er d evol ved
, .

T h e l egi s la t ures o f B ri t i s h I n dia a n d o f ( a t a ny

ra t e) t h e s elf g o v e rn i n g B ri t i s h c o l o n i e s d e riv e t h e i r
'
-

p o w e rs from A c t s o f P arliam e n t a n d t h o se p o w e rs ,

are li mi t e d in c e rt ai n way s b u t s u ch a l e gi s l a
,
t u re

is n o t a m e re d e l e ga t e o r a g e n t o f t h e I m p e ri a l
P arlia m en t It s p o w ers a re pl en ary wi t hi n t h e
.

app o in t e d lim i t s ; s o l o n g a s t h e s e are n o t e xc e e ded ,

t h ere is n o res t ric t i o n o n th e m a n n e r in w hich

t h e p o w er m ay b e e x erci se d A t o wn co un cil
.

can n o t d el egat e t h e maki ng o f b y law s t o t h e t o w n -

cl erk n o r a rail w ay c o mpa n y t o t h e t raffic man ag er ;

,

t h e un iv e rs ity c o ul d n o t e n ac t t ha t t h e t erm s o f

a s t a t ut e s h ou ld b e se t t l e d by t h e vic e chan c ell or -

an d t he regis t rar B u t a c o l o n ial l egi s la t ure

1~
By la w s o f l o c a l in ferio r c o urt s ma d e by v irt u e
- of a cust om
a re b el iev e d t o b e t h e o nly ex am pl es o f t h is cl as s .
 T HE SO URCE S OF EN GLI SH LAW

h as pl en ary p o w ers w i t hi n t h e b oun d s o f it s o w n

c o mp et en c e an d c an w i t hi n t h ese b oun d s c o n fer
, , , ,

d el e gat e d o r dis c ret io n ary au t h ori t y In t h e s am e

m an n e r a s t h e I m p erial P arlia men t it s elf T hi s .

rul e m o re o v e r appli e s t o t h e P ro vi n cial Le gi s la t u re s

, ,

e s t abli s h e d in Ca n ada by t h e B ri t i s h N o rt h A m erica

Ac t a s w ell a s t o t h e D o mi n i o n P arliam e n t 1
.

Th e l e gi s l at iv e or qu a s i l e gi s lat iv e ac t s o f b o di e s -

a n d p e rs o n s d ul y e x erci s i n g a ut h o ri t y d e riv e d fro m

P arli ament hav e o f c ou rse t h e forc e of l aw a s

“
re g ard s all p e rs on s w h o m t h e y c o n c e rn E ve ry .

b y l a w is a l aw an d a s o bliga t ory t o all p e rs on s

-
,

b ou n d by it t ha t is w i t hin it s j uri s dic t i on as an y

, , ,

a ct o f parliam e n t o n ly wi t h t hi s d ifferen c e t ha t
, ,

a b
y law-
i s liabl e t o hav e it s validi t y b r o u gh t i n
q ues t io n b ut an a c t o f parlia me n t is n ot
,
2
.
”

B Not ena ct ed . U w it t n r en

j d ici l u a

D e clarat i o n s a n d e xp os i t i on s o f l a w are d an n on

j d ic i l u a
a J u dici al n amel y t h e d e ci s io n s o f t h e xp it i
.
, e os on .

1
I din a : R . v . B u ra h ( 1 87 8 ) 3 App . Ca 88 9, 9 04
. On t ari o .

H od ge v . R .
( 1 88 3 ) 9 App . Ca 1 1 7 , 1 3 2
. a s t o N e w B ru n s w ick s e e

[ 1 8 92 ] A O 4 37 . . . Ne w S o u t h Wa l e s P ow e l l v . Ap o l l o Ca nd l e Co
'
.

( 1 88 5 ) 1 0 App C a . . 28 2 , 2 8 9 . Ne w Z l
e a a nd : A sh bu ry v . E l lis
[ 1 89 3 ] A O 3 3 9 . . .

2
Ho l t , C J , in Ci t y of L o nd on v l Vo od , 1 2 M o d a t p 6 7 8
. . . . . .

T h ere s e em s t o b e a p re sum p t io n t h a t o ffic ers o f s t at e m ak in g ru l es

un de r s t a t u t or y au t h o rit y h a v e n o t e xc ee d e d t h e ir po w ers . S ee
Lo rd Eh s er s
’
rem ark i n E a r p r t e F o rema n ( 1 8 8 7 ) 1 8 Q B
a . . D iv .

3 9 3 , 4 00 .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

su p eri or c ourt s o f j u s t ic e a n d t h e reas on s

a ss ign e d for t h em .

. I) No n j udicial n a m e ly in ( i )
-
,
b oo k s o f
a ut h ori t y ( a li m it e d an d e xc e pt i o n al
cla s s ) ( ii ) w ri t i n g s n ot o f au t h ori t y b ut ,

whi ch m ay h elp t o w a rd s t h e fo rm a t i on
o f a u t h o ri t y .

No g e n eral d e s c rip t i o n c a n b e giv e n o f w hat

”
c o n s t i t ut e s a b oo k o f a u t h ori t y It is a m at t er
.

o f j u dicial c us t o m a n d p ro fes s i o n al t radi t i o n We .

hav e al ready s een t hat b ei ng w ri t t e n by a j udge

d oes n o t mak e a b oo k au t h ori t at iv e So m e b oo k s .

which are highly e st e e me d an d which it is n o t

,

i mp ro p er t o ci t e in argu me nt are s t ill s h o rt o f ,

havi n g au t h ori t y in t h e p ro fess i on al s en se ; Black

s t o n e is t h e l e adi n g e xa m pl e Sir Micha e l F os t e r s
’
.

t re at i se o n Crow n La w fi rs t p u bli s h e d in 1 7 6 2
, ,

o nl y t h ree y e a rs b e fore Blacks t o n e s Commen t a ries

’

is s aid t o b e t h e la t es t b o o k t o w hich a u t h ori t y in

t h e e xac t s e n se c an b e a s c rib e d .

It w il l b e o b s e rv e d t hat t h e re is a p rac t ical d i ffe r

“
e n c e o f s o me i m p ort a n c e b e t w ee n o u r w ri t t e n an d

“ ”
u n wri tt en m a t erial s d e p en di ng o n t h e m a n n er
,

in which t h ey are p ro d u c e d Wri t t e n l aw

.
,

g en erally s p e aki n g b e ars a p oli t ical and o fficial

,

s t a mp . It is t h e w ork o f s t a t es m en m e m b ers o f ,
 FIR ST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

h im t han a m o d e rn t e ch n ical t re at i s e on en gi n eering

or ch em i s t ry D ou b t l e s s t h ere is n o
. b ran ch o f
h um an affai rs w i t h w hich c o u rt s of l aw may n o t
hav e t o d e al ; an d an i n t elligen t lay m an w h o t ri es
t h e s u pp o s e d sor t es j urid ica e ma y hav e a fai r cha n c e

o f ligh t i n g u p o n so m e t hin g t ha t c o n c e rn s h is o w n

b u s i n ess o r is c on n e c t e d w i t h s o me w ell k n o w n
,
-

pi e c e o f his t ory o r is o t h erwi se o f o bvi ou s p u blic

,

i n t e re s t ; b u t s t ill it is o n ly a b et t er cha n c e t han

o t h er ki n d s o f t e ch n ical w o rk s o u t s id e h is o w n

s p e cial k n o w l e dg e w o uld o ffer h im A li t t l e re

.

fl ec t io n will Sh o w t ha t l a w c ou ld n o t b e s y s t e m at ic

on a ny o t h er c o n di t i o n s Lik e o t h er s ci en c e s
.
,

j uri s p rud e n c e p ro fe s se s t o b e i n t elligibl e t o t h ose

w h o c an a n d will l e arn i t As in o t h er s ci en c e s
.

and art s t h ere is n o s h ort c ut t hat w ill s erv e

,

i n s t e a d o f l ea rn i n g an d e xp eri en c e 1
.

An o t h e r di s t in c t io n t o b e n ot e d is in t h e n at u re
“ “ ”
of t h e a u t h o rit y o n w hich w ri t t e n an d un
wri t t en l aw clai m u l t i mat ely t o re st In m od e rn
”
.

“ ”
e xp eri e n c e w ri t t e n or en ac t ed l aw p ro c e e d s ,

i mm e diat ely or by d erivat i o n fro m t h e e xp re s s

, ,

w ill o f t h e su p re me l e gi sla t iv e a u t h o ri t y Su ch .

1
No p ini on is e xpressed h ere o n t h e d is t inc t q u e s t io n h o w
o
’

f r a n d for w h a t re a s o n s t h e t rainin g o f E n gl is h l a w y ers i n

a , ,

re c e n t t im e s h a s b e e n m o re c u mb ro u s a n d l e s s e fli c ie n t t h a n i t

ough t t o b e .
 T HE SO URCES OF EN G LI SH LAW

e xcept i o n s as m ay n o w b e fo un d are o f n o prac t ical ‘

i mp ort an c e Law which is n ot e n ac t e d c on s i s t s

.

part ly b u t by n o me an s w h olly n or e v e n chi efly in

, ,

t h e i n t e rpret at i on o f p u blic e n ac t men t s which a re

in t h em selve s law s bi n din g o n all w h om t h ey c o n

c ern and o f privat e d o c u men t s w hich t h e part i e s
,

c on c ern e d hav e u n d er t h e s a n c t i on or all ow an c e

,

of t h e gen eral law mad e a law t o t h e mselv es

, .

T hi s d oe s n o t acc o u n t for t h e gre a t p rop o rt i o n o f

o u r ca s e l aw w hich d oe s n ot
-
p ro fess t o i nt erp ret
w ri t t e n l a w w h e t h e r origi n al or d e riva t iv e b u t
an
y , ,

p ro fesses on t h e c on t rary t o d ev el o p a nd apply

p rin cipl e s t hat hav e n ev er b eenc o mmit te d t o a ny
a u t h e n t ic form o f w o rd s Su ch p ri n cipl es are s aid .

“
t o b e ; c us t o mary a n d are d e s c rib e d as,
gen eral
c u st o m s w hich are t h e u n iv ersa l ru l e o f t h e w h ol e
,

ki ngd om an d form t h e c o mm o n law in it s st rict er

, ,

”
an d m o re u s u al s ignific at io n 1
T h e c ou rt s al s o .

re c o g n i se a n d e n fo rc e u n d er c ert ai n c on di t i o n s a n d
,

limi t a t i on s particu lar c u st o ms or laws w hich

,

affec t o nly t h e in habit an t s o f part ic ular di st rict s 2 ”

.

“ ”
Le g e s e t c on su et u din e s re gn i h as b e en a regular
c oll e c t iv e n am e o f E n glis h l a w s i n ce t h e la t t er h alf
o f t h e t w e lft h c e n t ury a t l a t e s t in o t h e r w ord s
3
,

1
B l cka s t o n e, C omm i 6 7
!
,
. .
2
II) 7 4
. .

3
S e e t h e P ro l o g ue t o G l a n v il l .
 FIR ST B OO K OF J U R ISP R U D ENCE C HA P .

e v er s i n c e o ur law
had an y t ermin o l ogy o f it s
h as
“
o w n ; in t h e fo urt ee n t h c e n t u ry l e x e t c o n su e t u d o
‘

”
reg n i n o s t ri w as s o w e ll e s t abli s h e d a s m e a nin g

t h e C om m o n Law t hat it c o u ld b e s eri ou sly a rgu e d

( t h o ugh w i t h o u t s u cc es s ) t h a t it w as b a d pl e adi n g

t o apply t h e t e rm t o law m ad e by a s t at u t e 1
Th e .

v e ry n ame C o mm on Law s eems t o i mply s o me kin d

o f re fere n c e t o gen eral u sag e an d acc eptan c e a s
b ei n g t h e u lt im ate claim o f t h e law u p on t h e in
divid ual cit iz en s all egian c e In s h ort t h e C ommo n
? ’

Law is a c u s t o m ary l aw if in t h e c o urse of ab ou t ,

s ix c e nt u rie s t h e u n d oub t i n g b eli e f a n d u n iform

,

lan g uag e o f e very b dd y wh o had o ccas i on t o c o ns ider

t h e m a t t er w e re abl e t o m ak e it s o T o t hi s .

“ ”
day c o ut u me is t h e n e are s t e quival e n t t hat
l e arne d F ren ch m en c a n fin d for it s En gli s h n ame .

In t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t ury s p e c ulativ e d ou b t s b e

came cu rre n t an d i n d e e d p re val en t a mon g E n gli s h

1
Y B 1 9 Ed
. . . II . 624 .
“
Co n s u e t u d o reg n i
A n gl ia e migh t
b e u s e d a s by t h e s c rib e s P re fa c e t o Y B
qu o t e d in Mr H o rwo o d ’
. .
, .

3 2 si 33 E d I . p xxx
. iii .w h ere w e . s h
, ou ld now s y a
“
pra c t ic e .
”

B u t t h e d is t in c t io n b e t w ee n s ub s t a n t i v e l a w a n d p ra c t ic e is m o d e rn .

2
I us co mm un e m e a n s o rig in a lly t h e ru l e a ck n o w l e d g ed by a ll
pa rt ies a s a pplic a bl e ( N e t t l e s h i p Con tri bu t i on s t o La t in L exi co
,

grap h y 5 08
,
o r t h e g e n e ra l l a w a s o pp o s e d t o e xc e p t io n a l

ru l e s o r p riv il e g e s a ppl ic a bl e o n ly t o a cl as s A Ro m a n s o ld ie r
.

w h o w a s d is ch arg e d o r a b s en t o n l e a v e c o u ld ma k e a w i ll o n ly
“
c o mIn u n i o m n iu m c i v iu m R o m a n o ru m i u re , ns t
”
I
11, § 3 . II . .

An d s ee the a rt i cl e Co mm o n La w, by t h e p res e n t w rit e r, in t h e

E n cy c l op ced i a of t he L a w s f
o Engl a n d .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

of so cie t y at larg e I f t h ere is a n y d o c t ri n e o f

.
‘

t h e m e di e val C omm o n Law t ha t m igh t b e pla u s ibly

s u s p e c t e d o f b e i n g a n a rt ificial c re at i o n it is t h e ,

v eh em en t p re s um p t i on again s t agre eme n t s an d c om

”
b in a t io n s t e n di n g t o re s t rai n t o f t rad e B u t t hi s .

d o c t rin e o cc urs in t h e s t ron ges t form a s e arly as ,

t h e e n d o f t h e t hi rt een th c e n t u ry in t h e re c o rd s ,

o f a m u n icip al c o u rt in w hich t h e ki n g s j u dg es h a d
’

n o pa rt
1
.

T h e c u rren t d e s c rip t i o n o f C o m mon La w as t h e

c u st om o f t h e re al m is n o t t h en t o b e di smi s se d
, ,

as u n hi s t orical We hav e o n ly t o remem b er t h a t

.

t h e ki n g s j u d g es u n d e rt o o k fro m a n e a rly t i me
’

, ,

t o k n o w b e t t e r t han t h e m e n o f a n y pa rt ic u lar

ci t y or c o u n t y wha t t h e c us t o m o f t h e rea lm was .

I n d e e d it is plai n t ha t l o cal i n qu iri e s in w h a t e v e r ,

m a nn er m ad e c o u ld i n form t h e m o n ly o f l o cal
,

u s ag e ; a n d t ha t s o far a s g en e ral u s ag e re ally did

'

e xi s t o r t e n d t o e xi s t t h e kin g s j u dg e s an d o ffi c ers
’

w ere t h e o n ly p ers on s w h o had s uffi cien t o pp o r

t u n it ies o f k n o w i n g it ; for j u dicial ci rc u i t s a n d

p erso n al at te n dan c e o n t h e ki n g in h is c on s t an t
j o urn ey s m ad e t h e m fam iliar in t h e regu lar c o urs e ,

Leet J u r isd ict i on i n Norw i ch ( Se ld e n So c ie t y ) , 1 8 92, p

1
. 5 2,
“
A D
. . 1 2 9 9 1 300 :
-
De b u s c a nd e l ariis p ro qua d am c o n
o mni

v e n c io n e in t er e o s fa c t a v id e l ic e t q u o d n u ll u s c o rum v e nd ere t
,

l ib ram c a n d e l e m in u s q u a m a l t e r .
 T HE SO URCE S OF EN GLI SH LAW

of t h ei r d utie s w i t h all part s o f t h e c oun t ry

,
.

M ore k n o w l e dge o f E n gla n d as a w h o l e mu s t hav e

b e en c o ll e cte d at t h e ki n g s c ou rt t h an c o ul d h ave
’ ‘

be en fou n d a n y w h e re e l s e B e i ng th us t ak e n
.

charg e o f from it s bi rt h by a s t ro n g c en tralis e d

p o we r an d d e v e l op e d u n d er t h e ha n d s o f t rai n e d
,

p ro fes s i on al j udge s a n d advo ca t es t h e C o mm on ,

La w rapidly b e ca m e a sp e ci a lis e d b ra n c h o f l e a rni n g

“
w o rk e d o u t by rul e s ci e n t i fi c
,
l aw a s t h e ,
'

C on t i ne n t a l w ri t e rs s ay Mu ch o f t h e u s age
.

w hich d e t erm i n e d it s form w as by t h e n at u re o f ,

t h e ca se p ro fes s i on al an d o fficial u s ag e
,
Th e .

m e t h o d s a n d p rac t ic e o f t h e A n gl o N o rm a n
C ha n c ery c o u ld n o t hav e m uch t o d o w i t h E n gli s h

“
c us t o m in an y p op ular s en s e B ut t h e
. l ex e t
”
c o n su e t ud o re g ni n o s t ri is s t ill t h ere a s a w h o l e ,

a n d res tin g o n t h e s a me fo u n d a t i o n w ha t e v e r ma y ,

be t h e p ro p ort i o n s o f lay an d l e arn e d p o p u lar a n d ,

o ffi cial e l e m e n t s in a n y giv e n p art o f it .

T h e b o dy o f rul e s c all e d E q u i t y an d ad O igi ,

f r n o

q it y e u

m i n i s t ere d form e rly by t h e C o urt o f Cha n c ery j i d i ,

ur s c

ti i on n
an d o n e o r t w o l o cal c ou rt s in p rivil e g e d j uri s E gl d n an

dic t io n s t o t h e e xcl us io n o f t h e ki n g s ordi n ary

,
’

c ourt s at We s t m in s t er is n o lon ge r a se para t e

,

sys t e m . As m a t t er o f c o n v e n i e n c e h ow e v er it is
, ,

s t ill chi e fly t h o ugh n o t e xcl u siv ely ad m i n i s t ere d

 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

in t h e Ch an c ery D ivi s i on o f t h e H igh C o urt o f

J u s t ic e an d s t u di e d by a s e c t i on o f t h e B ar w h o
,

m ak e it t h e i r s p e cial b u s i n e ss An d it s t ill .

p res en t s a s m u ch a s e v e r a di s t in ct hi s t orical
, ,

pro bl em o n e migh t al m os t s ay an u n iqu e o n e

,
.

As matt e r o f hi s t ory n o o n e h a s e v er a s c rib e d t h e

o rigi n o f E n gli s h E q u ity t o e i t h er l e gi s la t i o n o r

c u s t om . It is d e riv e d fro m t h e ki n g s a n ci e n t
’

p o w er o f d o i n g j u s t ice a t h is di s c re t i o n a n d by ,

s p e cia l m e a n s in c a s e s w h e re t h e o rdi n a ry m ea n s

o f j u s t ic e fa il e d a p o w e r ad m i t t e d fro m v e ry a n ci e n t
,

t i m e s d o w n t o t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t ury T hi s p o w e r .

“
is w h a t Mai ne h a s call e d a su ppl eme n t ary o r
”
res id u a ry j u ri s dic t i o n in t h e ki n g 1
La mb a rd e .
,

m o re t h a n t w o c e n t u ri e s earlie r d es c rib e d it as ,

t h e ki n g s o w n re g a l a b s o lu t e an d e xt ra o rdi n a ry
’

, ,

”
p re e m i nence o f j u ri s dic t i o n i n civil ca u s es ,

c o m m i t t e d by t h e ki n g t o h is Cha n c e llo r ?
In
c o urs e o f t i m e it b e ca m e w ell u n d ers t o o d in w ha t
kin d s o f c a s e s t h e ki n g or ra t h e r h is Chan c e ll or
,

an d o t h e r l e arn e d p ers o n s ab o u t t h e Chan c e ll o r ,

1
E a rl y L a w a nd Cu s t om, p . 1 64 .

2
A rch ei on , p . 63 , ed . 1 63 5 . Wh a t c a ll s t h e t rue
La mb a rd e
m o d e ra t io n o f j u ris d ic t io n ab s o l u t e is d is c u s s e d by h im in l a t er
ch a p t ers His o pin io n is briefl y t h a t t h e K in g in Co u n c il m a y
.
, ,

n o t c o n t ra v en e t h e Co mm o n La w b u t m a
y s u ppl e m en t it
, See .

furt h er m y l e c t ure s o n T h e E xp a n s i on of t h e Common La w Lo n d , .

1 9 04 , 6 7 7 3
-
.
 FI RST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P I I
.

cl os ely th e vi ew t ak en by E nglis h
t h e s e at an d p o w e r o f t h e u lt i m a t e
'

a ut h ori t y ( so v ereig n t y as it is calle d by ou r m od e rn

p u blici s t s) a n d o f t h e a uth ori t y a n d of

c us t o m .
 C H A P T E R III

SO E V REI GNTY IN ENG LI SH LAW

ACCORD ING t o m o d e rn l a w
prac t ic e t h e re is n oan d

d o u b t t hat P arliam en t or t o s p eak m ore t ech n ically

, , ,

t h e Ki n g in P a rliam en t is s o v ereig n in En gla n d, ,

a n d n o o t h e r p erso n or b o dy h as t h e a t t rib u t e s o f

“
s o v e re ig nt y T h e o n e fun dam e n t al d ogm a o f
.

Englis h c on s t it u t i on al l aw is t h e ab sol u te l egi s

lat ive so v ereign t y or d esp o t is m o f t h e Ki n g in P ar
That is t o say P a rlia m e n t is t h e o n e
1 ”
l iam en t .
,

a u t h o ri t y capabl e o f m aki n g d e clarin g an d amen di n g, ,

t h e l aw o f E n glan d w i t h ou t re fere n c e t o a ny o t h e r

aut h o ri t y an d w i t h o u t any l egal li mi t t o it s o w n

,

p ow e r E ver s in ce t h ere h as b e en an En gli s h

.

mo n archy it h as b e e n u n d ers t o o d that t h e ki n g had

p o w ers of l egis lat i on an d t ha t t h e y o ugh t n ot t o
,

b e e x ercis e d w i t h ou t advic e
2
From t h e t hirt een t h .

1
D ic y e on t h e La w of t h e Con s t i t u t i on , 7 t h ed . 1 9 08 , 1 4 1 .

2
Leg e s nam
que A ng l ic a n a s l ic e t n on s c rip t as l e g e s a pp ell at i n o n
257 S
 FIR ST B OO K OF J U R ISPR U D ENCE C HA P .

c en t ury o n w ard s it w a s u n d ers t o o d in part ic u l ar , ,

t hat n e w t ax es c o u ld n o t b e i m p os e d w i t h o u t t h e

c o n s e n t o f P arlia m en t b ut o t h er p o in t s l on g rem ai n e d
,

vagu e In lat e r t im es it h as b e en d efi n it ely s et t l e d

.

t hat t h e o n ly c o mp et e n t advic e a n d c o n se n t fo r all

l e gis l at iv e p urp o s e s are t h ose of t h e Lo rds s pi rit ual

a n d t e m p o ral a n d C o m m o n s in P a rliam e n t a s s e m bl e d .

Lat er s t ill it h as b e c o m e an u n d i s p u t e d p ro p o s i t i o n

t ha t n o b o u n d s c an b e a s s ig n e d in p o i nt o f l a w t o

t h e l egi s la t iv e p o w er e x erci s e d w i t h t ha t au th o ri t y .

T h e e a rl i es t d e fi n i t e s ta t e m e n t o f t h e m o d e rn

d o c t ri n e app e ars t o b e Sir T h o ma s Smi t h s in h is ’

Common wea l th of E ng la n d w ri t t en a s t h e b oo k its elf , ,

s t at e s in 1 5 6 5 a n d i n t e n d e d m ai n ly fo r t h e u se
1
, ,

2
o f C o n t i n e n t al re ad ers Th e b o o k w as p u bli sh e d
.

o n ly in 1 5 83 .

T h e m o s t high an d ab so l ut e p o w e r o f t h e re al m

o f E n gla n d c o n s i s t e t h in t h e P a rlia m e n t T ha t
'

w hich is d o n e by t hi s c o n s e n t is call e d firm s t abl e , ,

v id e t u r a bs urd um e a s s c il ic e t q u a s s u p e r d u b ii s i n c o n s i l io

d e fin ie n d is pro c erum qu id em c o n s ilio e t p rin c ipis a cc e d e n t e

'

a u c t o ri t a t e c o n s t a t e s se p ro m u l g t s —
,

,
‘
G l a n v ill P ro l
a a .
, .

As t o Sir T h o m a s Sm i t h s v a rio u s o ffic e s a n d ae c o m

’
1
Ad fin .

p l is h m e n t s M a it l a n d
’

see s E ng l i sh L a w a nd t h e R en a i s s a n ce,
Ga m b 1 9 01
. .

2
Le a rn e d p e rso n s re s o rt in g t o E n gla n d s e em t o h a v e u s e d it a s
a k in d o f g u id e b o o k . See t h e E l ze v ir e d it io n o f t h e La t in t e x t ,

1 6 4 1 , furn is h e d w it h an it in e rary an d ot h e r ma t t e r t o the sa me

p u rp os e ,
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

H ere hav e t h e fi rs t e xp os i t io n by an y Englis h

we

w rit er if n o t by a n y E u ro p e a n o n e o f t h e n o ti o n o f
, ,

s o v e re ig n ty in it s m o d e rn a mpli t u d e A lm o s t s im ul
.

t an e o usl y B o din w rit ing in F ra n c e d e fi n e d m aies t as

“ ”
, ,

t o t h e s a me e ffe c t a n d a rg ue d a s H o bb e s did afte r

, ,

w a rd s t ha t in E n gla n d s o v e re ig n t y b e l on g e d t o t h e
,

ki n g al o n e It m ay w ell b e s u pp o se d t ha t Sir
.

Th o m a s Sm i t h w hil e h e w as e mpl o y e d as a mb as
,

s ad o r t o t h e F re n ch c o u rt had B o d in s w o rk in s o m e
’

w ay c o mm un ica t e d t o h im alth o u gh i t w as n o t
,

ac t u ally pu blis h e d b e fo re 1 5 7 7 in w hich y e ar Sm it h

,

die d A ppa re n t ly Sir T h o ma s Smi t h w as a n xi o u s

.

b o t h t o m ak e it cl e ar t o F re n ch m en that t h e ki n g
o f E n glan d w as n o t ab s o l ut e a n d t o a s c rib e t o
,

P arli amen t at l ea s t as mu ch au t h ori t y as an y Fre n ch

m an c o uld a s c rib e t o t h e ki n g o f F ra n c e It m us t .

b e rem e m b e re d t ha t Sir T h o m a s Smi t h w h o w as t h e ,

fi rs t R egi us P ro fe s sor o f Civil Law at Cam b ridge ,

w a s n o t a c o mm o n la w y e r b u t a civilia n He w as .

fa miliar w it h t h e R om an adag e Qu od p rinc ip i p l acui t

,

l eg is h a bet vigorem a n d w a s d e t erm i n e d it s ee ms t o

, , ,

s h o w h is C o n t i n en t al c o ll e ag u es in R o m a n l ea rn i n g

h ad b een s t re n uo u s ly a nd a c u t e ly d is c u s sed o n t h e Co n t in e n t in
t h e R e fo rma t io n c o n t ro v e rs ies o f w h ich it is im p o s s ibl e t o s u pp o s e
,

a s ch o l a r l ik e S ir T h o ma s Smit h ig n o ra n t Ch a n g e t h righ t a n d
.

po s s e s s io n s o f priv at e m e n e xpres s es j u s t w h a t a me rely o r

ch ie fl y j ud ic ia l a ut h o rit y c a n no t d o .
 SO VEREI G N TY IN EN G LI SH LAW

t h a t w e h ad go o d a s o v ereig n as a n y o f t h eirs
as .

H e s aw t h e i mp ort an c e o f t h e p o i n t as cl e arly as
H o bb e s did s e v e n t y y ears la t er an d u s i n g h is in
, ,

s igh t w i t h gre at er p oli t ical w i s d o m b o ldly p u t

,
n ot ,

t h e ki n g al o n e b u t t h e Ki n g in P a rliam e n t in t h e
, ,

plac e o f t h e R o m an E mpe ror In t hi s h e w a s s o me

.

w ha t b e fore h is age H is vi e w is a m ply j u s t ifi e d

'

by al l m o d e rn c o n s t it ut i on al w ri t ers Black s t on e .

e xp re s s ly d e clares t ha t t h e s o v e re ig n t y o f t h e B ri t i s h

c on s t it ut io n is l o dg e d in Parli am e nt an d t h a t it is
1
,

t h e p l ac e w h e re t hat ab s ol ut e d e s p o t ic p o w er w hich

m u st in all g o ve rn m en t s re s id e s o m e w h e re is in ,

”
t ru s t e d by t h e c o n s t it u t io n o f t h ese ki n gd o m s ;

aft er w hi c h h e al m os t re p e at s Sir Th o m a s Smi t h s ’

l a n g u ag e ?
B ut in Sir T h o m a s Smit h s o w n t i m e
’

t h e s ag e s o f t h e C o mm o n La w w o u ld h ardly hav e

agre e d w i t h h im T h e ir o pi n i o n s e em s t o hav e
.

b e en t h at n o t o n ly t h e kin g w as su bj ec t t o t h e l a w ,

b u t t h e l aw w as in s o m e w ay ab o ve Pa rliam e n t .

So me fun d a me n t al p ri n cipl e s o f l aw an d j ust ic e ,

n e v er d e fi n e d b u t g e n e ri c ally d e s c rib e d as c o mmo n

righ t w ere s ac re d agai n s t t h e l egi slat u re a n d if
”
, ,

Parliam en t w e re t o t ran sgre ss t h e m it w o u ld b e t h e

righ t a n d t h e d u t y o f t h e j u dg e s t o p ay n o a t t e n t i o n

t o s u ch e n a c t m e n t s T h e d o c t ri n e t h a t t h e l a w o f
.

1
Co mm i 5 1
. . .
2
l b 1 6 0, 1 6 1
. .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

n at u re w as i t l e d t o para mo u n t a u t h ori t y w as u n i
en t

v e rs al l
y h eld by ca n o n i s t s d o w n t o t h e s ix t e e n t h
c e n t u ry an d o u r c omm on law y ers wh o w ere m ost ly
, ,

glad e n o u gh t o l e av e Sp e cu lat i o n t o t h e ca n o n i st s ,

p ro bably did n o more t h an e ch o t h e ir u t t eran c es Sir .

T h o m a s M ore p ro t e s t e d wi t h o u t e ffe ct t ha t t h e , ,

s t a t u t e u n d er w hich h e w a s c o n vic t e d o f high t re a so n

w as direc t ly repu g nan t t o t h e la w s o f G o d an d h is

”
H o ly Ch urch .

B l ack s t on e . C ok e en ou n c ed t h e c u rren t o pi n i on w it h h is u su al
v e h e me n c e a n d e v e n m ore t han h is u su al i n acc uracy
o r di s i n g e n u o u s n e s s in re adi n g h is o w n part ic u la r

o pi n i o n i n t o t h e a u t h o ri t i e s o n w hich h e p ro fe s s e d

t o re ly 1
.He fo u n d a s w ill app e ar b el o w n o m i n al
, ,

1
B on h a m Ca 8 R e p 1 1 8 a
’
s . .
“
I t a pp e a rs in o ur b o o s t h a t i n k
m a n y c ase s t h e c o mm o n l a w wi ll c o n t ro l a c t s o f p a rl ia m e n t a n d
s o m e t im e s a d j udg e t h e m t o b e u t t erly v o id fo r w h e n a n a c t o f
p a rl ia me n t i s a ga in s t c o mm o n righ t a nd re a s o n o r re p u gn a n t o r , ,

im p o s s ibl e t o b e p erfo rm e d t h e c o mm o n l a w w i ll c o n t ro l it a n d
,

a d j u d g e s u ch c t t o b e v o id
a a n d t h ere fo re i n 8 E d III 3 0 . . .

Horl e s a it h s o m e s t a t ut e s a re ma d e a g a i n s t l a w a nd rig h t w h ich

, ,

t h o s e w h o m a d e t h em p erc e iv in g w o u l d n o t p u t t h e m in o x ee n
,

T h e it a l ic is e d w ord s are a m ere gl o ss o f C o k e s o w n Wh a t

’
t io n . .

H orl e d id s ay a s re p ort e d i s
, Il s s o n t a s c u n s s t a t u t e s fa it z q u e
,

c e l uy m e s m e
q u i l e s fis t n e l e s v o l e it p a s m e t t re en fa i t P l en t y o f .

m o d e rn s t at u t es h a v e b e e n i no p e ra t i v e in p ra c t ic e n o t b e c a u s e t h e
,

c o mm o n l a w c o n t ro ll e d t h e m b ut b ec aus e t h e y w ere in fa c t n u
,

w o rk a bl e . S o i n a n e x am pl e a t fi rs t s igh t m o re pl a u s ibl e in
, ,

F it zh erb ert s Ab ridg m e n t ( An n

’
t h e c ou rt d is re g ard e d a
.

s t a t u t e o n t h e p ro fes s e d g ro u n d t h a t i t s t erm s w e re c o n t ra d ic t o ry

a n d t h e y c o u ld m a k e n o s e n s e o fit a t a l l t h e y d id a d d t h a t e v e n if ,

i t c o u ld b e a ppl ie d i t w o u l d l ea d t o a b s u rd re s u l t s
,
T h e s ubs t a n c e
.

o f t h e d e c is io n s e e m s t o h a v e re a lly b e e n t h a t a c t s o f a c orp o ra t io n
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

of t h e m c o ll at eral ly an y ab s u rd c on se qu en c es ma n i ,

fe st l y c o n t radic t ory t o c o mm o n re a s o n t h e y are w i t h

, ,

re gard t o t h o s e c o lla t e ral c o n s e q u e n c es v o id ,

I lay .

d o wnt h e rul e wi t h t h e s e re st ric t i o n s ; t h o u gh I k n o w

it is g en erally laid d o w n m ore larg e ly t ha t ac t s o f ,

parlia men t c on t rary t o re as on are v o id B ut if t h e .

parliam en t will p o s it iv ely e n ac t a t hi ng t o b e d on e

which is u n re a s o n abl e I k n o w o f n o p o w er in t h e
,

o rdi n ary form s o f t h e c o n s ti t u t i o n t ha t is v es t e d

w i t h a u t h ori t y t o c o n t ro l it : a n d t h e e xam pl e s

u s u ally a ll e g e d in s u pp ort o f t hi s s e n s e o f t h e ru l e

d o n o n e o f t h e m p ro v e t h a t w h ere t h e m ai n o bj e c t

o f a s t a t u t e is u n re a s o n abl e t h e j u dg es a re a t lib e rt y

t o rej e c t it for t ha t w ere t o s e t t h e j u dicial p o w e r

a b o v e t ha t o f t h e l e gi s la t u re w hich w o u ld b e s u b
,

v e rs iv e o f all g o v ern m e n t .
1 ”

“
T ru e it is t h at w hat t h e pa rlia me n t d o t h n o ,

a u t h ori t y u p o n e art h c an u n d o ” 2
. N 0 c a s e is
k n o w n in fac t i n w hich an E n glis h c o urt o f j us t ic e
, ,

h a s o p en ly t ak e n o n i t self t o o v e rru l e o r di s re gard

t h e plai n m e a n i n g o f an Ac t o f P arli am e n t Th e .

e xa m pl e giv e n for ill u s t ra t i o n s s a k e is t ha t a n Ac t

’

maki n g a m an j ud g e in h is o w n c aus e w ou ld b e
v o i d Thu s H ol t s aid : I f a n Ac t o f P a rl iamen t
.
“

s h o uld o rdai n t ha t t h e s a me p e rs o n s h o u ld b e party

1
Co mm i 9 1
. .
2
i 1 61
. .
 SO VEREI GN TY IN EN GLI SH LAW

and j udge or which is t h e s am e t hi ng j u dge in h is

, , ,

o w n ca u s e it w o u ld b e a v o id Ac t o f P a rlia me n t
, ;
fo r it is i m p o ss ibl e t hat o n e s h o uld b e j u dg e an d

part y for t h e j udge is t o d et ermi ne b et w e en part y

,

an d part y or b e t we en t h e go v ern me n t a nd t h e
,

part y a nd an A ct of P arlia men t c an d o n o w ron g ,

t h o ugh it m a y d o s ev e ral t hi n g s t ha t l o o k p re t t y
”1
o dd . B u t t hi s o pi n i o n h as n e v er b ee n ac t e d u p o n

an d i n d e e d t h e e xampl e is n o t w h o lly fort u n at e fo r ,

t h e s e t t l e d rul e o f l a w is t hat al t h o u gh a j udg e ,

had b et t er n ot if it c an b e av o id e d t ak e part in t h e
, ,

d e c i s i o n o f a ca s e in w hich h e h as an y p ers o n al
i n t eres t y e t h e n o t o n ly may b u t m u s t d o s o if t h e
,

c as e can n o t b e h e ard o t h erw i s e N o w aday s t h e

2

o bj e c t i o n o f p ers o n al i nt ere s t i n t h e j u dg e c omm o n ly

presen t s i t s elf in t h e form o f t h e j u dge b ei n g a

s ha re h o ld er ( fo r h is o w n b e h oo f o r as t ru s t ee ) in

s o m e ra il w ay or o t h er p u blic c om pan y w h o s e m a t t e rs

a re b e fo re h im ; a n d it is al s o c o mm o n ly w aiv e d by

t h e part i e s
3
.

1
Cit y o
f L o nd on v Wo od
.
, 1 2 Mod . at p . 6 87 an d s ee n o t e o n

ne x t p a ge .

'
1
For a c urio u s e arly ill u s t ra t io n t o o l o ng for t h e t e x t s e e t h e
, ,

not e a t the e nd o f t h is ch a p t e r p 2 7 4 ,
. F o r a m o d e rn d is c u s s io n
.
,

T h e l l u s so n v . R end l es h a m ( 1 8 5 9 ) 7 H L C 4 2 9 , 1 1 5 R R
. . . . 229 .

3
F or a re po rt e d x am pl e
e see R eed i e v . L . d: N . WR . . Co .

( 1 84 9) 4 Ex . 2 4 4, 20 L J E x . . h e re P a rk e B
. 65 , 8 0 R R . . 541, w , .
,

s t at e d t h a t b ein g in t ere s t ed in t h e d e fe n d a nt c o m pa n y h e t o o k
, ,

p art i n t h e c a s e o nly a t t h e re q u e s t o f c ou n s e l o n b o t h s id e s '

.
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HAP .

It is qu i t e
ll u n d ers t o o d t hat t h e j ud ge s
'

now we

w ill n o t di s c u ss t h e validi t y o f a n A ct o f P arli a m e n t .

T h e y wi l l n o t e v e n e n t e rt ai n all e ga t i o n s t ha t a

p rivat e A ct w as o b t ain e d by fra u d or i mp ro p er

p rac t ic es I f P a rliam en t h as b ee n d e c eiv ed t h e
.
,

re me dy is wi t h P a rlia m en t al on e Wi t hi n o u r o w n
.

t i me t h e la t e M r J us t ic e Will e s a gre at ma s t e r o f
.
,

t h e C o mmo n La w an d al w ay s ready o n fi t t i n g
,

o cca s i o n s t o m ai n t ai n t h e dig n i t y o f t h e law an d it s

o ffic e rs ,
laid t his d o w n in t h e plain e st t erms An .

a t t e mp t had b e en mad e t o fou n d an argu me nt o n t h e

s ugg e s t i o n t ha t a l o cal rail w ay c o m p an y s A c t s h a d
’

b ee n o b t ain e d in effe c t by a frau d o n P a rliament

, ,
.

“ “
It is furt h e r u rg e d s aid Will es J ,
t hat t h e ,

c o mpa n y is a mere n o n en t it y an d t h ere n e ver w ere ,

‘

a n y s hares o r s ha re h o ld e rs T ha t re so lv es i t se lf i n t o
.

t hi s t ha t P arlia m e n t w as i n d u c e d by fra u d u l e n t re
,

ci t al s t o pa s s t h e Ac t w hich form e d t h e c o mpan y .

I w o u ld o b s erv e as t o t h ese A c t s o f P arliam en t

, ,

t ha t t h e y a re t h e law o f t hi s la n d ; a n d w e d o n o t

s it h ere a s a c o u rt o f app e al fro m P a rliam en t It .

— 1—
w a s o n c e s ai d I t hi n k in H o ba rt t hat if a n Ac t ,

o f P a rliam e n t w e re t o c re a t e a m a n j u dg e in h is o w n

1
In D a y v S a va d g e, H o b 8 7 ;
. .
“
E v e n a n Ac t o f arl ia me n t P
m a d e a g a i n s t n a t u ra l e q u it y , a s , t o ma k e a m a n j ud g e in h is o w n
c a s e , i s v o id in it s e lf ; fo r, j ura n a t u rae s u n t imm ut a b il ia , a nd t h e y
a re l e g e s l e g um .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

l egi sl a t u re is d et ermin e d As m at t er o f form t hi s

.
,

b e l on g s t o t h e s p e cial s t u dy o f t h e Englis h c o n s t it u
t i on an d o f t h e law an d p ractic e o f P arliam en t As .

ma t t e r o f su b stan c e t h e c on sid erat i on o f p olit ical

,

p ow e r o f it s p ractical s e at a nd u l t imate so urc es

, ,

wou ld tak e u s o ut of t h e fi e ld o f j uri sp ru d en c e

p rop e r an d i nt o t hat o f p oli t ic s an d c o n s titut i on al
his t o ry I t is n ow gen erally re c ogn i se d t ha t t h e
.

m aj o ri t y o f t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s h a s an d e x erci s es ,

fo r all s u b st a n t i a l i n t en t s p oli t ical s u p rem acy in

,

t h e s e ki n gd o m s I t ca n n o t d i re c t ly g o v e rn at all ;
.

it c a n n o t l e gi s la t e w i t h o u t t h e c o n c u rre n c e o f t h e

H o u s e o f Lo rd s a n d t h e Ki n g 1
T h e Ki n g h o w.
,

e v e r c an act o n ly o n t h e adv ic e o f Mi n i s t e rs
,
an d ,

t h e Mi n i s t ers o f t h e Ki n g are ch o s e n fro m t h e

pa rty w hich c om m an d s a m aj o rit y in t h e H o us e o f

C o mm o ns That m aj ori t y s o l on g as it h old s t o
.
,

ge t h e r c a n ca us e it s will t o b e o b s e rve d o n t h e
, ,

w h o l e in e v e ry d e pa rt m e n t o f g o v ern m e n t
,
Or t o .
,

p u t t h e s a m e t hi n g in a n e ga t iv e fo rm which is

p erhap s m ore acc urat e it is n o t p oss ibl e for t h e

,

G o v ern m en t o f t h e U n i t e d Ki n gd o m t o b e carri e d
o n by a n y lawfu l m e a n s in c o n ti n u o u s o pp o s iti o n t o

t h e m aj ori t y o f t h e H o u se o f C o m mo n s B ut t hi s .

1
It is t h o u gh t be st at t h is t im e ( 1 9 1 1 ) t o l ea v e t h es e s e nt e n e s c
as t h ey w ere w rit t e n .
 SO VEREI G NT Y IN EN G LI S H LAW

d o es n ot t o uch t h e
d o c t ri n e o f l egal s o v ereignt y .

T h e p o w e r w hich c a n u l t i m a t e ly d e t erm i n e t h e b e n t

O f l e gi s la t i o n o r c o n t ro l t h e e x e c u t i o n o f e xi s tin g
,

la w s b ut can n o t i t self l egisla t e is n o t a l e gal b u t a

, ,

p o lit ic a l p o w er No w t h e m aj o ri t y o f t h e H o u s e o f
.

C o m mo n s as w e s aid d oe s n o t g o v ern or l egi sla t e

, , .

T h e H o us e o f C o mmo n s i t s e lf h as n o p o w e r w ha t ev e r

o f i s s ui n g a n y di re c t l e gal c o m m a n d s e xc e pt s o far

a s it c a n d o s o fo r t h e p u rp o se o f re g ula t in g it s o w n

p ro c e d ure an d dis cipli n e a n d en forci ng it s o w n

,

p rivil e ge s . It m ay p rac ti cally m ak e a s t at u t e in

o p e ra t iv e by re fus i n g t o v o t e t h e s u ppli e s n e c e s s ary

for p u t t i n g t h e s t a t u t e in e x e c u t io n ( a t hi n g w hich
h as b e e n k n o w n t o happ e n) b u t it ca n n o t alt er o n e
,

l e tt er o f t h e t e x t Thi s is n o t w hat w e u n d ers t an d

.

by s o v ereig n t y in t h e l egal s en s e .

I t h as b ee n s aid by o n e or t w o m o d e rn w ri t e rs ,

i n cl u din g Black s t o n e t ha t t h e e l e c t o rs w h o re t urn

l
,

m e m b e rs t o t h e H o u se o f C o m m o n s a re s o v ereig n or
e x e rci s e s o v e reig n t y T hi s i n v o lv es a s t ill g re a t e r
.

c on fu s i o n o f t h ough t t ha n a t t rib u t i ng s o vereig n t y

t o t h e H o u s e o f C o mmo n s w h e n e l e c t e d Th e .

p ers on s ch os en by t h e v o t ers a t a g e neral el e c t io n

w il l c e rt a inl y fo rm t ha t p art o f t h e l e gi s la t ure in

w hich t h e c on t ro lli n g p o li t ic a l p o w er res id e s B ut .

1
Co m m i 1 7 1
. . .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUD EN CE

t hat , as hav e s e en d oes n o t m ak e t h em s o v ere ign

we , ,

m u ch l es s d oes it m ak e t h e e l e c t ors s o v ereign In .

fact t h e el e c t o rs are n o t l egi slators o r an yth in g lik e

l egi s la t ors T h ey hav e n o t t h e p o wer o f i ss ui n g
.

an
y l e gal c o mm a n d s a t all An id en tical re s o l ut i on
.

pa ss e d by t h e e l e c t ors o f e v e ry c o ns t itu e n cy in
E nglan d o r a large m aj o ri t y o f t h e c on s t i t ue n ci es at
, ,

t h e t i m e o f a g e ne ral e l e c t i o n o r a t a n y o t h e r t i me ,

m ight b e a v ery n o t abl e p o li t ical e v e n t B ut i t .

w o uld c e rt ai n ly h a v e n o l e g a l fo rc e w ha t e v e r It .

w o u ld c re a t e n o ki n d o f l egal a ut h o rity j u s t ifica t i o n ,

or e xc u s e a nd n o c o u rt o f j u s t ic e wo uld b e e n t i t l e d
,

( m u ch l e s s b ou n d
) t o p ay a n y a t t en ti o n t o it A s .

“
Co rn ew al l Le w i s l o n g ago righ t ly s aid Th e righ t ,

o f v o t in g for t h e e l e c t i o n o f o n e w h o is t o p oss e ss

a s hare o f t h e s o v ereignt y is i t self n o m ore a s hare

o f t h e s o v e re ig n t y t ha n t h e righ t o f p u bli s hi n g a

”
p o li t ical t re a t i se o r a p oli t ical n e w s p a p e r 1
.

Cas es o f Al t h o ugh t h e w h ol e t h e ory o f So v e re ig n t y is

c mpl x
o e

or d ivid d m o d ern a n d in fac t c o u ld n o t hav e b e e n d e fi n i t e ly

e
,

sov ig t y
ere n
h eld o r e xp re ss e d b efore t h e p ri n cipal s t at es o f
m o d ern Eu ro p e had acqu i re d a s t ron g an d c o n s oli
da t e d go v ern men t w ri t ers o n t h e phil os o phy o f l a w
,

an d p o li t ic s hav e re adily fall en in t o t h e w ay o f

1
R ema rks on t h e Use a nd A bu se f
o s o me P o l i t ica l T er mL
s, on d .

1 832 , p . 43 .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUD EN C E

of fe de ral go vernmen ts lik e t h o se o f t h e U n i te d

Sta t e s a n d Swi t z e rla n d an d in a l e s s c o mplica t e d,

d egree by t h os e o f c o un t rie s wh ere as in t h e ,

Net h erlan d s o r an i n divid ual A m e rica n St at e w i t hi n

,

t h e U n i o n s u ch as t h e C o mm on w e al t h o f Mas s a
,

c h u s e t t s or t h e Sta t e o f I lli n o i s t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n is ,

in fact d e fi n e d by a fun da me n t al w ri t t e n i n st ru me n t ,

a n d t h e t e rm s o f t ha t i n s t ru m e n t ca nn o t b e a l t e re d

by t h e p ro c es s o f ordi n ary l egis la t io n In all s u ch .

ca s es t h e o rdi n ary l egi s la t ive b ody is in a p osi t i o n

m u ch lik e t ha t o f t h e l egis lat ure in a s e lf— go v e rn i n g
B ri t i s h c ol on y We c an ha rdly s ay t ha t it is in
.

n o s e n se s o v e reig n fo r w i t hi n t h e b ou n d s o f it s
,

c o mp e t en c e it k n ow s n o h um an s up erio r B ut .

sin ce it s c o mp et e n c e h as a s s ign e d a n d k no wn

b o u n d s w e can n o t a t t rib u t e so vereig n t y t o it in

,

t h e s a me s e n s e in which s o v e re ig n t y is a t t rib u t e d

t o t h e B ri t i s h P a rlia me n t Wh ere t h ere is a rig id.

c o n s t i t u t i on t o use t h e c o n ve n ie n t term i n t ro d u c e d
,

by M r B ryc e a n d M r D ic ey t h ere ca nn o t b e a ny
.
1
.
,

1
A V D ic e y T h e La w of t h e Cons t it ut io n M r D ic e y is I
. .
, . .
,

b e l ie v e t h e fi rs t writ e r w h o h as cl e a rly po in t ed o u t t h at t h e v it a l
,

d iffe re n c e is n o t b e t w ee n fe d era l a nd c e n t ra l is e d g o vernm e n t s It .

is t rue t h a t a fe d era l c o n s t it u t io n m u s t b e rig id o r it w i ll n o t be ,

t ru ly fe d era l .B u t a n o n fe d e ra l s t a t e m a y e qu a lly w e ll h a v e a
-

rig i d c o n s t it u t io n t h o u gh i t n e e d n o t ; a n d i n d e e d t h e g re a t
,

m aj o ri t y h a v e F o r d e t a il s s e e B ryc e S t ud ies i n H is t ory a n d

.
,

J u risp rud ence Oxf 1 9 01 E s s a y s iii a n d x

, .
, Pro f J o h n C Gra y
. . . .
,

in h i s C l
o u m b U v y L ct
ia n i ers i t e ur e s o n
“
Th e N a t ure a nd
 SO VEREI GN T Y IN EN G LI SH LAW

o ne b o dy in p erm an en t e xis t e n c e o r h abi t u al ac t ivit y

w hi c h p os se sses u nl imi t e d s o v e re ig n t y T h e n e ares t .

appro ach t o Pa rlia m en t ary s o v ereign t y as w e hav e

i t in E nglan d mu s t b e s o u gh t in e v ery s u ch c a s e , ,

w h ere v e r t h e u l t i ma t e p o w e r o f a l t e ri n g t h e w ri t t e n

c o n s t i t ut i o n is plac e d by t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n i t s elf .

I n t h e U n i t e d St a t e s fo r e x a mpl e t hi s a men di n g
, ,

p o wer is e xerc is eab l e o n ly w i t h t h e c o n se n t o f

t hree fo urt h s o f t h e St at es e xp resse d e i t h er by t h e ir
-

l egi slat u re s or in Sp e cial c o n v en t i o ns an d m ore o v er , , ,

n o St a t e c an b e d ep riv e d o f it s e qu al s u ffrag e in

t h e Se n at e w i t h ou t it s o w n c o n s en t
?
T h e E nglis h

d o ct rin e o f ab sol u t e s o v ere ig n t y is n ot capabl e o f

b ei ng use fu lly appli e d t o c o n s t i t u t ion s o f t hi s t yp e .

In fac t it is a g en erali s a t i on fro m t h e o m nip ot e n c e

o f t h e B ri t i s h P arlia m e n t an a t t rib u t e w hich h as

,

b ee n t h e o ffs p ri n g o f ou r p ec uliar hi s t ory a n d ,

m ay q u i t e p oss ibly su ffer s om e c o n s id e rabl e c h a n g e

w it hi n t i m e s n o t fa r di s t an t Su ch a c o n s t i t u t i o n
.

a s t ha t o f t h e U n it e d St a t e s or o f Sw i t z erla n d m ay

b e s aid t o giv e a d e fi n i t e m e a ni n g t o t h e s o v ere ig n t y

o f t h e p eo pl e a s o pp o se d t o t h e p o w e r o r cap ric e
,

o f t ran s i t ory m aj o ri t i es .

So u rc e s of t h e La w , 1 9 09 , 1 80, is cl ear t h a t in t h e U n it ed S t a t e s
th ere is no one so v ereig n in A u s t in s s e n s e wit h c m pl et e
’

, o

po w ers .
"

1
Cons t .
f
o U S
. . Art . v .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HAP .

N OT E 1 0
'
r
. 265 .

A c ase p riv i l e ge s o f t h e C h an c e ll or o f Oxford

on th e
is re p ort e da t c o n si d e ra b l e l e n gt h in t h e Ye ar B o o k o f 8

H en V I p 1 8 an d c it e d b y B l a c k st o n e Comm iii 2 9 9
. .
, .
, , . . .

T h e qu es t io n w as w h e t h er a c e rt ain ch art er o f R ich ard I I .

p u rp ort e d t o e m p ow er t h e C h an c ell or t o a c t as j u d g e in ca ses

w h ere h e w as h im se l f a p art y an d if it d id w h e t h e r s u ch a , ,

gran t w as go o d At p 2 0 R o l f o f c o un sel for t h e C h an cel l or

. .
, , ,

is re p o rt e d t o h a v e sai d
“ eo v o u s d irai n u fab l e n m e di e v a l g ‘
fab l e
J [i ’
u sa e

w h e t h e r b e l ie v e d b y t h e sp e a k e r t o b e
‘
is m e re l y s t o ry
’
,

t ru e o r fa l s e ] : E n a s c u n t em p s fuit n u P a p e avo it fait ,

gran d o ffen c e l e c ardi n al s v in d ren t a l uy di soy ent

,

a l uy P e cc ast i
,
i1 d it J u d ic a [sic ] m e :
, ,
il s d iso y en t ,

n on
p o ss u mu s qu ia c ap ut es Eccl es iae j u d ic a t e i p sum
, ,

Et l Ap o st ol [ap ost oli cu s a c o mm on s yn o n y m fo r t h e P o p e ]

’ ’
,

d it J u d ic o m e cre m ari :
,
fu it c o mb u st u s : e n c es t ca s

il fu it so n j u g e d e m esn e a p res fuit u n Sain c t :

, is s in t
n e s t p as in c o n v e n ie n t qu e u n h o m e s o it [so n j u g e d e m e sn e
]
’ ”
,

et c .

H o w t h is t a l e c am e in t o En g l an d I k n o w n ot Th e .

l ege n d o f a P o p e h a vi n g d e p o se d h im sel f w as h ow ever , ,

c urren t in t h e M iddl e Ag es It fi rst app e ars in t h e ap o cry .

ph a l a ct s o f t h e C o un c il o f Sin u essa w h ere M arc elli n u s ,

i s sa i d t o h a v e a b d i c at e d o r d e p os e d h im se lf for t h e s in o f
i d o l at ry ( see D oll in g e r D ie P ap s tfa beln d es M i ttela l t ers p
, , .

T h at st o ry w a s re t o ld in an e la b o rat e fo rm b y -

B o n it h o an I t al ian w rit er o f t h e e l e v e n t h c en t u ry a n d t h e
, ,

sa m e B o n it h o u se d it w it h o n ly S l ig h t v ariat io n s o f l an g u ag e
, ,

t o d es c rib e t h e fa c t in it se lf u n d o u b t e d o f G re g ory V I s
’
, , .

d e p o sit io n fo r s im on y at t h e s y n o d of Sut ri A D 1 04 6 , . . .

N o o t h er ch ro n icl e r c o n fi rm s t h e a ll e g e d c irc u m s tan c e s a n d ,

B on it h o s ee m s t o h a v e in t ro d u c e d t h e m fro m t h e ol d e r
 CHAPTER IV

C UST OM IN ENG LI SH LAW

WE have al ready see n ( p 24 9) t hat l eg es e t .

“

”
c o n s ue t u din es regn i w as an acc e p t e d n am e for
t h e C o mm on La w a s a wh o l e fro m a n e a rly ti m e ?

In a m ore li mi t e d s e n s e i n w hich w e m o re ,

u s u ally m e e t with it in m o d ern b o ok s c u st om ,

s ig n ifi e s a n addi t i o n o r e xc e pti o n t o t h e g e n eral l aw

o f t h e la n d es t abli s h e d by all o w e d u s ag e wi t hi n
,

c ert ain l o cal b ou n d s Th e all o w an c e o f s u ch sp e cial

.

c us t o m s is su bj e c t t o c o n diti on s which acc o rdin g t o ,

Sir J o h n D avi s s re p ort w ere ca re fu lly d e fi n e d e a rly

’

in t h e s e v e n te en t h c e n tu ry by t h e ki n g s j u dg e s in
’

“ ”
I rela n d wh e n it w as d e cid e d t hat Tan i s try t h e
, ,

I ri s h cu s t o m o f i n h erita n c e had b ee n abrogate d by

,

t h e i n t ro d u c t i o n o f Engli s h l a w T h e s t a t e me n t is
.

n o t s t ric t ly o f a u th o ri t y b u t it h a s b e en c o m m o n ly
,

“
1
Op . F . A . Gre e r, C us t om in t h e Com mo n La w , La w
Qua rt . R ev i x 1 5 3
. . .
C HA P . Iv C U STOM IN EN GLI SH LAW

quo t e d in Engla n d as a c orre c t e xp os i t io n of the

C o mmo n La w .

C us t o m , as g w h ich h t h
un d ers t o o d in l aw , is usa e a

ob t i d t h f c f l w d i i t t h bi d i g l w f
a ne e or e o a ,
an s n ru a n n a or

th p t ic l pl c p
e ar u ar d t hi g c c d
a e, S ch e rs o n s an n s o n ern e . u

c t m c
us o t b t b li h d b y g
an n o t f th ki g
e by
es a s e ran o e n n or

Ac t of P li ar a m en t , b ut is i us l ly non s cri
p t um an d ma d e so e

b y t h e p e o pl e o f t h e pl ac e w h ere t h e c us t o m is rec e iv e d .

F or w h e re p e o pl e fin d a c e rt ain a c t g o o d a n d b en e fi c ia l an d ,

a p t a n d s u it ab l e t o t h e ir d is p o sit io n t h e y p u t t h e sam e in ,

p ra c t ic e fro m t im e t o t im e an d s o b y re p et it io n o f su ch a c t s
,

a c us t o m is m a d e a n d b e in g u se d fro m t im e w h ereo f me m o ry
,

r un s n o t o b t a in s t h e fo rc e o f l aw
,
In s h o rt c u s t o m is a .
,

re as o n ab l e ac t it era t e d m u l t ipl ie d a n d c o n t in u e d b y t h e
, ,

p e o pl e fro m t im e w h ereo f me m o ry run s n ot 1

.

Th e gen eral c o n di t ion s re qu ire d for t h e v alidit y

o f a l o cal c u s t o m a re t h e fo ll o w i n g
'

1 Th e c us t o m m u s t b e re a so n abl e t hat is it
.
, ,

mu s t n o t b e re p u g n a n t t o an y fu n dam e nt a l p ri n cipl e
o f j u s t ic e o r l a w A c u s t om is v oid w hich p urp ort s
.

t o e n abl e a n o ffic er o f a c orp ora t i o n t o giv e a c o n

e l u s iv e c e rt ifica t e in a m a t t e r in w hich t h e c o rp ora

t i o n is i n t ere st e d C us t o m ary righ t s e x erc is e abl e

?

o v er la n d m u s t b e in s o m e w a y li m i t e d s o t ha t

t h e y ca n n o t b e u s e d t o t h e t o t al e xha u s t i o n o r

d e st ru c t io n o f t h e lan d in p o i n t o f val u e .

2 T h e c u s t o m mu s t hav e a re a so n abl e c o m
.

Si J D v i 3 1 32 ; p B l ck t
1
r . a s, C mm i 7 4 7 7
,
c . a s o n e, o . .
, .

1
'

Da y v . S a va d ge, H o b 8 5 . .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

m en c eme n t . T hi s m ea n s t hat it m u st b e capabl e of

be in g re e rref d
a p oss ibl e l e gal o rigin
to .

3 It m u s t b e c ert ai n
. F o r if it c o u ld n o t b e
.

re d u c e d t o c e rt ai n t y t h e re w o u ld n o t b e a n y
,

bi n din g ru le .

4 It m u s t b e an ci en t
. T hi s c o n di t i o n d o e s
.

n o t s ee m w h o lly c o n s i s t e n t wi t h t h e d o c t ri n e t ha t

c u st om is m ad e by p o p ular c on se nt ; fo r if s o w h y ,

s h o u ld n o t n e w rul e s b e m ad e for n e w ci rc um s t a n c e s

by g en eral c on s en t e xp res se d in habi t u al ac t ion ?

Th e hi s t orical e xpla n a t i o n is t ha t t h e c o mm e n c e
“ ”
me n t o f l egal me m o ry w as l e ft s ta n din g a t a
fix e d dat e by mere acciden t or in ert i a B u t p erhap s
?

t h e m a t t e r is o f n o c o n s id e rabl e i mp ort a n c e in p ra c

t ic e ; fo r t h e t ru t h is t ha t in m o d e rn t i me s t h e re is

a d ema n d for e xp res s re gu l a t i o n as s oo n as t h ere is

a n y d e cid e d b e n t o f O pi n i o n E xce p t in m at te rs .

o u t s id e t h e s c o p e o f p o s i t iv e law t h e forma t i o n o f ,

c us t o m b e l on gs t o an archaic s t age o f l e gal his t o ry .

5 T h e u s ag e w hich e s t abli s h e s a c u s t o m m u s t
.

b e c o n t in uou s t hat is fre e fro m i n t erru p t i o n by

, ,

act s in c on si s t en t w i t h t h e righ t c laim e d by forc e o f

t h e c u s t o m ; an d it m u s t b e e x erci se d as o f righ t ,

t hat is t h e c u s t o m m u st b e regard e d by t h e p e rs o n s
,

c o n c ern e d a s a bin di n g rul e a n d n o t a m at t e r o f

B l a ck s t o n e , Co mm ii 3 1 , and Chri s t ia n
’
1
. . s no t e .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

Lo cal c u s t om s o f cu l t ivatio n su ch as are a ss o ciat e d

”
wit h t h e t erm La mm as lan d are al s o typical
e xa m pl es o f t hi s ki n d T h ere is e v ery re a s on t o
.

b elie v e t hat in m a n y cases t h e y are really o f hi gh

a nt iqu it y C us t o m s o f t hi s cla ss h o w ev er hav e in
.
, ,

m an y m o d ern cas e s had e ffe c t giv e n t o t h em n o t as ,

t rue l o cal law s b u t as havi n g b e e n t aci t ly ad o p t e d

,

as t erm s o r c o n di t i o n s o f a n ag re em e n t T hi s will .

b e fu rth er m ent i on e d b e l o w .

Th e i mp ort a n c e o f l o cal c u s t o ms is s t e adily

di m in is hin g in m o d ern p ract ic e e xc ep t so far a s it ,

may b e ne e dful t o rely o n c u st o m in e st abli shin g

righ t s o f c o mmo n a n d t h e lik e which o f late y e ars ,

( s i n ce ab ou t 1 8 6 5 ) hav e b e e n b ro u gh t i n t o c o n

s id erab l e p ro min e n c e agai n .

An ot h er u s e of t h e t erm cus to m is t o d en ot e
ru l es t ha t o n c e fo rm e d an e xc e pti o n al b o dy o f l aw ,

b u t hav e b e en ad opt e d w ithi n hi s t orical t i m es as

part o f t h e C omm o n La w Som eti mes it is al s o .

applie d t o t h e re c ep t i on o f a s p e cial l a w as civil or ,

ca no n l aw wi t hin partic ular j uri s dic t ion s ; in t hi s

,

c o n n e c t io n it e it h er m e an s n ot hin g b u t t h e p rac t ic e
o f t h e c ou rt e x erc is i n g s u ch j uri s dic t i o n or it is a n ,

d is put e d , t o c v yl d
on e an s of an c ie n t
d b y ch u rch gift
em es n e
“
,

i e a d e cl arat io n i n t h e p aris h ch urch w it h w it n ess o f t h e c o n

. .

g reg at io n . In m o d ern p rac t ic e ( sinc e w rit in g w a s re q u ire d by

t h e St a t u t e o f Frau d s ) t h e s e c o n v e y an c e s a re re c ord e d by d e e d
, .
 C USTOM IN EN GLI SH LAW

eu ph emi st ic d e vic e t o av o id a ny plai n ad miss i o n o f

t h e fac t t h a t t h e C o mm o n La w t h e l aw o f t h e ,

ki n g s s up erior c ou rt s w as at o n e t i me o nly o n e
’

am on g s e v eral sy s tems o f law clai mi ng o b edi en c e

e ach w i t hi n it s o w n s ph e re In t h e m e di e val
?

c on c ep t ion of l egal o rd er c ust o m might j ust as w ell ,

b e p ers o n al as l o cal ; it migh t b e t h e u sa g e of a

t rad e o r c o n di t i o n of m e n a s w e ll a s o f a m an or or

a cit y T h e re w as n o t hi ng st rang e in callin g e v e n

.

i n dividu al habi t s an d pre dil e ct io n s by t h e n am e o f

c ust o m In o n e cas e t o u se Black st on e s w ord s
2
.
,
’

“
a pa rt icu lar sys t em of c ust o ms u s e d o nly amo n g
”
o n e set o f t h e kin g s s u bj e c t s n ame ly m erch a n t s
’

, ,

“
an d call e d t h e cu st o m o f m erchan t s or l ea: mer ,

”
ca l oria
3
h as b e e n ad o pt e d i nt o t h e g e n eral law an d
,

b e c om e an e x t re mely imp ortan t part o f it .

At t h e v e ry t i m e t hat Black s t o n e w as p u t t i ng
h is Commen ta ries i n t o t h e ir fi n i s h e d form in t h e ,

e a rli e s t y e ars o f t h e re ig n o f G e org e I I I t hi s p ro .

,

ce ss w as b e in g acc omplish e d In t h e Middl e A g e s .

w e h e ar o f t h e Law M erchan t a s som et hin g di fferen t

from t h e C o mmon Law which is ad min i s t ere d by ,

s p e cial t rib u n al s u n d er t h e a u t h ori t y o f t h e Chan

1
B l a ck s t o n e , Comm i 7 9 , 8 0
. . .

'
1
Se e t h is in Sir T . M
a l ory s H ar t e d Art h u r, p a s si m ,
’ ’
cp .

p . 10a bo v e .

3
Co mm i 7 5 . . .
 FIRST B OO K O F J U R ISPR U D ENCE

c ell or, e s p e cially for t h e b en e fi t o f fore ign merchant s

re s o rt i n g t o E n gla n d
“
?
At t ha t tim e t h e c us t o m
”
o f m e rcha n t s m e an t t h e ac t u al us ag e o f t h e
Eu ro p e a n c omm ercial w orld as it t h en w as w hich ,

w as n o t t oo larg e a w o rld t o hav e p re t t y u n ifo rm

rul es and u n d e rst a n di n g s In t h e s e v e n t e e n t h .

c e n t u ry w e fin d ac t io n s o n bill s o f e xchan ge b ro u gh t
in t h e ki n g s c o u rt s a n d t h e cus t om o f m erchan t s
’

s p e cially pl e ad e d a s a ki nd o f p e rso n al law bi n di n g

u p o n t h e pa rt i es T h u s it ca me b e fore t h e o rdi n ary

.

t rib un al s b ut a s a t hi n g t o b e s p e cially p ro v e d in
,

e v e ry ca se O n ly in t h e e igh t e en t h c e n t u ry t h e
?

d e cis iv e st ep w a s t ak en o f t re a t i n g t h e rul e s of t h e
law m erchan t a s w i t hi n t h e k n o w l e dg e o f t h e j udges ,

1 “
T h is b ro u gh t by a n a l ie n m erch a n t wh o h a s c o me
s u it is ,

h ere by s a fe c o n d u c t a n d h e is n o t b o u n d t o s u e acc o rd in g t o t h e
,

l a w o f t h e l a n d fo r t o a w ait t h e t ria l by t w e lv e m e n a n d o t h er
fo rm al it ies b ut h e s h a ll s u e h ere [ b e fo re t h e K ing s Co un c il i n
,
’

t h e St a r C h a m b er] a n d it s h a ll b e d e t ermin e d a cc o rd in g t o t h e
,

l a w o f n a t ure in t h e C h a n c ery [a n d t h e K in g s j uris d ic t io n

’

o v er t h e m i s ] sec u nd u m l egem n a t u ra e c a ll e d by s o m e t h e La w ,

M e rch a nt w hich al l t h e w orld o ve r is a n u n iv ersa l l a w So

, .
”

St ill in g t o n B is h o p o f B a t h a n d We ll s a n d Ch a n c e l l o r is re p o rt e d
, ,

t o h a v e s a i d in 1 4 7 4 Y B 1 3 Ed IV 9 pl 5 .
( T h is is t h e c as e
. . .
, . .

i n w h ich t h e d o c t rin e o f l a rc e n y by a b a il ee b reak in g b u lk w as ”

in t ro d u c e d ) .

2
T h e e arly hi s t o ry o f t h e La w M erch a n t i n E n gl a n d is s t ill far
fro m p erfe c t ly k n o w n Sir J o h n M a cd o n e ll s I n t ro d uc t io n t o
.
’

Sm it h s M erca n t i l e La w e d 1 8 90 g i v e s t h e b e s t g e n e ra l a cc o u n t
’

, .
, .

T h ere is a n i n t eres t in g ch a p t er o n t h e s u bj e c t i n Cart er H is t ory of ,

E n g l is h L eg a l I ns t it u t i on s 3 rd cd Lo nd o n , fi rs t p u bl is h e d
.
, ,

i n L a w Qu a rt R ev xv ii 2 3 2
. . . .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

w h ich h a ll b e k n o wn t o all m an kin d n o t o n ly t o ru l e t h e

s ,

p art ic u l ar c as e t h e n u n d e r c o n s i d e ra t io n b u t t o s erv e as a ,

g uid e for t h e fu t u re M o s t o f u s h a v e h eard t h ese p rin c ipl es

.

s t a t e d re aso n e d u p o n e n l arg e d a n d e x pl ain e d t ill w e h a v e

, , , ,

b een l o st in ad mirat io n at t h e s t ren gt h a n d st ret ch o f t h e

h u man u n d e rst an d in g .

M ore t han a c en tury h as pas se d s in c e t h ese

w o rd s w e re s p o k en an d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e
,

l a w m e rcha n t as part o f t h e C o mmo n Law o f

t h e E n gli s h Sp e aki n g w orld h as c o n t i n u e d w i t h o u t

-

c e a si n g B e i n g t h u s e mb o di e d in o ur sys t em o f
.

l egal p re c e d e nt s it h as i n e vi t ably l os t s om e t hi n g
,

o f it s cl o se n es s o f t o u ch wi t h ac t u al m erca n t ile
“ ”
p rac t ic e It is as mu ch s ci en t ific a s a ny o t h er
.

b ra n ch o f E n gli s h case law an d t h e reas on in g o f -

,

t rai n e d lawye rs o n t h e set t l e d rul es o f t h e law

me rchan t d o es n o t al w ay s b rin g o u t res ul t s w hich

app ear t o men o f b u s i n e ss t o s at is fy t h e re q uire
m e n t s o f c o m m erc e Ye t t h e an ci e n t ch a rac t e r o f
.

t h e l a w m erchan t h a s n o t w h olly di s app e are d fo r ,

e vid e n c e o f livi n g g e n e ral us age is s t ill ad mi s s ibl e

t o add n e w i n cid e n t s t o it s c o n t e n t s p ro vid e d t ha t

t h e y d o n o t c o n t radic t a ny ru l e al re ady re c e iv e d ?

T h u s t h e w h o l e l aw o f ba n k e rs ch e qu es ( w hich o n ly
’

1
C u r p er Co ckb urn , C
. . J
in E x C h G ood wi n v R oba rt s ( 1 8 7 5 )
. . .

. E
L B 1 0 x 3 3 7 , 3 4 6 , 3 5 2 1 3 ( t h e d e c i s io n w as a ffi rm e d
. y the b
H o u s e o f Lo rd s , 1 App C a 4 7 6 , b u t t h is p o in t w a s n o t e xp res s ly
. .

d e al t w it h ) .
 U
C ST O M IN EN GLI SH LAW

of la t e years have b e c o me c o m mo n o ut s id e E ngli s h

s p e aki n g c o u n t ri es ) is fo un d e d o n c o mpara t iv ely
re c en t u s ag e an d n e g o t iabl e d e b e n t ure s are n o w
1
,

re c o g n i s e d by o ur c ou rt s In t his d e part me n t t h e
?

rul e o f a n t iq u i t y ha s n o plac e .

In y e t a no t h er cla ss o f ca s e s w e m ee t w i t h t h e U g f sa e o

th t y e co u n r
”
w o rd c us t om T h i s i s w h e re a g e n eral a n d w ell
. ft d or o ra e

d i t re a n o
u n d e rs t o o d u s ag e i n a pa rt i c u la r d i s t ri ct o r a m o n g c t ct , o n ra s

f p ti o ar es .
p e rs o n s carryi n g o n a part ic u lar kin d o f b us i n ess o r ,

d e al i ng in a part ic ular m ark e t h as b een all o w ed , ,

n o t i n d e e d t o i mp o s e a p o s i t iv e ly bin di n g l aw b ut ,

t o a ffe c t an d s o m et i me s t o a ffe c t v ery m a t e rially

, ,

t h e i n t e rp re t at i o n o f c on t rac t s m ad e by pa rt i es w h o

are p res u m e d t o hav e d on e th e i r b u s i n es s w i t h t a ci t

re fe re n c e t o s u ch u s ag e s Pro o f o f a c ust o m o f
“
.

”
t h e c oun t ry or c us to m of t rade is ad miss ibl e
n o t m ere ly t o d e t e rm i n e t h e m e a n i n g o f e xp re s s i o n s

u se d in a s p e cial s en s e b u t t o add wh o l e n e w t e rm s
,

t o c o n t rac t s Thi s p e rhap s g oe s n e a r in s ome

?
,

a pplicat i o n s o f t h e p ri n cipl e t o e vadi n g t h e c o n ,

dit io n s re qu i re d fo r t h e e s t abli sh m en t o f c us t o m s in

1
L E 10 . Ex . 35 1 . Ev en mo n g
a E gli h p k i g
n s -
s ea n men of

b u s in es s h ere are d iv erge n c es

t in m o d ern prac t ic e . Thus t he use

o f c ro s s ed ch e u e s is u n k n o w n
q in t h e Un it e d St a t es .

2
B ech u a n a l a nd Exp l ora t i on Co . vL ond on T rad ing B a n k [ 1 8 9 8 ]
.

2 Q B 65 8 . Ed el s t ei n S ch u l er v . Co [ 1 9 02 ] 2 K B 1 4 4
. . .

3
Se e au t h orit ies re ferre d t o in A ns o n , La w of Cont ra ct s , 1 2 t h
ed . 2 93 .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P . IV

th e str ict al t h o u gh it s e e ms t o hav e b ee n at

s en s e ;
o n e t i m e s u pp o s e d t hat t h o se c o n di t i o n s m u s t b e

s at i s fi e d B ut t h e p ri n cipl e as n o w u n d ers t oo d is
?
, ,

Si m ply t o giv e e ffe c t t o t h e i n t e n ti o n o f t h e pa rti es ,

an d a ny i n dicat io n o f a c on t rary i n t en t io n will

e xcl u d e t h e so call e d c u s t o m a ry c o n s t ru cti o n o f t h e
-

t erms o r c u st om ary addi t i on al t erms a s t h e case

, ,

may b e Th e p resen t w rit e r h as s uggest e d e l sewh ere

.

t hat it might b e b e t t e r n o t t o us e in t hi s c o n n e c t i o n
“ ”
t h e w o rd c u s t o m o r at le as t t o s p e ak by p re
“
fere n c e o f u s ag e 2
We have h ere t o d o with
.
”

a can on o f i n t erpret a t i o n n o t w i t h a di s tin ct so urc e

,

of l aw .

g
In t h e l e a d in c a s e o f Wigg l es w ort h v D a l l is on ,
1
ou 201 , . D g .

1 Sm L O 1 l t h ed 5 4 5 , t h e u s a g e re l ie d o n a n d u ph eld by t h e
. . . .

Co u rt w a s pl e a d e d
c ie n t c u s t o m
as an an .

2
P ri n cip l es of Con tra ct 8 t h ed p 2 6 6 , Sir W A n s o n ( l oc
. . . . ci t . )
a pp e ars p u rp o s e ly t o a v o id t h e w o rd c u s t om .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDENC E C HA P .

s ta t e d w i t h gre a t cle a rn ess an d e xp ressly a s a ,

bind in g p rec e d en t a n d mo re o v er it was ac t u al ly

,

v ou ch e d w it hin qu it e re c en t yea rs by t h e J e w s o f
A den w h en t h ey p et i t i on e d t h e G o vern me n t o f
I n dia t o b e e xclu d e d from t h e I n dian Su cc ess i o n
Ac t ?
Law re p ort s h o w e ve r ca nn o t e xi s t in an y
, ,

p ro p er s en s e u nl es s a n d u n t il t h e habi t o f re lyin g
o n d e cid e d cas e s for g u ida n c e a n d b ri n gin g t h e m
,

b e fore t h e c o urt s in arg umen t h as b e c o me w ell ,

se t t l e d Th e R o man lawy ers a s w e hav e s aid

.
, ,

re li e d ( w ith s t ric t ly li m it e d e xc e p t i o n s ) n o t o n

d e ci s i o n s b u t o n o pi n i o n s A cc ordin gly t h e lite ra

.

t ure o f R o ma n l a w c o n t a in s n o t hin g a n s w erin g t o

o ur re p o rt s ; w hil e a fe w v o lu mes of c oll e c t e d

a rg um e n ts an d o pin i on s lik e t h o se o f F e arn e an d
H arg rav e are t h e n e are s t an al o gy w e ca n s h ow t o
o n e im p o rt a n t cla ss o f t h e m a t e ri a l s o u t o f w hich

t h e C orp us J u ri s w as fra me d R ep o rt s again .

, ,

m u s t b e d i s ti n gui s h e d fro m t h e o ffi cial re c o rd s o f

t h e c ourt i t s e lf T h ese are k e pt fo r t h e p u rp o se o f
.

e s t a bli s hi n g t h e righ t s o f pa rt i es in e ach part ic u la r

ca s e o r j us t ifyin g whate ve r ac t s m ay have t o b e

,

d on e in e x e cu t i o n o f t h e j udg men t Th ey are n o t .

i n ten d e d in t h e fi rst lin e fo r t h e g en eral u se o r

, ,

1
Sir Co u rt e n a y I lb e rt , Th e Go vern me n t f
o I nd ia , p . 33 3 , 2n d
ed . 1 9 07 .
 LAW REPO RT S

i n s t ruc t io n o f l aw ye rs an d t h ey m ay o r m ay n o t
,

in dica t e o n t h e i r fac e t h e re a so n s o f a ny d e ci s i o n

o r t h e p o in t s o f l aw t ha t w e re in i s su e Th e .

R ot u l i Cu ria e R eg is p u bli s h e d by t h e R e c o rd C o m

m is s i o n in 1 8 3 5 an d t h e su ppl e men t al p u blica t i o n

,

R o ll s o f R ich ard I s t i me e dite d by M r

’
of .
, .

Mai t lan d carry u s as far back in t h e re c ord s a s

1
,

1 1 94 . T h e s e are t h e e arli e s t c o n s e c u t iv e j u dicial

re c o rd s k n o w n t o e xis t a n y w h ere N arrat ives o f .

l e gal p ro c ee di ngs o n t h e o t h e r han d o ccur in

, ,

ch ron icl e s a s i n cid e n t s in t h e g e n era l hi s t ory .

T h u s t h e ch ro n icl er o f a religi o u s h o u s e n a t urally

m ad e m e n t i o n o f law su i t s in w hich t h e i nt erest s o f

t h e h o use o r o f t h e o rd er w ere i n v o lv e d
, , No t ic e s .

o f t hi s ki n d m ay b e o f c o n s id era bl e val u e : M r M . .

M Bigel o w h as c o ll e ct e d a g o o dly n um b er o f t h em
.

in h is P l a ci t a A ngl o Norma n n iea St ill t h e y are

-
?

n o t re p o rt s as t h e t e rm h a s b ee n u s e d by E n gli s h

s p e aki n g la w y e rs fo r t h re e c en t uri e s o r m o re Re .

p ort in g b egi n s w h e n ca ses are c o ll e c t e d o f s e t

p u rp os e for p ro fe s si o n al u s e a nd s t u dy a n d m ay b e ,

s aid t o b e full g ro w n w h en l e a rn e d p e rs o n s m ak e it
-

t h ei r b u si n e ss t o a t t e n d t h e c o urt s a n d t ak e n o t e s ,

1
P bl ic
u a t io n s o f t h e Pi p e R o ll So c ie t y fo r 1 8 9 1 .

2
P l aci t a An g l o N orma n n i ca : l a w ca ses f rom Wi l l ia m I t o
-
.

R ic ha rd I p res erved i n h i s t orica l record s

. By e i e . M lv ll M
a d is o n

g l
B i e o w, Lo n d o n , 1 8 7 9 .
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUD EN C E

fo r t ha t p urp os e o f s u ch ca s es as app e a r t o t h e m
,

lik ely t o b e u s eful .

Th e b o o k n o w k n o w n as B rac t on s N o t e B o o k
’

a n d e di t e d by F W Mai t l a n d ma y p erh a p s fai rly

1
. .
,

b e re ck o n e d a b o o k o f re p o rt s I f s o w e m ay ‘

.
,

clai m for H e nry o f B ratt o n u n d er wh o s e d ire c t i on ,

an d fo r wh o s e u se it w a s al mo s t c e rt ai n ly c o m pil e d ,

t h e h o n ou r o f havi n g b e e n t h e fi rst o f o ur re p ort ers

a s w e ll a s t h e fi rs t m e t h o dical E n gli s h t e x t w ri t e r -
.

“
T h e c o n t en t s o f t hi s b oo k m ay b e b ri e fly d es c rib e d

a s t ra n s c rip t s o f e n t ri e s o n t h e j u dicial rol l s o f t h e

fi rs t t w e n t y fou r y e ars o f H en ry
-
t h at is
‘

fro m AD 1 2 1 8 o n w ard s
. E n t ri e s o f t hi s e arly
.

p eri o d giv e u s fo r re a s on s w hich are part o f t h e

,

s u b s t a n tiv e hi s t o ry o f t h e law m u ch fu ll er i n form a ,

t i o n a s t o w ha t re ally happ e n e d in c o urt t ha n

t h e m ore e lab orat e a n d form al pl e adin gs o f t h e

l a te r c o m mo n l aw s y s t e m Th e o nly t hi ng w hich
-
.

n ee d m ak e u s h e s i t a t e t o call t h e N o t e B oo k a

b o o k o f re p ort s is t h e ab s en c e o f an y in dicat i on
1
B ra c t o n
’
s A c o ll e c t io n o f c a s es d e c id ed i n t h e
N ot e B ook .

K ing s Co urt s d urin g t h e re ig n o f H e nry III a nn o t a t ed b y a

’
.
,

l a w y er o f t h a t t ime s e e m in gly b y H e n ry o f B ra t t o n E d it e d by
, .

F W M ai t l a n d Lo n d o n 1 8 8 7 3 v o l s T h e c urren t form
. . .
, . .

is n o w k n o w n t o h a v e o rig in a t e d in o n e o f t h e
”
B rac t o n
c o mm o n e st o f m e d ie v a l cl eric a l errors it w o u ld p erh a ps b e t h e
b es t way t o g o o n c it in g t h e b oo k a s B ra e t o n b u t t o g i v e t h e ,

ma n h is rea l s u rn am e
”
B rat t o n , .

2
M ait l a nd op ci t i 6 3
, . . . .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SP RUDEN C E C H AP .

t ha t t h e y w ou ld hav e all p eri sh e d an d m o s t u n l ik ely ,

t ha t w e s h ou ld n o t hav e h e ard o f t h e i r e xi s t e n c e

from an y o t h er w ri t e r F ro m t h e y e ar 1 2 9 2 w e
?

hav e a s eri es o f rep ort s of cas es d e cid e d part ly ,

by E d w ard I s j u dg e s o n t h e ir circ u i t s in eyre

.
’ “
,
”

part ly b efore t h e C ou rt s a t Wes t mi n st er By goo d .

fort u n e t h ese re p o rt s o f E d w ard I s re ign rem ai n e d .

’

u n p ri n t e d u n t il w i t h i n re c en t t i me s T h e y w ere .

e di t e d by t h e la t e M r H o rw o o d wi t h e xc e ll en t
.

care an d s kill an d furn i s h e d w i t h an En gli s h

,

tran s lat io n H ere an d in M r Nich ol s s e dit i o n o f

.
,
.
’

t h e c on t e mp orary t e x t b o o k k n o w n a s B ri t t o n —a
-

m o d e l o f s u ch w o rk —a s t u d en t m ay b es t m ak e
hi mself fam iliar w i t h t h e A ngl o F ren ch Which w as 2 -

t h e o fficial lan gu ag e o f t h e C o urt s d o w n t o t h e

fourt ee n t h c en t ury a n d in which rep o rts w e re

,

w ri t t e n as la t e as t h e cl os e o f t h e s e v e n te e n t h Th e .

lan g u ag e o f B rit t o n an d t h e e arli er Ye ar B o ok s is far

fro m b e i n g c orrupt F ren ch o r a m ere j arg o n F or 3
’

q u i t e t h re e c en t uri es aft er t h e No rm an C o n ques t

F re n ch w as t h e c u rren t s p ee ch o f g en t l e fo lk in
E ngla n d B e in g tran splan t e d i n t o E n glan d fro m
.

1
. P
C p H orw o o d , re fa c e t o Y
e a r B o o k , 3 0 8: 3 1 Ed I , p xvi . . . .

2
It h a d c e as ed t o b e N
orm a n b e fo re t h e t h irt ee n t h c e n t u ry .

S ee P o ll o ck a n d M a it l a n d , H E L i 6 5 , 6 6
. . . . .

3 “
B b
T h e l a n g u a g e o f rit t o n res em l e d v ery n early t h a t o f
J o in vi lle N ich l I
o s, n t ro d p xlv i
. . .
 LAW REPORTS

No rma n dy c o n t in u i ng t o liv e as a t ru e Fre n ch

, an d

d ial e c t it d e v e l o p e d ge n ui n e p e c u lia ri t i es o f it s o w n
-

, ,

as Sir J a m es M u rray h a s s h ow n in h is I n t ro d u c t i o n

t o t h e O xford E ng l is h D ic t ion a r a n d M r Sk e a t in
y , .

t h e s e c o n d v o l u me o f h is w o rk o n E n gli s h P hil o l o gy .

F W Mait lan d m ore lat ely c arri e d t h e s e arch

. .

fart h er? Wh en Chau c er s Prioress s p ok e F ren ch ’

Aft e r t h e c l
s o e of St ra t fo rd at t e B ow e

sh e w as aim in g at C on t in e nt al Fren ch
no t sh e w as

n a t u rally u s i n g t h e An gl o F ren ch in w hich -

sh e had
b ee n b ro ugh t u p B u t t h e fo ll o w i n g lin e
.

F o r F ren ch of P aris w as t o h e r u n kn o w e ,

s e ems h o w t hat t h e t ra n s fer o f t h e E n glis h c on

to s

n ec t io n wi t h F ra n c e fro m N o rm a n dy t o A qu i t ai n e ,

a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f h e r C o n t i n e n t al p o w e r an d

p o licy u n d er t h e P la nt age n et s w ere in Chau c er s ,

’

t i m e fas t a ss i m ila t in g t h e F re n ch o f E ngla n d t o

t h e s t a n dard o f Fra n c e It w as o ld — fas hio n e d a n d

.

p erhap s e v en s ligh t ly l u dicrous t o Sp ea k A nglo

Fre n ch in go o d s o cie t y an d t h e dia l e c t c on d emn ed , ,

t o li n g e r in an o b s c u re a n d a rtificial life b e c am e ,

u n g ra mm at ical a n d p o ve rt y s t rick e n an d e xpi re d -

,

S 1
th ee ct i Of t h A gl F
e se on ch l g g i t h e lyn o- re n an ua e n e ear

Y B k i h i I t d c t i t t h Y B k f 1 a 2 Ed
e ar oo s
”
n s n ro u on o e ear oo s o r .

11 . l
Se d e n S o ie t c y ,
1 9 03 .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURISPRUD EN CE

in t h e la t e s t rep ort s o f t h e Res t o rat io n peri o d as

an ig n o m in i o us j um bl e o f c orru p t F re n ch e k e d o u t

w i t h La t in an d E ngl i s h B e fore p ro c ee di n g t o any

.

furt h e r acc ou n t o f t h e Ye ar B o ok s it m ay b e us e fu l ,

t o giv e a s p e ci me n o f t h e lan g uag e in it s s e v era l

s t ag e s .

Livi ng A ng l o F renc h , T hi rt ee n t h
-
C en t ury Y B , . . 20

Ed . I (A D . . pp . 1 92 3 -
.

H owa rd [argu in g] . S ire , p ar c eu fe t ne p ut yl voc h er ;

p ar l a roso n e k e a1 o ure q an t c c fe t fu t fe t , sy fu t l e R o y
H e n ri, k e d un k e fut , en p ris o n : e d es ico m l e go vern ou r e
1e ch e f de l e is fu t p
en ris o n e , s
y fu t l a l e y e n p ris o n e , is s i k e
a c e l o ure qan t 1e fe t & c . ne a ve it y l n u l e l e y : p a r qu e y l o

fe t et le fe fie m en t e s t n ul en se i .

Sir, h ecan n o t v o u ch b y t h is d e ed ; for t h e re as o n t h at

at t h e t im e w h e n t h is d e e d w a s m a d e K in g H e n ry ,

wh o t h e n w as w as in p ri so n,
a nd in as mu ch as t h e g o v e rn o r

an d t h e h e a d o f La w [l eis = leg es sc l e ges An gl iae ] w as in,

.

p ris o n t h e l aw it s e lf w as in p ris on : SO t h at at t h at t ime

,

w h en t h e d e e d [w as m a d e ] t h e re w as n o l a w : t h ere fo re t h e
d e e d an d t h e feo ffmen t is v o id in it s e lf ( Ho rw o o d s ’

T hi s , it will be s ee n , is p ure an d gramm a t ical

Fre n ch .la ngu ag e o f t h e t re at i s e Le Cou rt
Th e

d e B a ron p ro bably o f t h e e arly fo u rt e e n th c en t ury

, ,

p ublis h e d by t h e Sel d e n So cie t y is v ery s im ilar , .

 I
F RST B OOK OF JURI SPRUD EN CE

if a n y t hi n g 1 5 7 8 ) is
’
of P l o wd en ( s R ep orts AD , ,

b e t t er t han t ha t o f t h e lat es t Y ear B o o k s ; P l o w d e n ,

h o we v er wa s an e xc ep t io n ally l e arn e d wri t e r Th e

, .

sa me m ay b e s aid o f Sir J o h n D avi s in wh o se ,

re p o rt s o f I ri s h ca s es da t i n g from t h e e arly part

,

o f t h e se v e n t ee n t h c e n t u ry t h e la n gu ag e is n o t ,

s en s ibly b e t t e r o r w o rse By t hi s t im e it w as a .

purely c on v en t i on al wri t t en lan guage an d p ro bably ,

n o a t t e m p t w a s mad e t o o b serv e a n y t ru e F re n ch

p ronun ciat i o n wh e n t h ere w as o cca s i o n t o read

pass ages fro m t h e Y e ar B oo k s or e arly St a t ut es
in C o u rt o r w h en arg um e n t s w ere c on d u ct e d in
,

l a w Fre n ch in t h e I nn s o f C o urt a s t h ey s t ill

-
,

s o m e t i me s w ere a s l a t e a s t h e R e s t o ra t i o n
?

D eg en era t e A ng l o F rench -
or l a w F rench
-
. Se v e n
t ee n t h c en t ury . R o ll e
’
s R ep orts, i p
. . 1 89 .

Co k e : Ce o
’
n es t d es t re fait
’
fait c o m e s i
n is i re qu est s o it ,

j e o s o ie o b l ig e a p aier u n s o mme a1 j o u r c ert e in su r re qu es t

d ut ie d e v a n t re qu e s t ( R [i e re p o rt e r]
’
ceo n es t as c u n . . .
.

Q uaere c e o ca r H aug h t o n se m b l e a d isal l o w er c eo c ar i1 ,

s h a k e so n ca p it [sic] al c eo) .

D y e r s R ep ort s, in t he add e d
’
n o t es in ed .

1 68 8 .

P as 3 7 E l iz
. . Ca rn es d re w h is s w ord s u r l e s ta irs d e C ou rt

1
D ug d Ori g J u rid
. . . p . 2 09 .
 LAW REP ORTS
d e R e qu es ts qu e es t h ors d e v ie w d e asc un d es C o u rt s , la
Si s on in d ic t me n t ad es t re ie n d ra w n il d uis t a v er l e b
p un is h m e n t c o me ic y .

R ich a rd son ch J ust d e C B an e al A ssis es at Sal is b ury

, . . .

in S umme r 1 6 3 1 fuit as sau l t p e r p rison er l a c o n d e m n e

.

p u r fe l o n y qu e p u is so n c o n d e mn at io n j ec t un B ric kb a t a l e
d it J u s t i c e qu e n arro w ly mis t p u r c eo i mme d iat e ly fu it
,

I n d ic t men t drawn pe r Noy e n v ers l e p riso n e r s o n d e x t e r ,

m an us am p u t e fi x al G ibb e t s ur qu e l uy m e sm e imm e d iate

men t h an ge in p resen c e d e C o u rt .

Thi s ,
it is n ee dl e s s
p oi n t o u t is t h e las t to ,

s t ag e o f c o rru p t i o n Al l p re t en c e o f c on formi t y
.

t o F re n ch g ra mmat ical forms or o f p re s e rv in g a

s ub s t a n t i a lly F re n ch v o cab u lary h as dis app e are d .

“
P at res c on sc rip t i t o ok a bo a t an d w e n t t o
Phil ippi is as m u ch Lat in as t hi s s t uff is Fre n ch .

Su ch a ja rg o n had n o t hin g l e ft for it b ut t o p eris h .

Th e Y e a r Bo o k s w hich w ere p ri nt e d e arli er t han

t h os e o f E d w ard I h a v e fare d m u ch w ors e

. T h ey .

w ere p u blis h e d at vari o us dat e s from 1 5 6 1 o n w ard s ,

b ut t h e c o ll e c t e d fo li o e di t i o n o f 1 6 7 8 9 h as s up er -

s e d e d t h e e a rli er o n es fo r all p u rp o s es e xc e p t t h os e

o f t h e c u ri ou s bibli o g raph e r I t is h o w e v er a ny .
, ,

t hi n g b u t c o n fo rm a bl e t o t h e m o d e rn s t an dard O f

e di t i n g o r sa t i s fa c t o ry in u s e T h e s iz e is c u m b ro u s
1
. ,

a n d t h e G o t hic t yp e w hich w a s re t a i n e d in l aw
,

1
Fo r a s p e c im e n of t h is e d i t io n c n t ra s t e d
o wit h a c ri t ic a l te t x
s ee 1 7 Ed . III . ed . Pi k e I nt
,
ro d . p xxv i
. .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPR UDEN CE C HA P .

b o ok s fo r n o s e n sibl e reas o n l on g aft er R o m an

, ,
”

t yp e w a s g e n e rally ad o p t e d is u n pl e a s an t t o t h e
"

ey e . Wo rd s t ha t w e re abb re vi at e d in t h e M SS .

are p ri n t e d in t h e s a m e fa s hi o n an d m o reo v e r it is ,

n o w c ert a i n t ha t t h e M SS w e re re ad an d re p ro d u c e d .

wi t h i n ad e qu a t e care t o u se t h e m ild e s t p o s s ibl e,

t erm in t h e m at t e r o f abb re via t i o n s a n d o t h e rwi s e

,
.

A n ew crit ical e di t io n w ou ld b e a grea t h elp t o

t h e hi s t o rical s t u dy o f t h e C o mmo n Law an d
‘

m igh t q u i t e p oss ibly t h ro w ligh t o n p rin ciple s

which hav e n o t c e ase d t o b e o f p rac t ic al im p o rt an c e ,

b u t t h e re d o e s n o t s ee m t o b e a n y n e a r p ro s p e c t
o f it . M e an whil e t h e rep o rt s o f s e v eral y e ars o f
E dward I II m o s t o f t h e m n o t i n cl u d e d in t h e o l d
.
,

e di t i o n s hav e b e e n e di t e d by M r L 0 P ik e in
, . . .

t h e R e c o rd Offi c e Seri e s in c o n t i n u a t i o n o f M r ,
.

Ho rwo o d s w o rk ? T h e n Mai t la n d t oo k in h an d
’

fo r t h e Se ld e n So ci e t y t h e Ye a r B o o k s o f E d w ard I I .
,

t h e w o rs t p ri n t e d o f all in t h e o l d e di t i o n Th e .

lab ou rs o f t h e s e s ch o lars n o w mak e it p o ss ibl e for a

s t u d e n t t o acqu ai n t him s e lf w i t h t h e la n g ua g e a n d

s t yl e o f t h e Y e a r B oo k s m u ch m o re re adily t ha n h e

c o u ld hav e d o n e a g e n e ra t i o n a g o T h e se b o o k s are .

n ot e l e m e n t a ry re adi n g and are n o t v ery o ft en ,

1
Th l t t v l m we p bl i h d i 1 9 1 1 S P f G l d t
a es o u e as u s e n . ee ro . e ar
’
s

art i cl e in E H R . . . fo r A pril 1 91 1 ( xxv i . and D r Ho ld s w o rt h

.

in L .
Q . R . fo r J ly 1 9 1 1
u .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

t e xt , or o f anypay me n t havi n g b een m ad e t o an y

.

o n e o n t h e ki n g s acc ou n t i n re s p e ct o f a n y s u ch
’

w ork In t h e fac e o f t h es e fac t s w e ca nn o t acc e p t

?

t h e t ra di t i o n d e riv e d from a rep ort o n h e ars ay by

P l o w d e n ( if i n d ee d P l ow d en w a s s p e akin g o f o ur
Ye ar B o o k s a t all w hich I grav ely d oub t ) an d 2
, ,

magn ifi e d by Bac on s a n d C o k e s acc e p t an c e t ha t ’ ’

t h e Y e ar B o ok s w e re t h e w ork o f o ffi cial a n d paid

re p o rt e rs app oin t e d by t h e C ro w n Bac on eu .

d e av o ure d an d wit h appare n t s u cc e ss for a t im e

, ,

t o o b t ai n t h e i n s t i t uti o n o f o ffi cial re p ort e rs which ,

h e rep re s en t e d a s a re vival ; b u t n e x t t o n o t hi n g

came o f it 3
We are n ot t o ld why t h e s yst em o r
.

1
M it l a an d ,
I n t ro d . to Y e ar B k oo s of Ed II p ii
. t P ik . . x . s ee, oo, e,

H a rv L a w R ev
. . v ii . d t o ea r o o
26 6 , an d I n t ro . Y B k 1 6 E d III p t 1 . . .
,

i n R o ll s S erie s 1 8 9 6 ,
T h e re is rea lly n o c o rro b o ra t io n o f t h e s t o ry
.

l o ng a cce p t e d B a c o n w a s in t e res t e d in a d o pt in g it a s a n arg u

.

m e n t for h is s ch e m e o f o ffic ia l re p ort in g ; a n d C o k e s h is t o ric a l

’

j u dgme n t is w o rt hl e ss B la ck s t o n e im pro v e d t h e l e g e n d by
.

s a y in g t h a t t h e Y ea r B o o k s w e re s o c a ll e d b e c a u se t h e y we re
p u blis h e d a n n u ally
-
Comm i 7 2 M r P i k e n o w ( 1 9 1 1 ) p ro . . . .

p o u n d s in h is int ro d u c t io n t o 2 0 E d III pa rt 2 a s o rt o f mid d l e . .

, ,

t h e ory t h a t t h e Y e ar B oo k s w e re w ri t t e n b y t h e cl e rk s o f t h e
C o u rt t h o u gh n o t o fli c ial l y
,
B u t w h y s h o u ld t h e y h a v e d o n e
.

t h e w o rk for n o t h in g ? o r w h o p a id t h e m ?
2
Se e Ho ld s wo rt h H E L ii 4 5 2 a n d art icl e o n La w R e p ort in g
, . . . .
,

in E nc y c l L a w s of E ng l a nd 2 nd e d 1 9 07 by t h e p re s e n t writ e r
.
, .
, .

2
”7 a l ta c e on t h e R ep ort ers pp 2 7 0 1 c p t h e P re fa c e t o l D o ug l a s
, .
-
. .

T h e o rd e r m a d e i n 1 6 1 7 fo r t h e e s t a bl is h m e n t o f o ffic ia l re p o rt ers
m a y b e s ee n in Ry m er s F eed era vo l xv ii p 2 7 T h e re p ort s w ere
’
. . . .
,

t o b e re v i e w e d by t h e j u d g es a n d s u b m it t e d t o t h e Ch a n c e ll o r .

H e t l e y s R ep ort s t h e o n ly fru i t o f t h is o rd er is a b oo k o f po o r
’

, ,

re p u t e .
 LAW RE P ORT S

c u st om of the Ye a r B o o ks ,
suc h as it w a s h a d
, c o me

to a n en d . I t m ay hav e b ee n pu blic a t io n
d ue t o t h e
o f p ri n t e d A b ridgm en t s in alph ab e t ic al o rd er a n d ,

t o t h e habi t o f e v ery s t u d e n t k e e pi n g a c o mm o n plac e

b o o k o f h is o w n o n t h e s ame pl an ; b u t t his is o n ly
g u ess w o r k .

Wh en u n o ffi cial re port s w ere fi rs t p ri n t e d it T h l i ,

e ea r er

p iv t r a e

w as w i t h a p o l o gi e s a n d p ro fe ss e d re l u c t an c e Th e p t . re or s.

l ea rn e d rep ort er assu re s u s t hat h e t o ok n o t e s in

c o urt o n ly fo r h is o w n u s e b u t h is fri e n d s mus t
,

n e e d s b orro w an d c o py t h e m ; t h en h e w a s e n
t re ate d t o p u bli s h ; a n d w hil e h e w as h e s i t at i n g ,

h e l e arn t t ha t s o m e b o o k s e ll er w o u ld b ri n g o ut a
pirat ical an d p robably c orrup t e dit io n if h e did n o t
w i t h ou t m o re l o ss o f t i m e b ri n g ou t an a ut h e n t ic

Su ch is P l o w d e n s s t o ry in t h e P re fa c e t o h is
’
one .

R ep ort s dat e d 1 5 7 8 w hich s e rv e d a s a m o d e l fo r

, ,

m an y o t h ers P arall el s t o t h is c o n ven t i o n al m o d est y

.

m ay b e fo u n d in t h e ge n e ral li t erat u re o f t h e t i m e ;
re p ort e rs h o w e v e r did n o t fo ll o w t h e e xam pl e o f
, ,

Elizab et han a n d J ac ob ean p o e t s in b ri ngi n g a t roo p

o f fri en d s t o ad o rn t h e i r p re fac es w i t h pa n e gy rical

v ers es D o ub t l ess M S n ot es o f ca se s w ere freely

. .

han d e d ab ou t am o n g barri s t ers an d s t ud e n t s a s ,

l ec t ure n o t es are t o t his d ay in t h e u n iv e rs it i es ;

-

C ok e a ll u d es t o t his p rac t ic e w h e n h e s ay s in t h e
 F IR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUD EN C E

Pre fa c e t o th e Fi rst P art of h is own R ep ort s I like

n ot of t h o se t ha t . f t h e i r st u di es w i t h wan d erin g
s t uf

”
a n d m a s t e rl e ss re p o rt s As lat e as 1 7 65 Sir J am es
.

B urro w w rote in t h e P refac e t o h is R ep ort s — “

I

fo u n d m ys elf re d u c e d t o t h e n e c essity o f e i t h er
d e s t ro yi n g o r pu bli shin g t h e se pap ers ( w hich w ere
o rigi n ally i n t e n d e d fo r my o w n p riva t e u ses a n d n o t

fo r p u blic i n s p e cti o n ) Lat er s t ill in 1 7 8 9 , Ki rby

.
,

o f C o nn e c t ic u t t h e fa t h e r o f A m e rica n re p o rt e rs
, ,

d e clare d t hat h e had e nt ere d u p on t hi s b us in es s

“

”
in a part ial m an n er fo r p riva t e u s e D y er s
’
.
,

R ep ort s fi rs t p u bli s h e d i n 1 5 8 5 fift e e n y e ars b e fo re

, ,

t h e e a rli e s t o f C o k e s are t h e l e adi n g e xa m pl e o f

’

p o s th umo u s c oll ec t i o n s mad e u p fro m m at erial s n ot

p ublis h e d by t h e rep ort er in h is life t i me Such .

c o ll ec t io n s hav e b een of t h e m o s t vari o u s d eg re es

o f m e ri t . Wa l l a ce on t h e R ep ort ers is t h e b es t
gu id e t o a c ritical app re cia t i on o f t h e e arli er b o o k s
o f re p ort s .

I t m ay b e s a id in ge n e ral t e rm s t ha t t h e w ork

o f th e Elizab et han re p o rt ers e xhibi t s t e ch n ical

m eri t o f a high ord er t h ough it ca n n o t b e s aid t o
,

b e rich in l i t era ry s kill a n d t h e re p ort er s p riva t e

’

O pi n i o n s are i n t ro d u c ed in a m a nn e r an d t o a n

e x t e n t w e s h o u ld no w t hi n k u n wa rra n t e d Co m .

pari s on o f d i fferen t report s of t h e s am e case m ay

’
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

m ay b e c o n s id ere d t h e e a rlie s t o f t h e m o d ern t yp e .

Fro m t hat t i me t h e C ou rt of Ki ng s B en ch an d it s
’

s u cc e s s ors hav e n e v er w a n t e d a re p o rt er ; w e c a n

o back y e a r by y e a r wi t h o u t a b re ak fro m t h e
g
c u rren t K in g s B en ch D ivi s i o n part o f t h e Law
’

R e p ort s t o t h e fi rs t v o lum e o f B u rro w . In t h e

C o u rt o f C o mm o n P l e a s an d in Chan c ery t h e
s u cc ess i o n w as e s tabli s h e d a s c o re o f y e ars later ,

a n d in t h e C o u rt o f E xch e qu e r ( t h e n mu ch b e l o w

t h e o t h e rs in dign i t y a n d re p u t e) o n ly ma n y y e a rs

lat er s t ill B u rrow had s om ethin g t o s ay o f h is

.

m et h o d o f re p o rti n g b ut t h e Pre fac e t o D o ugla s s

’

R ep ort s ( by Sylv es t e r D o ugla s aft erw a rd s Lo rd

,

G l e nb ervi e) w ri t t en in 1 7 8 2 c o n tai n s t h e e arli es t

, ,

d elib e rat e di s c u ss i on o f t h e rep ort er s o ffi c e a n d art

’

w i t h which I a m acqu ai n t e d . D uri n g t h e c e n t u ry

w hich fo ll o w e d t h e c o mme n c e m e n t o f Sir J a mes

B urro w s R ep orts l aw rep ort in g w as carri ed o n by

’

t h e p rivat e e n t erp ri s e o f p u bli s h e rs a n d o f t h e

barri s t ers w h o p repare d t h e rep o rt s u n d e r ag ree

m en t s w i t h th em T h e re p ort s in e ach c ou rt w e re a
.

se p ara t e p u blica t i o n an d s o m e t i m es t w o rival s e ri e s

,

w e re carri e d o n in t h e s am e c ourt an d b es id e s th e se

t h e re w ere l e gal p e ri o dical s which c o ll e c t e d rep o rt s

from all t h e c ourt s an d p u bli s h e d th em m ore

prom p t ly an d ch eaply t h o u gh in a l es s elab orat e
,
 LAW REPORT S

form t ha n t h e rep o rt s k n o w n as reg ular o r

,

a u t h o ri s e d .

T h es e e pi t h e t s d o n o t m e an in E ngli s h p ro ,

fes sio n al u s a g e t ha t t h e j u dg e s m ak e t h e m s e lv e s
,

an s w erabl e for t h e accu racy o f t h e rep ort in d e t ail ,

o r u n d ertak e n o t t o di s p u t e it s acc u racy b u t o n ly ,

t ha t t h e j u dg es are wil l i n g t o giv e t h e re p o rt er s u ch

a ss is t an c e a s t h e y c a n by re vi s i n g t h e i r o ral j u dg
m e n t s a n d furn i s hin g c o pi e s o f t h e ir w ritt en o n e s
b e fo re p u blica t io n It w as form e rly u n d ers t o o d
.

“
t ha t a n au t h ori s e d re p ort er had s o m e s ort o f
m oral clai m t o t h e e xcl us iv e b e n e fi t o f t h e s e
p rivil eges in t h e c o urt t o w hich h e w as attach e d ?
b u t o f la t e y e a rs ma n y o f t h e j udg e s if n o t all , ,

have giv en e q u al facili t i e s t o t w o o r m o re c omp e t in g

s e t s o f re p o rt s in w hich ca se th ey mu st a ll b e
,

d ee me d t o b e e qu ally a u t h ori se d It is hard t o s a y .

w h en t h e p r ac t ic e o f j u dges re vi si n g th e i r o w n
re p o rt e d j u dg m en t s fo r p u blicat i o n w as fi rs t h e ard

o f o r b e c a m e u su al
, B ut it see ms c e rt ai n t ha t it
.

had n o t ari sen in 1 7 8 2 for at t ha t dat e D o u gla s , ,

1
S Si J h R m illy l t t a t t h p it i fM B v
’
ee r o n o s e er s o e os on o r. ea an

a s au th i d p t i t h R ll C t p bl i h d i t h P f c
or s e re or e r n e o s o ur , u s e n e re a e

t o 3 4 B ea v . at p 8 . 9 H a a pp x
,
a nd . . at p . iii .
“
Tho s e t o w h o m
J dg h a v e c o n fi d ed t h e t a s k m a k in g k n o w n t h eir d e
.

the u es of

c is io n s ( t h is in 1 8 5 2 ) s o, pok e o f t h e
in 1 8 5 9 , P o ll o ck , C B . .
, s

a ck n o w l e d g e d a n d s a n c t io n e d re p ort s o f E ll i s n d B l ckb u rn
”
a a ,

L a n g t on v H iggi ns 4 H 8: N a t p 4 07 1 1 8 R R a t p 5 1 8 s e e
.
, . . .
, . . .

a l so L a w Q ua rt R e v v i 3 4 2 n . . .
, .
 FI RST B OOK OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

in t h e P refac e t o h is R ep ort s, d e t ail dwe lt in s o me

o n t h e p re ca u t i o n s h e h a d t a k e n t o e n su re acc u racy ,

b u t d id n o t s p e ak of havi n g re c e iv e d o r s o ugh t an y
a ss i s t a n c e fro m t h e j u dges A t t em p t s w ere m ade .

in t h e e igh t e en t h c e n t ury ? a s m ay b e re ad at larg e

in Wallac e s b oo k t o e st abli s h a ki n d o f j u dicial

’

s cal e o f m eri t a m o n g p u bli s h e d re p o rt s an d n ot ,

o n ly t o di s c o un t e n a n c e b ut t o fo rbid t h e ci t a t io n
o f s u n d ry b o o k s o f i nfe ri or re p u t e T hi s ki n d o f .

c en so rs hip w as o bvi o us ly li a bl e t o abu s e an d h as ,

l o n g b ee n o b sol e t e It is n o w u n d ers t o o d that t h e

.

o n ly i n di sp e ns abl e c on dit i on for an y re p o rt of a

d e cid e d ca s e b e i n g ad mi t t e d t o ci t a t i o n is t h at it
m u st b e v o u ch e d fo r o n t h e fac e o f it by a m em b e r
o f t h e B ar w h o w a s p res e n t a t t h e d e ci s i o n B ut .

in cas e o f div erg e n c e b e t w ee n di ffere n t re p ort s o f

“
t h e s am e j u dg m e n t the au t h ori s e d rep ort is
'

t ak e n t o re p rese n t t h e d e lib e rat e e xp res s i o n o f t h e

j u dge s o pi n i on : fo r a j udge may s ay t hin gs in t h e

’

c o u rs e o f an argu men t an d e v en in j u dg men t s ,

d eliv ere d w i t h ou t p reparat io n which h e d oes n ot ,

w i s h o n re fl e cti on t o b e p erma n e n t ly re c ord e d

?
, ,

1
Ev en t o war ds th e K e n y o n re p rim an d e d
end of it . Lord
m e w h en I w a s a t t h e B a r fo r c it in g K ebl e s a i d P a rk J in
”
, ,

A d a ms v Gi bn ey ( 1 8 3 0) 6 B in g a t p 6 64 3 1 R R a t p 5 2 1
. . .
,
. . . .

2
J a mes V C in L ea th er Cl oth 00 v Lorsont L B 9 Eq a t
, .
-
.
, . .
, . .

p 351
. .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

In 1 8 6 3 t h e E n gli s h
”
m on e y pro digi ous
w as .
1

B ar t oo k t h e mat t er i n t o t h e i r o w n han d s a n d ,

t h e lab ou rs o f a c o m mi t t e e app o i n t e d t o c on s id er

w hat c o u ld b e d o n e res u l t e d in t h e es t abli s h m en t

o f t h e C o u n cil o f Law R e p o rti n g a di re c t i n g b o dy ,

which repre s en t s t h e I nn s o f C o urt t h e Law So ci e t y , ,

an d n o w al s o t h e G e n eral C o u n cil o f t h e B ar .

From 1 8 6 5 o n w ards t h e Law R ep ort s have b ee n

ca rri e d o n by t h e C o un cil in t h e i n t eres t o f t h e
p ro fes s i on a s a c o O p erat iv e an d s elf — s u pp o rt i n g
-

e n t e rp ri se
2
T h e e xam pl e s e t by t h e E n gli s h Law
.

R e p o rt s w as in c o u rs e o f t i m e fo ll o w e d in I relan d ,

a n d t o a c e rt ai n e xt e n t i n B ri t i s h I n di a Arrang e .

m e n t s a n al o g o us in va ryi n g d eg re e s t o t h o se o f t h e
, ,

En glis h au t h o ri s e d re p o rt s e xi s t in t h e F e deral
“ ”

a n d St at e j u ri s dic t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d St a t e s an d ,

1
La w Q u a rt . R ev 1. 1 38 . M o re d e t a il w ill b e fo u n d t h ere , and

in t h e l at e Mr . D
l s H i st ory a nd Orig i n of t h e La w R ep ort s
a ni e
’

Lo n d o n 1 88 4 o f w h ich Lord ( t h e n Lo rd J u s t ic e ) Lin dl e y s a rt icl e

’

, ,

w a s a re v ie w A s to t e
. h m o d ern s y s t em s e e
“ E n gl is h La w Re p o rt
a n a d d re s s d e l i v e re d by t h e p re s e nt w ri t er t o t h e A m e ric a n
”
i ng ,

B a r A s s o c ia t io n in 1 9 03 La w Qu a rt R ev x ix 45 1, . . . .

2
M o s t o f t h e a u t h orise d re port ers j oin ed t h e s t aff o f t h e La w
Re po rt s a t o n ce a fe w o f t h em h e ld o ut fo r a y ear or t w o b u t o n e ,

m a y s a y b roa dly t h a t t h e La w R e p o rt s a b so rb e d a n d s u p ers e d e d

“
t h e ol d a u t h o ris e d re p o rt s w i t h rem a rk a bl e c o m pl e t e n e s s a n d

w it h a l l b u t u n i v ersa l a pp ro v a l It w a s n o p a rt o f t h e s ch e m e
.
,

h o w e v er t o s e t u p a n o ffic ia l mo n o po ly o f re po rt in g a n d o t h er
, ,

c o m p et in g s eries c o nt in ue d a nd s t ill c o n t in u e t o b e p u bl is h e d a n d ,

t o b e pre fe rre d t o t h e La w R e p ort s fo r v a rio u s rea s o n s by a c ert a in , ,

n umb er o f t h e p ro fe s s io n .
 LAW REPORTS

in t h e l arger self go v ern i n g B ri t is h C o lo n ie s In

-
.

Am erica t h e re p ort ers of t h e Sup reme C o urt o f t h e

“

U n it e d St a t es a n d o f m o s t p erhap s o f all t h e St at e
, ,

C o urt s o f la s t res ort are p u blic offi cial s d uly el ect e d

,

” 1
o r app o in t e d,
an d acc ordin gly t h e rep ort s are
c o n s t ant ly d es crib e d a s o ffi cial a t erm w hich E n gli s h,

law y ers have av o id e d Th e re p ort ers o f t h e Law

.

R e p o rt s fo l l o w i ng it is b e li e v e d t h e c u s t o m of
, , ,

t h e i r p re d e c ess ors apply wh e n t h ey a re app o i n t e d

, ,

o r t ra n s fe rre d t o an o t h er c ou rt fo r t h e s a n c t i on o f ,

t h eJ u dg e t o w h ose c o urt t h e y are t o b e a t t ach e d .

Sir E dwa rd C ok e in t h e P re fac e t o t h e T hi rd B lk

,
u or

Part o f h is R ep orts es t i m at e d t h e n u mbe r o f v o lum es d

, an

o f re p o rt s t h e n in e xi s t e n c e a t fift e e n A b ou t t h e .

be gi n n in g o f t h e e igh t een t h c e n t u ry a c ou n t ry
l a wy er w h o w as aft e rwa rd s advan c e d t o t h e s eat o f
“
j u st ic e is s aid t o h a v e c o mplain e d t hat w h e n h e
”

w as a s t u d en t h e c o uld carry a c o mpl e t e lib ra ry o f

b o o k s in a w h ee lbarro w b u t t hat t h e y we re s o ,

w o n d erfu lly i n cre a s e d in a fe w y e a rs t ha t t h e y

”
c ou ld n o t t h e n b e d ra w n in a waggo n 2
Now t h e .

w aggon w o uld b e as mu ch o u t o f dat e as t h e w h e e l

barro w In 1 8 9 5 t h e re w e re o v e r e igh t e e n h u n d re d
.

v ol ume s o f En gli s h rep ort s al on e or t w o t h o u s an d ,

1
Wamb a ug h ,
T h e St u d y of Ca s es , 2 n d ed . 1 89 4 , p . 1 09 .

2
P re f . t o 5 M od . p . x i.
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUD EN CE C HA P .

'

i n cl udi n g the I ri s h
va riou s j uri s dic t ion so n es . Th e

o f t h e U n i t e d St a t es w ere b eli e v e d t o hav e p ro d u c e d

s o m e t hi n g lik e d ou bl e thi s n u m b e r Maki n g a ro ugh .

all o w an c e for t h e rep o rt s o f B rit i sh I n dia an d t h e

E nglis h s p eaki ng C ol on i es t h ere w ere p ro bably at
-
,

t hat dat e ab o u t e igh t t h o u s a n d v o l u m e s o f re p o rt e d

d e ci s io n s By t h e e n d o f 1 9 1 0 t h ere w e re p ro bably
.

1
n o t l e ss t ha n five t h o u s an d m o re Of c o urs e n o o n e .

M Sim
1
r. E B ld w i f C eo n c t ic t y i Th Am i
. a n o o n ne u sa s n e er ca n

J d i i y N w Y k 1 905 p 2 6 1 t h t t h
u c ar , e or ,
l tp t f , .
,
a e an n u a ou u o

A m ic er F d l d St t
an e p t i b t 4 00 v l m
e ra an a e re or s s a ou o u e s.

S l D ill L w d J i p d
ee a s o o n, a f E gl d
s an d Am i ur s ru en ce o n an an e r ca ,

B os t on, M a ss. 1 8 9 4, p . 265 . T h e s t at em e n t a s t o A m eric a n re po rt s

is fou n d e d o n t h e e s t im at e J D g
t h ere g i v e n b u t u dg e ill o n i v es fo r
t h e E n gl is h o n e s a m u ch l arg er n u m b er t h a n I o b t a in e d a s t h e
res u l t o f a n in d e p e n d e n t v e rific at io n It d o es n o t a pp ea r fro m .

w h at s ourc e h is fig u re o f 29 4 4 v o l u m e s a s e x i s t in g i n 1 8 8 1 wa s
d e riv e d M y o w n ro u n d n umb ers t o t h e en d o f 1 8 95 are E n g l is h
.

re p ort s fro m t h e Y e a r B o o k s i n cl us i v e 1 000 v o l u m es

“
re g u l ar , ,

La w R e p ort s a n d o t h er p e rio d ic a l re p ort s 6 2 5 ; Cro w n Ca s e s , ,

Crim in a l La w R e p ort s a n d St a t e T ria l s 1 7 0 ; o t h er re p ort s o f

, ,

s p e c ia l cl a s s e s o f c ases a b o ut 3 0 : t o t a l 1 8 25
, I ris h rep o rt s .
,

1 8 5 ; Sc o t t is h ( w h ich b e l o n g h o w e v e r t o a d iffere n t s y s t e m o f
, ,

l a w ) 2 90
, T h is m a k es fo r t h e U n it e d K in gd o m a t o t a l o f a b o ut
.

23 00 . T h ere are s o m e re p ort s o f Co u n t y Co urt c a s e s b u t t h e s e ,

o u gh t n o t t o b e re c k o n e d a s t h e d e c i s io n s o fin fe rio r c o u rt s m a y n o t
,

b e q u o t e d a s a u t h ori t y Th e s a m e m ay b e s aid o f a m a s s o f
.

in d i v id u a l re p o rt s o f s e p a ra t e c a s es c o ll e c t io n s o f c e l e b ra t e d t ria l s
, ,

a n d s o fort h w h ich m igh t c o n s i d era bly s w e ll t h e t o t a l i f a d mit t ed

, ,

b u t o f w h ich o n ly a s m a ll p ro p o rt io n ( n o t b ein g d u plic a t es ) are

a u t h e n t ic a t e d re p ort s o f a u t h o rit a t i v e d e c is io n s I n cl us io n o f .

s u ch p u bl ic at io n s m ay p er h a p s a cc o u n t fo r t h e l arg e nes s o f t h e
e s t im a t e a d o p t e d by J u dg e D ill o n T h e R evi sed R ep ort s are n o t.

c o u n t e d h ere a s t h e y a re n o t a n a dd it io n t o t h e e x is t in g re po rt s
,

b u t a re p rin t o mit t in g o b so l e t e m a t t e r As t h e e s t ima t e is .

ro u gh in a n
y c a s e it d id n o t s eem w ort h w h il e t o u n d e rt ak e a
,

fres h c a lc ul at io n for t h e s ec o n d o r for t h e pres en t e d it io n .

 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUD EN CE

u se d by th e c o urt c ompare all t h e k n o wn c o n

, to

c urren t rep ort s O f a ca se an d th erefore it can n ot ,

b e s aid o f an y v o l u m e o f t h e rep ort s e v en t h o s e o f ,

in ferior aut h orit y t hat a law y er m ay n o t at s o me

,

ti me hav e t o refe r t o it
‘

Th e p e c ul iar diffic u l t i e s o f s t u dyi n g A n gl o

Am erican law lie o n t h e wh o l e n Ot s o m u ch in t h e

, ,

ac t u al a mo u n t o f re adi n g t ha t is re q ui re d ( w hich is
p ro bably n o t gre a t er t ha n in t h e cas e o f a ny o t h er
l e arn e d or li t erary callin g) as in t h e dis p ersi on o f
t h e m at erial s t h e rapid acc ess i o n o f n e w mat t er an d
,

O b s o l e s c en c e o f o l d a n d t h e e lab o ra t e appa ra t u s o f
,

re feren c e re n d ere d n e c e s s a ry by t h es e c o n di t i o n s ,

w hich c an i t s e lf b e u se d w i t h full e ffe c t o n ly aft e r a

c ert ain amo u n t o f p ro fess i o n al t rain in g an d e xp eri

ence . E ve ry s t u d en t s h o uld acc u s t om hi m s elf as
s oo n a s p o s s ibl e t o t h e p ro c e s s o f a s c e rt ai n i n g a n d

v erifyi n g t h e a u t h ori t i es availabl e o n a giv e n p o in t

o f l aw ,
w i t h t h e h e lp o f t h e va ri o u s i n d e x e s a n d

dig es t s a n d n ot o mi t t i n g t e xt b ook s o f g oo d s t an d
,
-

in g t h ou gh t h es e la s t m u s t by n o m e a n s b e t ak e n
,

as a s u b s t i t u t e fo r t h e a u t h orit i e s t h e m s e lv es Li s t s .

o f t h e E n gli s h re p o rt s an d t h e abb re vi a t i o n s by
,

which t h ey a re c o mmo nly re ferre d t o may b e fou n d ,

in M e w s s D ig es t a n d o t h e r w o rk s o f re fe re n c e a n d
’

in s o me o f t h e law b oo k s e ll ers ca t al o gu e s
’
A new .
 LAW REPORTS

a nd , it is b eli ev e d a c o mpl e t e o r ve ry n early

,

c ompl et e o n e w as i ss u e d by t h e C o u n cil o f La w

R e p ort i n g in
Le t t h e st u d en t ab o ve all
, ,
re m e m b er t hat in o ur

l a w t e xt b o o ks are n ot au t h orit ie s w it h t h e ex c e p
-
,
s

t i o n w hich in u s u al p rac t ic e is s e ld o m m at erial o f

, ,

t h e li m i t e d n um b er o f o l d b ook s by p riva t e w ri t e rs

t o which a ut h ori t y in t h e pro p er s e n s e h as b e e n

as crib e d U n verifi e d n ot es o r e x t ract s s h oul d n ev er

.

b e t rus t e d ; n e i t h e r is it s afe t o a ssu me t h at e xt rac t s

fro m a ca se in e v e n t h e m ost care ful an d l earn e d of

t e x t b o o k s t h ou gh c orre c t s o far a s t h ey go an d
-
, ,

apparent ly rel evan t w ill suffi c e for t h e pu rp os e in ,

han d Th e t e x t w rit er s p u rp o s e m ay n o t b e t h e
.
-
’

s a m e a s y o urs a n d if it w ere t h e c ou rt may n o t

, , ,

agre e w i t h h im t hat t h e pass ag es h e h as s el e c t ed

are t h e o n ly re l e v a n t o n es First han d acqu ain t an c e .
-

w i t h t h e au t h o ri t i e s t h e m s e lv e s is t h e o n ly s afe w ay
?

1
T bl Al p h b t i l
a es , d Ch a l gic l f l l R p t f C
e ca an ro n o o a , o a e or s o a s es

d cid d i E gl d Sc t l d
e e n n d I l d
an , o w it hanLi t f ,
an re a n a s o

th e u s ua l Md o c o m pil e d u n d er t h e d irec t io n o f t h e
es o f Cit a t io n ,
Co u n c il by A rt h ur Ca n e Lo n d o n Wm C l o w e s a n d S o n s Lt d
”
. .
, , .
,

1 8 95 ( o u t o f p rin t ) T h is i n cl u d es n o t o n ly re p o rt s fu lly p u bl is h e d
.

b e fo re 1 865 b u t s erial re port s c o mm e n c ed b fo re t h a t d a t e a n d

, e ,

c o n t in u e d a ft erw ard s It d o e s n o t h o w e v er in cl u d e t h e p eriod ic a l

.
, ,

re p o rt s o f c a s e s in al l t h e c o u rt s w h ich h a v e for m a n y y e ars b e e n

p u bl is h e d in c o nn e ct io n w it h l e g a l n e w s pa p e rs a n d o t h e rw is e .

O n e c a n n o t b e s u re t h a t t h is or a n y o t h er l i s t a cc o u n t s for a l l t h e
o b s c u re m i n o r re p ort s b u t i t is m o re t h a n s u ffi c ie n t fo r a l l
,

pra c t ic a l p u rp o s e s .

2
Wh e n I w s b egi n n in g t h e s t u d y o f t h e l w m y g ra nd fa t h er
a a ,
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P . v

We s hall p ro c ee d t o i n qu ire mo re p re cis ely

now

t han w e hav e y e t d o n e in what s en se d e cid e d ca ses

are o f a u th o ri t y in o u r c o u rt s a n d by wha t ru l e s
,

o r u n d e rs t a n di n g s t h e i n c o n v en ie n c e o f di ffere n t
a ut h ori t ies b e i n g foun d t o b e in c o nflic t is p ro vid e d
agai n s t or di mi n i sh e d .

wh o h ad t h e n l a t e ly
g n e d t h e o ffi c e o f C h ie f B aro n o f t h e
res i

E xch equ er wro t e to m e a s fo ll o w s

,
I mys elf read n o t rea t is es
I re ferre d t o t h em a s co ll e c t in g t h e au t h o rit ie s ( It m u s t b e
.
”

re m e mb e re d t h a t i n t h e early p art o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry v e ry

fe w t e x t b oo k s aim e d a t e it h er s y s t em at ic a rran g eme n t o r in d e

-

p en d en t crit ic is m ) I l e arne d l a w b y rea d in g t h e re p ort s an d

.

a t t e n d in g t h e C o u rt s a n d t h i n k in g a n d t a lk i n g o f w h a t I re a d
,

a n d h eard . Learn in g t o p a s s e x a min at io n s in l a w wo u ld s ee m t o

b e a quit e d iffere n t k in d o f s t u dy at a l l e v e n t s i t is c o mmo n ly
,

t re a t e d a s if i t w ere .
 FIRST B OOK OF JURI SPRUD EN CE C HA P .

ab s en c e o f s t ro n g re a so n t o t h e c o n t ra ry T h e .

s t ro n g es t o f su ch p oss ibl e re a so n s is di s re ga rd by t h e
,

d e ci s io n di ssen t e d fro m o f s o m e s till high e r aut h ori t y

,
.

Th e d e ci s i o n s Of a C o u rt o f A pp e al are bi n di n g

o n all c o u rt s o f c o ordi n a t e ra n k w i t h t h e c o u rt
-

b el o w an d g en erally acc ordi n g t o En gli s h p ractic e

, , ,

o n t h e A pp ella t e C ou rt i t s elf .

AS re gard s a c o u rt o f la s t resort it s d e ci s i on s
,

are c ertai n ly bi n di n g o n all c o u rt s o f l o w e r ra n k .

U s ag e differs o n t h e p o in t w h e t h er s u ch a c o u rt

s hall t re a t i t se lf a s b o un d by it s o w n d e cis i o n s .

Th e H o u s e o f Lo rd s h as g o n e fart h est in t hi s

dire c t ion a n d s eems t o s t a n d al on e ; t h e Sup rem e

,

C o u rt o f t h e U n it e d St a t es o n t h e o t h er han d h as
, ,

m o re t ha n o n c e o p e n ly re v e rs e d it s o w n p re vi o u s
d o c t ri n e ; s ome o t h er t ri b un al s o f la s t res ort hav e n o t
di s s e n t e d fro m t h e i r o wn fo rm er c o n cl us i on s e xc e p t
in v ery s p e cial ci rc u ms t an c e s b u t hav e al s o n o t d is
,

claim e d t h e p o w er of d o i ng s o .

T h e re h as b e e n n o a t t e m p t in E n gla n d a t all
,

e v e n t s t o reg u la t e t h e u s ag e o f t h e c o urt s by l e gi s la
,

t io n
. What is h e re s aid is i n t en d e d t o e xpre ss t h e
re c o g n i se d p rac t ic e a n d t radi t i o n wi t h s u ch a
pp ro x i
m a t e e x a c t n e s s as t h e n a t ure o f t h e ca s e ad mi t s o f .

We s h all n o w illu st rat e t h e p rac t ic e by e xa mpl e s o f

it s j u dicial d e clara t i o n o r d i s c u s s i o n.
 CA S E -
LAW A ND PRE CEDEN TS

AS e ar ly as t h e m iddl e c e n t ury E ly of t h e t hi rt e e n t h ar

t t m s a e en t s
B ra e t o n a s w e hav e s een c o ll e c t e d a n d c i t e d d d i
, , an s

i m c uS S o
d e cis i on s ; b ut t h ere is n o t hi n g t o w arrant u s in
s ayi n g t ha t b e rega rd e d t h e m a s p o s i t iv e ly bi n di n g

o n t h e j u dg e s in s i milar ca se s ari s i n g la t er E arly .

i n t h e fo urt e e n t h c e n t ury h ow e v e r w e fin d H e rl e , ,

( p e rhap s t h e s a m e Willi a m d e H erl e w h o b e ca me

a j u dg e in 1 3 20 an d Chi e f J us t ic e o f t h e C om mo n
,

P le as s e ve n y e ars l a t e r) i mp re ssi ng o n t h e c ou rt
b efore w h om h e a rg ue s t hat t h e ir d eci s i o n w ill b e
re c e iv e d a s a u t h o ri t y a n d t h ere fo re o u gh t ,
t o be
“
care fully c on s id ere d fo r t h e j udgm en t t h a t y ou
,

s hall n o w m ak e i n t hi s m a t t e r w ill b e u s e d h e re a ft e r

in e v ery gua re n on a d mi si t in E ngla n d

”
1
La t e r in ,

—
1 3 44 5 c o u n se l s aid
,
“
I t hi n k y o u w il l d o as o t h ers
,

hav e d on e in t h e s a m e ca se o r e l se w e d o n o t k n o w ,

”
w ha t t h e l aw is
2
.

T h e se re ma rk s app e ar t o h a v e e xp re s s e d a vi e w

g en e rally ad mi t t e d fo r ot h e rw i se w e sh o u ld n ot fin d
,

t h em s o p o i n t e dly re p o rt e d w i t h o u t an y n o t e o f

dis s en t from t h e c o urt t h e o pp o s i n g c ou n s el o r t h e

, ,

re p ort e r hi m self N early a c en t u ry a n d a half l at e r

.

1
Y ea r B oo k , 32 Ed . I . ed . Ho rw o o d , p . 33 . T h e q u es t io n ( o f
w h ich no d e c is io n i s
p ort ed ) w a s w h et h er a
re pl ea o f t h re e d is t in c t
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t o bj e c t i o n s t o a cl erk s e l ig ib i l it y fo r p res e n t a t io n
’

t o a ch u rch w s a ll o w a bl e o r n o t
a .

2
Y B 18 . . 1 9 E d Il l e d P ik e p 3 7 8
. . .
, . .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E

(A D . . 1 4 5 4 ) w e fin d Chi e f J us t ic e o f t h e
P riso t ,

C o mmo n P l e as? layin g d ow n from t h e Be n ch h o w

i n c on v en ien t it woul d b e for t h e c ourt t o dis regard
t h e j u dg m e n t s of e a rli er da t e T h e q u e s t i o n w as o n
.

t h e c on s t ru cti o n o f a s tatu t e a n d o n e re a s on giv e n,

is t ha t t h e j u dge s w h o w ere n e are r t o t h e dat e o f

t h e s t a t u t e w e re m ore l ik e ly t o u n d ers tan d it

righ t ly ; b ut t h e g en e ral i mp orta n c e o f adh e ri n g

t o p re c e d e n t is al s o i n s i s t e d u p o n Th e y ou n g .

app re n tic e s o f t h e law P riso t s ays w ill giv e n o

, ,

fait h t o th e ir b oo k s if p o in t s w hich t h ey fin d m an y
,

t i m e s laid d o w n in t h e ir b o ok s are n ow t o b e d e

cid e d t h e o t h er way ?
A y e ar lat e r w e fin d P risot ,

in a di s c u ss i o n a mo n g t h e j udg e s in t h e E xch e q uer

Cham b er apparen t ly m a in t ai ni ng t h e au t h ority o f
,

p re c e d e n t agai ns t a maj o ri t y o f h is c o ll e agu es Th e .

j u dge s as re p o rt e d s e e m t o c on t radict t h e m selv es

, ,

at differe n t s t ag es o f t h e p ro c e e dings b u t at all ,

e v e n t s t h e q ue s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e c ou rt w as fre e t o

disse n t fro m a rec en t d e ci s i o n o f it s o wn o r n o t w as

di scu sse d in t h e pre s en c e o f t h e B ar b u t wi t h o ut
, ,

h eari ng an y fresh argu me nt s from t h e m w it h c o n .

,

1
In Wa l l a ce on t h e R ep p 1 00 t h e d a t e o f t h is
o rt ers , 4t h ed . .
,

c as e erro n e o u s ly gi v e n as 1 44 4
is a nd c o n s equ e n t ly ( i t w o u ld
,

s eem ) Pri s o t w h o w a s a ppo in t e d in 1 4 4 9 a n d w as n e v e r a p u is n e

,

j u dg e is d es c rib e d a s M r J u s t ic e Pris o t a nd s t a t ed t o h a v e b e e n
, .

a ft e rw a rd s p ro m o t e d .

2
3 3 H en . VI . 41a .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

any b o ok ca s e or a ut h o ri t y in part icular is t h ere

, ,

fore t o o w id e as it s t an d s in En gli s h ; t h e a ut h or s ’

”
o w n La t i n t e x t h o w e v e r h as ,
vix u n qu am which , ,

l e av es ro o m for e xc ep t io n al ca ses A cc o rdin g t o

?

“ “ ”
C o k e t h e c o mm o n form w as it is h eld or it
“ ”
is a gree d in o ur b o o k s it h as b e en d e cid e d ,

in full c ou rt an d
”
t h e lik e
, We m us t n ot .

fo rge t t h e m e chan ical diffi c u lt y o f ci t i n g an y

“
b oo k cas e o r au th orit y in partic ul a r b efo re t h e
, , ,

i n ve n tio n o f p ri n t ing ; it w as n o t an in su p erabl e

di ffic ul t y for s o m e m e di e val m anus c rip t s are v ery
,

w ell i n d e x e d b u t it w as n o t a t riflin g o n e .

H avi n g t h us s h o w n t hat t h e p rin ciple s which

n o w g u id e ou r c o u rt s in fo ll o wi n g p re c e d e n t s w ere

in e xi st e n c e fo u r c en t uri es an d a half ago w e m ay ,

c om e at o n c e t o t h e mos t m o d ern u t t eran c es o n t h e

s u bj e ct .So metim es it h as b ee n t h ou ght t hat
j u dg es are p os it iv ely b o un d t o foll o w d e ci s io n s o f
c o o rdi n a t e a u t h ori t y t hat is t h e d e ci s i o n o f
’9
-
, ,

c o urt s of e q u al ra nk a n d e x ercis i n g t h e s a me
j uris dictio n u n l ess o bvi o us ly c on tra ry t o high er
,

au t h ori t y or t h e w eigh t o f p revio us e qu al au t h ori t y .

1
In t h e l arc e n y by break in g b u lk in 1 4 7 3 Y ear
g reat c as e of , ,

B o o k 1 3 E d IV 9 ( t ra n s l a t e d i n Po ll o ck a n d Wri gh t o n P o s s es s i on
. .
,

pp 1 3 4
. B ria n C J a pp ea rs t o h a v e q u o t e d p art ic u l ar c as e s
,
. .
,

m uch a s w e d o n o w In 7 H e n VI I 1 2a a c a s e fro m Ed III is

. . .
,
. .

c it e d w it h v ide l ib rum .
 CA S E -
LAW A ND PREC EDENT S

T hi s w as t h e vi e w t ak en by t h e la t e Sir Ge orge
?
J ess el in t h e e arli er part o f h is j udici al care e r
B u t s om e y e ars lat e r havi n g l e arn t t ha t t h e C o u rt ,

o f A pp e a l did n o t c o n s id e r a j udg e o f fi rs t i n s t an c e

t o b e s o s t ric t ly b o un d h e h e ld hi m se lf fre e t o ,

dis cu ss p re vi ou s d e cis io n s o f c o o rdi n ate au t h o ri t y -

“
o n t h e ir m e ri t s ad mi tt in g h o w ever t hat t h ere is
, , ,

p e rhap s n o t hin g m ore i mp ort a n t in o ur l aw t ha n

t h a t g rea t re s p e ct fo r t h e a u t h o ri t y o f d e cid e d ca s es

w hich is s h o w n by o ur t rib u n al s a n d t ha t the ,

de cis io n o f a t rib un al of c o o rdin at e j uri sd ic t ion -

“
o u gh t t o b e fo ll o w e d wh ere it is o f resp e c t abl e
a g e a n d h as b e e n u s e d by l aw y e rs as s et t lin g t h e

l aw 2
B efo re t h e J udicat ure A c t s t h e di ffere nt
.
”

Su p eri or C ou rt s o f C o mm on Law t h e K i n g s
’

B en ch C om m on Pl eas an d Exch e qu er t re at e d on e
, , ,

an ot h er s d e ci s i on s w i t h re s p e c t b ut n ot as a u t h ori t ie s
’

pre clu din g dis c u ssi on It is by n o m e an s cl ear

?

t hat t h e y e v e n h e ld t h e ms e lves p os i t iv e ly b ou n d by

1
R e H a rp er a nd C E R
. . . Co .
( 1 87 5 ) L R . . 20 Eq . at p . 43 .

2
R e H a l l et t
’

s E st a t e ( 1 87 9 ) 1 3 Ch . D . at p . 7 1 2 ; Os born e v .

R o w l ett ( 1 8 8 0) ib . at p . 77 9 .

3
Cp . V ghh e re t h e l a n g u ag e is wid e I f V a ugh a n
au an 3 83 , w .
,

C J rea lly s a id t h a t a j u dg e c a n n e v er b e b o u n d t o fo ll o w a n
. .
,

a u t h o ri t y w i t h w h ich h e p e rso n a lly d o e s n o t a gre e h e di s re g ard e d ,

t h e u n i fo rm p ra c t ic e o f E n gl is h c o urt s T h e l a n g u a g e o f B re t t . ,

M R 9 R D a t p 9 8 s e ems t o g o a li t t l e t oo fa r t h e o t h er w ay
. .
, . .
,
.

T h ere is n o d o u b t o f t h e fac t t h a t t h e o l d Co urt s i n We s t min s t e r

Ha ll o ft en t o o k in d e p e n d ent lin es .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUD EN C E

t h ei r ow n d e ci s i o n s whil e t h e j u d ge s w h o h ad
p ro n o un c e d t h e m w ere livi n g ?

O cca s i on al ly ca s es are re p ort e d which ( w h et h e r

by s o m e real mi st ak e a t t h e t i me o r t h rou gh s om e ,

o mi s si o n o r m i s s t a t e m en t in t h e re p o rt ) are a s ,

t h e y s t a n d re p o rt e d m an ife s t ly c o n t ra ry t o t h e ru l es
,

o f l a w a s s e t t l e d a n d g e n erally u n d ers t o o d o r t o t h e ,

“
u n ifo rm t e n d e n cy o f o t h er d e ci s i o n s the cu rre n t ,

o f a u t h o ri t y a s it is call e d Ev e n a c o u rt o f .

fi rs t i n s t a n c e may d i sreg ard o bvi o u s ab e rrati on s

o f t hi s ki n d It n e e d n o t a n d s h o uld n o t t h ro w
.

t h e d ut y o f c o rre c t i n g t h e m o n t h e C o u rt o f A pp e al
?

R p ct f
es e or Wh e re a d e cis i o n o r s t ill m o re a s eri es o f ,
c
d e is io n s
f c
o t en a t ed d e ci s io n s t o t h e s am e effe c t h as b een acc ep t e d for ,

u po n
l a w an d act e d u p o n by m a n y p ers o n s a n d es p e cially
.

w h e re a ru l e t h u s a rriv e d a t h a s b e c o m e a g u id e t o

l a w y ers an d t h e ir clie n t s in t h ei r d e ali n gs w it h

p ro p ert y t h e C o urt e v en C o urt s o f A pp eal are
, , ,

s l o w t o i n t e rfe re w i t h t h e rul e a n d it m ay p erhap s ,

b e u ph eld al t h ou gh m o d e rn res e arch h as s h o w n

t hat it w a s o rigi n ally fo un d e d o n a mi s t ak e ; for

t h e re v e rs a l o f a ru l e t ha t h a s b ee n c o mmo n ly

1
D ll a as, CJ
. .
, s ee m s t o im ply t h e c o nt rary in Ch ri st ie v . L ewi s
( 1 8 2 1 ) 2 B ro d . B . 4 2 6, 2 3 R R 4 9 1
. .

2
eg R e c ebe ( 1 8 8 4 ) 2 8 C h
. . . D . at p . 1 8 0, w h e re P e arso n J , .
,

s a id o f a s o i t a r l yc
d e is io n o f t is h k in d It is u n fort u n a t e t h a t
th e c as e w as e v er re p o rt e d .
”
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI S P RUDEN C E C HA P .

th t,
a if it w ere n ot s o t h e re w o u ld b e grea t ri s k
,

of d e fe at i ng t h e in t en t i on s o f part i es w h o had
n a t u rally l e ft it t o t h e ir s kill e d advi s ers t o e xp res s

t h ose i nt e n t i o n s in a p ro p er fo rm an d wh o s e ,

advi s ers had u s e d acc u s t o me d form s in t h e s e n s e

re g ularly a t t a ch e d t o t h e m in t h e p ro fes s i o n M u ch
?

“
m o re lat ely it h as b ee n s aid t ha t F o r t h e e xp os it i o n
o f o u r v e ry c o mplica t e d re a l p ro p e rt y l a w it is ,

p ro p er in t h e ab sen c e o f j u dicial au t h orit y t o re sort

t o t e x t b o o k s w hich hav e b e e n re c o g nis e d by t h e
-

C o urt s as rep resen ti n g t h e vi e w s an d p ract ic e o f

”
c o n v eyan c ers o f re p u te 2
In t hi s e mi n e n t ly
.

s ci e n t ific b ra n ch o f t h e p ro fes s i o n wh o are as it , ,

w ere t h e Sapp ers o f t h e B ar j u dicial i n t erp ret a t i o n s

, ,

o f t h e l aw n o t ably t h e law o f re al p ro p ert y a re ap t

, ,

t o b e m ore freely c ri t i c i s e d t han e l s ew h e re .

D e cis i on s o f a C o u rt o f A pp e al ( in E n gli s h
p ract ic e s i n c e 1 8 7 5 t h e o n e C ou rt o f A pp e a l
,

e s t ablis h e d by t h e J u dicat u re A c t s ) are bi n di n

g o n

a ll c ou rt s o f i n fe ri or a ut h ori t y w it hi n t h e s a m e
j uri s dic t i o n Th e J u dicial C ommi t t e e o f t h e P rivy
.

C o un cil h a s d e clare d it t o b e c on v en ie nt a n d
d es irabl e for c o l on ial c o urt s t o acc e p t t h e d ecis i o n s
o f t h e E n gli s h C o urt o f A pp e al a s a u t h o ri t a t iv e o n

1
3 B il gh at pp . 461 6 2 , 22 R R
-
. . at pp . 5 5, 5 6 .

2
H o l l is H osp i t a l
’
a nd H a gu e s Co nt ra c t [ 1 8 9 9 ] 2 Ch
’
. p . 55 1 .
 CAS E -
LAW A ND PRE C EDEN TS

the c o n s t ru c t i on n o t on ly o f E n glis h A c t s o f
,

P arliam e n t w hich a c olo n ial c o urt m ay h av e t o

apply b u t o f c ol o n i al s t a t u t es rep ea t in g in
,

t erms ( as o ft e n h a pp e n s ) t h e p ro vi s i o n s o f s u ch

Act s ?

It fo ll o w s t ha t a C o urt o f A pp e a l n o t o n ly c an
re v e rs e o r v a ry d e ci s i o n s fro m w hich a n app e al is

b ro ugh t b ut c an o v errul e p re vi ous d e cis ion s o f

,

c o u rt s b el o w w hich hav e n ot b e en app eal e d from ,

t ha t is c a n d e cl are o r give it t o b e u n d ers t o o d t ha t

,

t h e y w e re erro n e ou s ly d e cid e d an d a re n o l o n g e r t o

b e foll o w e d as a u t h ori t y T h e C ou rt o f A pp e a l in .

E nglan d d oes n o t h o ld it s elf fre e t o d ep art from

it s o wn c o n s id e re d d e ci s i o n s o r ( a cc o rdi n g t o it s

la t est u t t eran c e s) fro m t h os e o f t h e c o urt s o f lik e

2

au t h o ri t y n am ely t h e Exch equ er Cha mb er an d t h e

,

C o urt o f A pp ea l in Chan c e ry w hich e xi s t e d b e fo re ,

it . Q u it e l at e ly t h e c o u rt h as ac t e d o n t hi s vie w 3
,

1
T ri m bl e v . H i l l ( 1 8 7 9 ) 5 App Ca 3 4 2, 3 4 4
. . .

“
2
In 1 8 8 0 a d iffe re n t v ie w w a s h e l d : his Co u rt
As a l
ru e , t
o u gh t t o t re a t t h e d e c is io n s o f t h e Co u rt o f App e a l i n C h a n c e ry a s

b ind in g a u t h o rit ie s b u t we a re a t l ib e rt y n o t t o d o s o w h ere t h ere

,

i s a s u ffic i e n t re a s o n for o v erru l in g t h e m Il l i l l s v J e n n i n gs 1 3 .

,

C h D iv 6 3 9 6 4 8
. . In t h e l a s t res o rt t h e H o u s e o f Lo rd s a gre ed
, .

w it h t h e C o u rt o f App e a l a n d o v erru l e d t h e e a rl ier d e c is io n t hey

h a d n o t o f c o u rs e t o d e c id e w h e t h er t h e Co u rt o f App ea l w a s
, ,

s t ri c t ly e n t it l e d t o d isreg ard i t o r n o t J enn i n gs v J ord a n ( 1 88 1 ) .

6 App C . 698 a . .

2 “
We c a n n o t o v erru l e Vi n t v P a d get ( 2 D e G . J . .

fo r t h a t w a s t h e d e c i s io n o f a C o u rt c o o rd in a t e i n j uris d ic t io n
-
 F IR ST B OO K OF J UR ISPR UD ENCE

which acc orda n c e w ith t h e form e r p rac t ic e o f

is in

t h e E xch e qu er Cha m b e r for t ha t c ou rt al so h e ld ,

i t self b o un d by it s o w n d e ci s ion s B ut it has h eld

?

i t s elf n o t b o un d by t h e res ul t o f a fo rm er case in

w hich t h e j u dg es p re se n t w e re e q u ally divid e d ; fo r

in s u ch a ca s e t h e re is n o a u t h o ri t y o f t h e C o urt as

s u ch
2
. E ve n t h e H o us e of Lord s will n ot re verse
”

a s et t l e d c ours e o f d e ci s i o n s : b ut erro rs in t h e
3

applicat ion o f a set t l e d p rin cipl e may b e c orrec t e d ,

t h o ugh aft e r a c o n s id e rabl e t i m e if t h ey are n o t s u ch ,

as c ould hav e b een mad e a ru l e o f c o n d uc t o r hav e

” 1
a ffe c t e d t h e t ran s ac t ion s o f m an ki n d .
‘

D e ci s i o n s o f a n app e lla t e c ou rt o f la st res o rt are

1

bi n din g o n all c ou rt s fro m w hich an app e al li es t o

it an d o f c o urse o n all t rib u n al s i n feri or t o t h em
, , , .

So far w hat h as b e e n s aid o f a C o urt o f A pp e al in

gen eral is applicabl e B ut t h e fu rt h er ques t i on .

ari ses w h et h er a c o u rt fro m which t h ere is n o

app e al s hall h old i t s elf free t o re vi e w it s o w n
fo rm er d eci s i on s o r n o t It m ay b e s aid o u t h e .
'

o n e Sid e t ha t e ve n t h e high e s t c ourt m ay e rr ,

w it h o u rs e lv es Lord H e rs ch e l ] , L C i n P l ed g e . . v
Ca rr [ 1 8 95 ] 1 .

Ch . atp . 52 . Cp La vy . v . L o n d on Cou n t y Co u n c i l [ 1 8 9 5 ] 2 Q B . .

( Lin d l e y ,

1
LR . . 10 C P . . p . 617 .

2
T h e Vera Cru z , No 2 . 9 R D . 96 , 9 8 , 1 01 .

3 '

O Con n e l l v . R eg 1 1 Cl
. . Fin 3 2 9 , 6 5 R R
. . . 151 .

1
‘
Sir G . J es s e l ,
1 3 Ch . Div . p . 7 30 .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E
H o u se of is c ert ain ly o f n o gre at an t iq u it y a n d re s t s chi e fly o n
Lo rd s
d e e ms i t t h e re p e a t e d as s e rt i o n s o f o n e j u dg e Lo rd Ca m pb e ll , ,

1f b ' d
t ha t t h e H o u se o f Lo rd s i n i t s j u d i c i al capac i t y

s h o u ld h o ld i t se lf ab s o l u t e ly b o u n d by its o w n .

form er d e ci s i o n s In 1 801 Lo rd El d O. n s ee m s t o

hav e t h ough t t hat t h e H ou se w as n o t s o b o u n d fo r ,

h e s aid : “
A rul e of l aw laid d o w n by t h e H o use
o f Lo rd s ca n n o t b e re v e rse d by t h e Cha n c e ll or

t h e ru l e o f law m u s t re mai n t ill al t ere d by t h e

”
H ous e o f Lord s 1
B u t in 1 8 2 7 s p e aki n g in t h e
.
,

H o u se o f Lo rd s h e s aid t h e H o u se w a s b o un d by a
,

c ert ain p revi ous d e ci s io n o f it s o w n o n a lik e

s u bj e c t m a tt e r
-
u n l e s s t h ere w ere s p e cial ci rc u m
,

s t a n c e s t o t ak e t h e ca se in han d ou t o f t h e g o v e rn i n g

p ri n cipl e In 1 8 4 2 Lo rd Ly n dh u rs t t h o u gh t t h e
?

j udg m en t s o f t h e H ou s e o f Lord s w ere n o t ab s ol ut ely

bi n din g o n t h e H o u se i t s elf In 1 8 5 2 Lord St
3
. .

Le o n ard s a n d Lo rd Ca m pb e ll diffe re d o n t h e p o i n t .

Lord St Le o n a rd s gav e it as h is o w n o pi n i o n
.
,

“
add re s s in g t h e H o u s e t ha t al t h ou gh y ou a re
,

b ou n d by y ou r o w n d e ci s i on s a s m u ch as a ny
c o urt w ou ld b e b ou n d s o t hat y o u c o u ld n o t ,

re v e rs e
y ‘
ou r ow n d e ci s i o n in a part ic u lar ca s e ,

y e t y o u a re n o t b o u n d by a n y ru l e o f l a w w hich
1
P erry v . t it eh ead , 6 V e s . at pp . 5 47 4 8-
.

2
F l et ch er v .S ond es 1 B l i N S a t p 24 9
, . . . . .

3
B ro w n v . An n a nd a l e, 8 Cl F in p 4 5 3 , 5 4 R R
. . . . . p . 1 00 .
 CA S E -
LAW A ND PREC EDEN TS

y o u m ay l ay d o w n if up on a su b se quen t o cca s io n
,

y o u s h ou ld fin d re as o n t o di ffer fro m t h a t ru l e ;
t ha t is t h a t t hi s H o u s e lik e e v ery c o u rt o f j u s t ic e
, , ,

p o s se ss es a n i n h ere n t p o w er t o c orre c t an erro r

i n t o which it m ay hav e fallen 1
Lo rd Cam pb e ll .
”

d eclin ed t h o ugh w it h e xp res s i on s o f d e fere n c e

, _ ,

“ “ ”
t o c o n c ur in t hi s : B e c au se h e s aid acc ordin g , ,

t o t h e i mp ress i o n u p o n my m i n d a d e ci s i on o f ,

t hi s H igh C o urt in p o i n t o f l aw is c o n clu s iv e

, ,

u p on t h e H o u se i t s e lf a s w e ll as u p o n all i n fe ri o r
,

t rib un al s I c on s id er it t h e c on s t i t u t i o n al m o d e
.

in w hich t h e l aw is d e cl are d an d t ha t aft e r ,

s u ch a j u dg m e n t h a s b een p ro n ou n c e d it c a n o n ly

”
b e al t e re d by an Ac t o f t h e Legi s la t u re 2
F or .

o t h erw i s e h e arg ue d t h e righ t s o f t h e Q ue e n s

’

, ,

s u bj e c t s w o u ld b e i n a s t a t e o f u n c e rt ai n t y In
’

t h e part ic ul ar cas e t h e H o u se av o id e d fa ci n g t h e

d iffic ul t y by t re at i n g a p re vi ou s d e cis i on from ,

w hich t h e y did in su b s t an c e d e part 3

as havi n g ,

p ro c e ed e d o n qu est ion s o f fa c t B ut in 1 8 60 Lo rd .

Campb ell havi ng b e c om e Chan c ell or rep e at e d h is

, ,

Opi n i o n in t h e m o s t p os i t iv e t erms T h e s t a t em e n t .

1
B righ t v . H u t t on , 3 H L C . . . at p . 3 88 .

2
3 H LC
. . pp 3 9 1 92
. at .
-
.

3
Lo rd Li n d l e y ( o n t h e L a w of Comp a n i es p 1 05 5 v o l 2 o f 6t h , .
,
.

ed . 1 9 02 ) d o e s n o t s c ru pl e t o s y t h a t i n B ri g h t v H u t t on t h e
a .

H o u s e o f Lo rd s re p u d ia t e d t h a t d e c is io n o r t o d e s c rib e it a s o v e r ,

ru l e d.
 F IR ST B OO K OF J UR ISPR U DENCE

w as at t h e t i me gratu it o u s ,
n or w as it al t o ge th er
acc e p t e d .
l

A y e ar la t er in a ca s e w hich Lo rd Ca m pb e ll
,

s ee m s t o hav e had p resen t t o h is m i n d o n t h e

o cca s i o n las t m e n t i o n e d h e advi s e d t h e H ouse , ,

agai ns t h is o w n Opin i o n o f t h e hi s t ory an d au t h o ri

t i e s b e a rin g o n t h e ca se t ha t it w a s b ou n d by t h e ,

res u l t o f a p re vi o us app e al in which t h e d e ci s i o n

app eale d fro m w as a ffi rme d or ra t h er s t o o d ,

u n re v e rs e d by re a s o n o f t h e H ous e o f Lo rd s b ein g
,

t h e n e q u ally divid e d In 1 8 4 3 it had b e e n h eld

.
,

in t hi s n o t highly c o n vi n ci n g m a nn er t hat by t h e ,

o l d c o mmo n l a w o f E n gla n d t h e p rese n c e o f a p ri e s t

‘

w as n e c ess a ry t o t h e civil if n o t ca n on ical validit y

of a ma rriage : a n o pi n i on w hich in 1 8 61 w as
b eli eve d by a m aj ori t y o f t h e H o use o f Lord s an d
t h e j u dg es w h o advi se d t h e m a n d is n o w b eli e v e d ,

by m o s t c o m p et e n t s ch ola rs to b e w i t h o ut an y re al ,

hi s t o rical foun da t i o n 2
Wh en t h e ques t ion cam e
.

agai n b e fore t h e H o u s e o f Lo rd s t h e lat e M r ,

.

J us t ic e Willes vi rt ually t h ou gh n ot p ro fe ss e dly , ,

d e m o n s t rat e d in a full an d m os t l e a rn e d o pi n i o n
, ,

1
A G v D ea n a n d Ca n on s of Win d s or, 8 H L C a t pp 3 9 1
.
-
. . . . . .

93 Lo rd Kin g s d o w n , a t p 4 5 9 , res erv e d h is o p in io n w h en e v er t h e

.

q u e s t io n s h o u ld re a lly arise .

2
R v M i l l i s , 1 0 Cl 8:
. . . F . 5 3 4 , 5 9 R R 1 3 4 ; s e e M a it l a nd
. .
’
s

n ot e in P ll c k
o o and M a it l a n d
’
s H is t E n g L a w, ii 3 7 0
. . . .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E
w ere n ot c o ns id ere d a s e qu a lly b in d in g u p o n y ou r Lord s h i p s ,

t h is H o u se w o u ld b e arro g at in g t o it se lf t h e rig h t o f al t erin g

t h e l a w a n d l e g is l at in g b y i t s o w n s e p arat e a u t h o rit y
, .

Lord We n sl e ydal e ai d m ore s h o rt ly t ha t

s , , ,

havi n g b e en o n e o f t h e j u dge s w h o advi s e d t h e

H o use in R v M il lis h e fel t g re a t d o u b t s at t h e
. .
,

t i m e ; a n d h e i mpli e d t ha t t h os e d o u b t s w e re n o w

ra t h er i n c re a se d ; b u t t h e q u est i o n m u s t b e tak e n

“ ”
as fi n ally an d irre v o cably set t l e d by t hi s H o u se .

A cc o rdi n gly t h e H ou se p ro c ee de d t o t h e furt h er

i nfere n c e ( d ou b t l e s s a n e c e s s a ry o n e if t h e o rigi n al
d o c t ri n e w ere righ t ) t ha t t h e p ri es t re qu ire d by t h e
l aw laid d o w n in R v M il l is is a t hi rd p e rso n a n d
. .
,

t h e rul e is n o t s a t i s fi e d by t h e in t en d in g h u s b an d

b ei n g in p ries t s o rd ers an d p erform in g t h e m a rriag e

’

c e re m o n y for hi m se lf I t m ay s e em s t art li n g t ha t
.

qu es t io n s o f le git i macy an d p ro p e rt y s h o u ld b e
t re a t e d as i rre v o cably s e t t l e d by t h e resu l t o f a n

e qu al divi s i o n o f t h e H o u s e o f Lord s o n a rgu m e n t

‘

a n d i n fo rm a t i o n ad mi t t e dly imp e rfe c t wi t h re ga rd

t o t h e hi s t o ry o f t h e l aw ; t ha t re s u l t m ore o v e r , ,

d e p e n din g o n t h e accid en t Of t h e fo rm in which t h e

app e al w as p res e n t e d : b u t s o t h e y w ere l
.

T hi s w a s t h e re ally d e ci s iv e p o i n t at which
t h e o pp o rt u n i t y o f re c o n s id e ra t i o n w a s l os t In .

1
B ea m i s /o v . B ea m i s h ( 1 86 1 ) 9 H L C 27 4
. . . .
 CA S E—
LAW A ND PRE C EDEN T S

la t er y e ars Lo rd
Wen s l e ydal e s p o k e of t h e d e cis i o n s
,

“
o f t h e H ou s e as no d ou b t bin di n g u p o n y o u r
”
l ord ship s a n d u p o n all i n ferior t rib un al s 1
a nd ,

“
Lo rd Blackb u rn s aid : Wh en it app e ars t hat a
c a Se cl e arly fall s w i t hi n t h e ra t i o d ecid en d i o f t h e

H o us e o f Lo rd s t h e high es t C o urt o f A pp eal I d o

, ,

n o t t hi n k it c o m p e t e n t e v e n for t hi s H o us e t o s ay

”
t ha t t h e ra t i o d ecid en d i w as w ro n g Lo rd H al s
2
.

b ury s p o k e o f t h e H ou s e as a t rib u n al fro m which

t h ere is n o app e al a n d w hich is b o u n d by it s

o w n d e ci s i on s an d wh os e p re vi o us d e ci si o n s it
,

is t h ere fore u se l es s t o e xa mi ne o n t h e g ro u n d o f
c on v e n ie n c e 3
At las t in 1 8 9 8 t h e H ou s e o f
.
, ,

Lord s w a s di re c t ly a s k e d an d p o s i t iv ely re fu se d , ,

t o re c o n s id er a re c e n t d e ci s i o n o f it s o w n Lo rd .

H al sb u ry d es c rib e d t h e rul e a s es t abli s h e d n ow fo r

”
s o m e c e n t u ri e s ; wi t h w ha t acc uracy t h e re ad e r ,

is in a p os i t i on t o j u dg e 4
Th e o n ly re a s on giv e n .

is t h a t o t h erw i s e t h e re w ou ld b e n o re al fi n al

C o urt o f A ppe al It h as b ee n p erc e ive d in d ee d t hat

.
, ,

h o w ev er m u ch t h e H o u s e o f Lo rd s may de clare
M ersey D ocks T ru s t ees v G i bbs ( 1 866 )
1
. L B J 1 H L 93 , 1 2 5
. . . .

2
H ou l d s w ort h v Ci t y of Gl a sgow B a n k
.
( 1 8 8 0) 5 A pp Ca 3 1 7 , . .

3 3 5 : t o s a m e e ffe c t H a rris v G W R Co . . . . .
( 1 8 7 6) 1 Q E D a t p
. . . .

528 .

3
D a r l ey M a i n C o l li ery Co . v . M i t ch e l l ( 1 88 6 ) 1 1 App . Ca .

1 2 7 , 1 34 .

4
L ond on S t reet T ra mw a y s Co
'

. v . L on d o n Co u n t y Co un ci l [ 1 898]
A O 375
. . .
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE
i t s e lf i n fallibl e in a j uridical s en se it m ay n e v er ,

t h el e s s b e fo u nd t ha t di ffere n t re p ort e d d e ci s i o n s

o f t h e H o us e are n o t e a s y t o re c o n cil e : a t ribu n al

which w ill n o t o v errul e i t s elf d e i u re m ay s om e t im es

fo rg e t it s o w n fo rm er rea so n s a n d c o n t radic t i t self
d e fa c t o T hi s o r s o m e t hi n g s o lik e it a s t o app e ar
.
,

s o t o Lo rd Bl a ckb u rn h a s b ee n k n o w n t o happ e n
, .

All t ha t c an b e s aid is t hat d e ci si o n s o f t h e c o urt

o f fi n al app e al a re n o t t o b e t re a t e d a s c o n flic t in g

w i t h o u t un av o id a bl e n e c e s s i t y b u t if n o re a s o n abl e
1
,

“
e x e rci s e o f i n g e n u i t y c an re c o n cil e t h e m t h e la t e r ,

a n d m o re d e lib era t e d e ci s i o n o u gh t t o b e fo ll o w e d
2
.

No o t h e r c o u rt o f l a s t res ort h a s g o n e q ui t e s o
far it is b e li e v e d in di s cl a i m i n g p o w e r t o c o rre c t
, ,

i t s elf T h e J u dicial C o mm i t t e e o f t h e P rivy

.

C o u n cil h as h e ld i t s elf fre e t o re c on s id er a qu es t i o n

w hich it h ad fo rme rly b ee n c o m p ell e d t o d e cid e ex

p a r t e a n d,
had d e cid e d o n s u ch c o n s id e ra t i o n as w a s
,

1
Lord Se lb o rn e in Ca l ed on i a n R a i l wa y Co . v Wa lker s T ru s t ees
.
'

( 1 88 2 ) 7 App Ca a t p 27 5
. . . .

2
Lord B l a ckb u rn i n Ca l ed on ia n R a i l w a y Co v Wa l ker s
’
. .

T ru s t ees ( 1 8 8 2 ) 7 App Ca a t p 3 02. . Wit h in rec e n t y ea rs t h e

. .

Ho u s e o f Lo rd s h as g iv e n t w o d e c is io n s o n qu es t io n s a ris in g o u t
o f t ra d e u n io n d is p u t e s o f w h i ch w e m ay n o t s a y t h a t t h e y a re
,

n o t c o n s is t e n t b u t fro m w h ich t h e p ro fes s io n h as n o t

, y e t s ucc e e d e d
in e x t ra c t in g a n y c o n s i s t e n t a n d g e n e ra lly a pp ro v e d d o c t rin e We .

k n o w t ha t t h e s e c o nd o f t h em c a nn o t o verru l e t h e firs t b u t it h as ,

c o n s id e ra bly m o d ifi ed t h e s e ns e in w h ich it w a s u n d ers t o od a t t h e

t im e .T h e e arl ie r d ec is io n w a s a s d e l ib e ra t e a s p o ss ibl e t h o u gh ,

n o t u n a n im o u s .
 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

T hi sj u dg m e n t o f t h e J u dicial C o mmi t t ee w as
d e livered by Lord Cairns t h e n Lord Cha n c e ll o r It , .

w o u ld s ee m t ha t h e w a s n o t p re pa re d t o acc ep t

Lo rd Ca mpb ell s se lf d e n yi n g o rd in an c e fo r t h e
’
-

H o u se o f Lord s i n it s fu ll e xt e n t : t h e J u dicial
C ommi t t ee c ou ld n ot o f c ou rs e p ro p erly e xp re s s
, ,

a n y o pi n i o n as t o w ha t t h e H o u se o f Lo rd s ou gh t t o

d o in e xc e p t i o n a l ca s e s b ut t h e J u dicial C o mm i t t ee ,

ad vi se d by Lo rd Cai rn s c ert ai n ly did ac t in a ,

differe n t s pi rit fro m t h e H ous e o f Lo rd s advi s e d by

Lord Ca m pb e ll I n fac t t h e J u dicial C o m mit t e e
.

had g on e v ery n e ar t o o v erruling its elf m an y y e ars

e a rli e r in 1 8 4 2 t h o u gh it w a s t h e n s aid t hat t he
, ,

p revi ou s o pin i o n di ssen t e d fro m w as in s ome

”
d egree e x t ra j u dicial -
1
.

O n t h e o th e r han d t h e C o urt fo r C ro w n Ca s e s

R es erv e d ( w hi ch in it s o w n j uri s dicti o n is of la s t

re s ort ) h a s m o re t han o n c e fo ll ow e d a p re vi ou s
d e ci s ion o f t h e s a m e c ou rt t h ou gh s o me a t l e a s t ,

o f t h e j udg e s p res en t w e re n o t s ati s fi e d w i t h t hat

d e ci s io n o n t h e e xpress grou n d t hat it wa s

,

bi n di n g 2
.

1
Ki e l tey v Ca rs on , 4 M O O R C 6 3 , 9 1 , 5 9 R R 3 3 6, 3 5 0 n o t
. . . . .

fo ll o win g B ea u mon t v B a rret t , 1 MOO R C 5 9 Lord Cam p e ll

. . . . b
k
t o o p a rt in t h is d e c is io n .

2 R . v C l y d e ( 1 8 68 ) L R 1 C C R 1 3 9, 1 44 ; R v Ha rris
. . . . . . . .

( 1 8 9 3 ) 1 7 Co x 65 9 .
 CA S E -
LAW A ND PREC EDEN TS

Th e o ld Su p eri or
C o urt s o f C o mmo n La w did T h C m e o

m L w on a

n o t h o ld t h em s elv es ab s o l u t e ly b o u n d by t h e i r o w n
E252? 3

p re vio us d e ci s ion s in c ert ai n mat t ers as t o which 1 8 7 5 .

t h e y had a p e c uliar a n d ul t i mate j uri s dicti o n 1

In .

d ee d it is n o t qu i t e cl e ar as al re ady m en t i o n ed , ,

t hat t h ey h eld t h e ms elv e s s o b ou n d in ordi n a ry

cases .

T h e Su p re me C ourt o f t h e U n i t e d St a t e s h as

n e v e r h eld i t s e lf b o u n d by it s o w n d e ci s i o n s an d l t t ,
as re so r

h as in fac t c o m pl et ely re v erse d a re c e n t p re vi ou s

, ,

W 0 D e
O p in i o n in at l e a s t o n e c e l eb ra t e d g rou p o f ca s es i i c s ons .

w i t hi n re c e n t t i m es T h e c ou rt w as divid e d b u t
2
.
,

n o m e mb er o f t h e di s s en t i n g m in ori t y s u gg es t e d

t ha t t h e former d e ci s i on w as n ot o p e n t o revi e w ;

a n d it is n o t a n Am erican b ut a B ri t i s h p u blici s t

w h o h as o b s e rv e d t ha t t h e re v ers al by t h e high es t

c o urt in t h e lan d o f it s o wn p reviou s d e ci s io n may

hav e t e n d e d t o u nse t t l e m e n s relian c e o n t h e ’

”
s t abili t y o f t h e law Wha t ev er m ay b e t h ough t
3
.

o f t h e ac t i o n o f t h e c ou rt o n thi s part ic ula r o cca

s io n it s e em s cl e a r t ha t a t rib u n al w hich lik e t h e

, ,

1
H adfie ld
’
s Ca .
( 1 87 3 ) L R . . 8 C P . .3 06 ; s ee p ec ia lly p e r
es

B o v ill , C J , a t p 31 3 . . As t o j u dg . . me n t s o f D iv is io na l Co urt s
u n d er t h e e x is t in g p ra c t ic e i n c a se s w h ere t h ere is n o furt h e r
a pp e a l , see K ru s e v . J oh n son [ 1 8 98 ] 2 Q B 9 1 . . .

2
Th e Lega l T e nd er Ca s es ( 1 8 7 0) 1 2 Wa ll a c e , 457 . An d see

J . . y
C Gra in H a rv L a w R ev ix 4 0 . . . .

3
B ryc e , T h e A meri ca n Com mon w ea l th , 3 rd ed . 1 8 93, i 27 0
. .

Z
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E

C o urt o f t h e U n it e d St a t es is n o t un
.

S up rem e ,

fre qu en t ly call e d u p o n t o de cid e grea t p oli t ical

c on t ro vers i es un d er j u dicial form s c o uld n o t t ie
i t se lf d o wn t o Lo rd Ca mpb ell s an d Lord H al s b ury s
’ ’

rul e w i t h o ut ri sk o f i n c o n v en ie nc es fa r grav er t ha n
a n y t h a t c a n re s u l t fro m t h e o pp o s i t e c o u rse Th e .

lik e u n d erst a n din g p rev ai l s in St at e C ou rt s t h o ugh ,

t h e re a s o n s for it m ay n ot t h e re b e s o s t ro n g A .

ve ry l e arn e d A m erican w ri t er s t a t es it a s w ell k no w n

t h e high e s t c ou rt s o f t h e re s p e c t iv e Sta t e s
“
t ha t ,

as w e ll a s t h e Su p re m e C o u rt o f t h e U ni t e d St a t e s ,

all c o n s id e r t ha t t h ey hav e t h e p o w er t o d epart

fro m t h ei r fo rmer ru li n gs h o w e v er i n exp e di e n t it
,
‘

”
m ay b e t o e x erci s e it 1
.

D e c i s i on s o n t h e s am e o r a n a n al o g ou s p o i n t ,

giv en by a c ourt a d mini s t eri n g t h e s a m

’ ’

e or su b

s t a n t ia l l y t h e s am e l a w b u t in a diffe re n t j u
,
ris d ic

t i o n hav e n e v e r b e en t re at e d a s bin di n g by En gli s h

,

c o urt s . T h e y m ay b e t re a t e d wi t h re s p e ct in ,

s o m e c ase s w it h v
'

ery g re at res p e c t b ut an E n gli s h

,

c o urt i s n o t b ou n d to fo llo w t h e m an d in d ee d is ,

b o un d n ot t o fo ll o w t h e m if it t hin k s t h e m in
c o rre c t Th e d e cis io n s o f t h e J udicial C o mm it t e e
.

o n app e al fro m c o l o n i e s w h e re t h e C o mmo n La w

p revail s are t h e mos t c o n s pic uou s e xa mple At .

1
J . C G ra y , H a rv La w R ev ix 4 0
. . . . .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI S PRUDEN C E C HA P .

U n it e d St a t e s cip ro c a lly m o d ern En gli s h d e

,
re ,

c is io n s t h ou gh n o wh ere o f c o u rse havi n g p o s i t iv e

, , ,

a u t h o ri t y are c o n s t an t ly ci t e d a n d di s c u sse d ; i n d e e d
,

in m os t St at es t h e y a re o ft e n er ci t e d t ha n t h e

d e ci s io n s o f an y o t h er St a t e An d in a n y o n e
.

Stat e t h e d e ci s i o n s o f e v e ry o t h e r St a t e hav e o n ly
w hat m ay b e call e d a p ers u a s iv e a s di s t i n c t fro m

a bin di ng a u t h o rit y F o r all p rac t ic al p urp o ses

.
,

h o w e v e r it m ay b e s aid that a rul e o f g e ne ral l a w

,

w hich h a s b ee n l aid d o w n o r app ro v e d t o s u b ,

s t a n t iall y t h e s a m e e ffe c t in t h e H o u se Of Lord s

,

a n d in t h e Su p re m e C ou rt o f t h e U n i t e d St a t e s is t h e

l a w o f t h e En gli s h s p e aki n g w o rld wh ere v e r it h as

-

n o t b een e xcl u d e d or va ri e d by e xp ress l e gi s lati o n .

D e ci s i o n s giv e n in I re lan d by Lo rd R e d es dal e

an d by Sir E d w ard Su gd en aft e rw ard s Lo rd St

, .

Leo n ard s an d Chan c ell o r o f G re at B ri t ai n hav e b een ,

t re at e d a s p o s i t iv e a u t h o ri t y in t h e E n gli s h C ou rt o f

Chan c ery ; b ut t hi s is an e xce p t i o n al t rib u t e t o t h e

e m i n en c e O f t h os e part ic u la r j u dg es .

D e ci s i o n s o f a j u dg e s itt i n g al o n e at N isi P ri us ,

giv en by way o f di re c t i o n t o t h e j u ry c a n s eld o m ,

b e fo u n d e d o n fu ll a n d s u fi c ie n t argu m en t an d by ,

t h e n at ure o f t h e p ro c e e di n g s t h e y hav e t o b e

arriv e d at wi t h ou t Opp ort u ni t y fo r mu ch c o nsidera

t i on. Su ch d e ci s i on s hav e t h e re fore n e v er b ee n
 CA S E -
LAW A ND PRE CEDEN T S

all o w e d t h e s am e w e igh t a s t h o s e o f c ou rt s w hich

a re abl e t o d elive r c on s id ere d j u dgm en t s M r . .

J u s t ic e B e s t sa id o f a ru lin g o f Lord K e nyo n s

’

N 0 man c a n en t ert ai n a high er resp ec t for t h e

m emo ry o f t hat n o bl e an d l e a rn e d j u dge t ha n I
d o ; b u t Nisi P ri us d e ci s i o n s c o mi n g e v e n fro m
h im u n l e s s t h e y hav e b e en ac t e d u p o n by s u cc ee d
,

in g j u dge s s i t t i n g in ba n c are e n t i t l e d t o v e ry ,

”
l i t t l e c o n s id erat i on 1
T h e p rac t ic e o f re p ort i n g
.

Nis i P rius ruli n g s h a s b e en aban d o n e d for m an y

y ears b u t m an y o f t h e o lder o n es have b ec om e
2
,

g o o d a ut h ori t y by su b se qu e nt app ro val an d s o me ,

o f t h e m are t h e o n ly d e fi n i t e re p o rt e d a u th o ri t y for

p o in t s o f law n o w re c eiv e d as n ot o n ly s et t le d
b u t e l e men t ary .

P erhap s t h e b est e xpre sse d j ustificat i o n o f o ur

s y st e m o f a s c ribi n g p o s i t iv e a u t h o ri t y t o d e cid e d

cas es is in an o pi n io n given t o t h e H ou s e o f Lord s

by Sir J ame s P ark e aft erward s Lo rd We n sl eydale, .

Our Co m mo n Law y st em co n sist s in t h e a pply in g t o

s

n e w c o mb in at io n s o f c irc u ms t an c e s t h os e ru l es o f l aw w h i ch

w e d eri v e fro m l ega l p rin c ipl e s an d j u d ic ia l p re c e d en t s ;

a n d fo r t h e sa k e o f at t a in i n g u n ifo rmit y co n sis t e n cy an d ,

1
B a rt on v Wi l l ia ms
.
( 1 8 20) 22 R R . . at p . 4 22 ; 3 B . Al d .

at p . 34 1 .

2
F o s t er a n d F inl a s o n
’
s R ep ort s , en d in g in 1 8 6 7 , a ppear t o be
t he la t es t s e ries o f t h is k ind .
 F IR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

c ert a in t y w e m u st a p p ly t h o se ru l e s w h ere t h e y are not

, ,

pl a in ly un reaso nab l e an d in c o n v e n ien t t o al l c as es w h i ch ,

aris e ; an d w e a re n et at l ib e rt y t o rej e c t t he m
'

an d to ,

a b a n d o n al l a n a l o g
y to t h e m in t h ose t o w h i ch t h ey h a v e ,

not
y e t b ee n j u d i c ia lly a ppl ie d b e c au se w e t h ink t h at t h e ,

ru l e s a re n o t as c o n v e n ie n t an d re as o n a b l e as w e o u rs e l v es

c o u ld h ave d e v ise d It a pp ears t o m e t o b e o f g reat im

.

p ortan c e t o k e e p t h is p rin c ip l e o f d e c is io n st e ad ily in v ie w ,

n o t m e re ly fo r t h e d e t e rm in at io n o f t h e p art ic u l ar ca s e b u t
,

fo r t h e in t e res t s o f l a w a s a s c ie n c e 1 .

It w o u ld b e t o o m u ch t o say t hat the sy st em of

'

t h e C o mm o n Law s ec ure s c om pl e t e u n ifo rm i t y o r

c o n s i st en cy C o u rt s are n o t o n ly li able t o e rrors

.

o f j u dg m e n t b u t m ay b e i m p erfe c t l y i n fo rm e d
, .

B u t pro bably it is m ore s u cc e s s fu l in t h es e res p e ct s

t h a n a n y o t h e r s y s t em NO d ou b t it app e ars m o re
.

c o mpl e x a n d art ificial b u t it w ill b e fo u n d o n ,

e xa m i n a t io n t ha t in o t h er s y s t e ms t h e c o m plica t i o n s
‘

a re n o t s o m u ch av o id e d a s c o n c e a l e d or s hift e d .
"

E it h er a larg e u n d efi n e d d is cret i on mus t be l e ft t o

t h e j u dg e in e v e ry ca s e an d u n ifo rm i t y giv e n u p ,

e ve n . a s an id e a l o r a ma s s o f j u dicial o r e x t ra
,

j u dici a l e xp o s it i o n o r b o t h mu s t accu mu lat e —as

, ,

h as ac t ually h app e n e d for e xam pl e in F ra n c e— an d

‘

, ,

formi n c o urs e o f t i m e a s t oreh ou s e o f c on flic t in g

‘

o pi n i o n s all capabl e alik e o f b e i n g ci t e d a n d u s e d

,

1
P er P k ar e, J .
,
M ireh ou s e v . R e nn el l ( 1 8 3 3 ) 1 Cl . F pp
. . 5 27 ,
5 46 , 3 6 R R . . p . 1 80 .
 FIR ST B O OK OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

E n gli s h aut h ori t y d e fi nit ely d e alin g wi t h p o in t t he ,

and t h e D iges t o f J us t i n ia n w as free ly cit e d in

argu men t Th e C ourt t h ought t h e Engli s h ca s es

.
,

t h o u gh n ot d e ci s iv e w e re agai n st t h e e xi s t e n c e Of
,

t h e righ t claim e d by t h e plai n ti ff an d add e d ,

b
Th e R o man l aw fo rms n o ru l e, in d in in it se l f, u p o n t h e g
su bje ct s o f t h e s e rea l m s ; b u t , in d e c id in a c ase u p o n g
p rin c ip l e , w h e re n o d ire c t a ut h orit y ca n b e c it e d fro m o ur
b k
oo s, it a ffo rd s n o s mal l e vid e n c e o f t h e so u n d n e ss o f t h e

c on cl u sio n at w h ich w e h a v e arrived if it p ro v es t o b e ,

s u pp o rt e d b y t h at l a w t h e fru it o f t h e res earch e s o f t h e

,

m o st l e arn e d m e n t h e c o l l e c t ive w is d o m o f a g e s an d t h e
, ,

groun d w o rk o f t h e mu n ic ip al l aw o f mo st of t h e c o un t ries
1
in Eu rop e .

An d a frag ment o f U lpia n v o u chi ng a nd ap p rov

ing a n Opi n i on o f Ma rc ellu s w a s d e clare d t o b e
“
d e ci s iv e u p on t h e p oi n t in favo ur o f t h e d e fen d
”
an t s . Marc ell us w as v o u ch e d agai n in 1 8 54 by
Lord J u s t ic e K n ight B ru c e for a ge n e ral ru l e o f
c o n stru c t i on In t h e la st y ear o f h is life M r J u st ic e
2
. .

Wil l es deliv ere d an o pi n i o n of t h e C ou rt o f C omm o n

P l e as in which a pass ag e of P a ul u s was u sed wi t h ou t ,

cit i n g any o t h er s p ecific au t h ori t y t o supp ort t h e ,

1
Act on v B l u nd el l 1 2 M W pp 3 3 4 35 3
.
,
. . .
, .

2
Low e v T h oma s 5 D M
. G 3 1 6 1 01 R R 6 62
, . . . T h is ma y
,
. . .

perh a p s b e reg ard e d a s a n o rnam e n t a l c it a t io n for t h e ru le it s e lf ,

t h a t w o rd s a re t o b e t a k e n in t h e ir u s u a l mea n in g u n l es s
t h e c o n t e x t cl e arly s h o w s a c o n t ra ry in t en t io n —h ard ly n ee d s
'

a u t h o rit y .
 CA S E -
LAW A ND PRE CEDEN T S

e qu i t abl e righ t s of a s uret y It is obvi ou s t h a t as .

1
,

o u r m o d e rn a u t h o ri t i es b e ca m e fu ll er ca ses wh e re it ,

is n e e dfu l o r d e s i rabl e t o re cu r t o t h e Corp u s J u ris

are l ess a n d l e ss lik e ly t o p re sen t t h e m s elv es E ven .

in j u ri s dict i o n s w hich as m at t er Of hi s t ory are

ou t s id e t h e C o mm o n La w fo r e xa mpl e in A d mi ral t y ,

ca s es t h e ge ne ral us age is n o w n o t t o go b ey o n d o u r
,

o w n re p o rt e d d e ci s i o n s .

Chi e f J u st ic e H o lt s famous e xp os iti o n of t h e ’

law o f bail men ts in Coggs v B erna rd is n o t 2

.

a n al o g o u s t o o p e n ci t a t i o n s o f t h e D ig e s t F or .
,

al t h ough H o lt s mat erial w as largely R om an an d h e

’

mu s t hav e k n o wn it h e t o ok it n ot di re c t ly fro m ,

J u st in ia n b ut in dire c t ly th ro ugh B ra et on w h om h e
, ,

see ms c o n fo rmably t o t h e m e di e v a l t radi t i o n o f t h e

,

kin g s j u dg es ra t h er t o av o id regardi n g a s a wri t er

’
3
,

havi ng p o si t ive a ut h ori t y in t h e law o f En glan d .

T hi s B ra e t on I hav e ci t e d is I c o n fe ss an o l d , ,

1
B ech erva i se v . Lewi s ( 1 8 7 2 ) L R 7 C P 3 7 2 . . . . .

2
2 Ld . B a ym . 9 09 , 1 S m L O 1 1 t h e d
. 1 73
. . . p . .

“
3
Th e whole c o urt sa id t h at
v er h e ld for a n
B rae t o n w a s ne

a u t h o ri t y i n o ur l a w —Fit zh Ab r C a d e pl 7 1 T h is s t a t em en t
. . . r , . .

m u s t re s t o n s o m e pri va t e t rad it io n : i t is n o t i n t h e Y ea r B o o k
re p o rt re ferre d t o i n t h e m arg in o f F it z h erb ert In P l o w d 3 5 7 . .
,

B ra e t o n a n d G l a n vil l a re s id n o t t o b e a u t h o rs
a i e a u t h o rit y , . .
,

b u t q u o t a bl e fo r o rn am e n t C o k e , pro b ably w it h i n t e n t io n w h il e
.
,

c it ing B rac t o n h o n o u ra bly c a ll s h im n o t a uc t or b u t scrip t or Pre f

, , .

t o 9 R e p a d fin . B es t C J w e n t a l it t l e fart h e r s ee 2 7 R R
.
, . .
, , . .

3 09 . At p res e n t B ra c t o n c a n b e s a fe ly c it e d o n ly fo r h is t o ric a l
il l us t ra t io n s e e e g L emmon v We bb [ 1 8 9 6 ] A O p 3
, . . . . . . .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN CE

a u t h or ; b ut in t hi s h is d o c t rin e is a g ree abl e t o

”
re a s o n an d t o w ha t t h e l a w is i n o t h er c ou n t ri es
, .

Th e I n s t i t u t es are j u s t re fe rre d t o by w ay o f

i l l us t r
at i o n .

T h e a d m i n i s t rat i o n by E n gli s h a u t h ori t y o f t h os e

fore ign s y s t em s o f l aw w hich ac t u ally p re vail in
part ic ular B ri t ish p o s ses s i on s as d o e s Fre n ch law
,

in t h e P ro vi n c e o f Q u e b e c a n d in Ma uri t i u s ,

R o m an D ut ch law in t h e Cap e C o l on y an d ( in
-
,

c ert ai n d e part m en ts) t h e p ers o n al l aw o f Hi n d u s ,

Mah o m et a n s an d o t h ers in B ri t i s h In dia is

, ,

al t og et h er a differen t mat t er In t h os e j uri s dic t i on s

.

t h e law o f E n glan d is i t s elf p ro p e rl y s p e aking a

’

, ,

fo re ig n law which c an b e ci t e d o n ly by w ay o f
ill u s t rat i o n B u t t h e t en d e n cy o f b ot h a dvo ca t es
.

a n d j u dg es in all j u ri s dic t i o n s is t o u se a n d re ly o n

t h e b ook s w i t h which t h ey are m o s t fam ilia r e v e n ,

if t h e y b e n o t pro p erly e n t i t l e d t o b e t re at e d a s
havi n g a ut h o ri t y in t h e l aw d is c u s s e d a n d app l i e d
by t h e c ourt It w o u ld s e em at fi rs t s igh t ra t h e r
.

di ffi cu l t t o i mp o rt E n gli s h t e ch n ical n o t i o n s i n t o
t h e ad mi n i s t ra t i o n o f H i n d u or Mah o m e t an l a w ,

c o n d uc t e d wi t h p ro fesse d regard for t h e n a t ive

p rin cipl e s a n d aut h ori t ie s o f e ach s y s t em . B ut
e xp eri en c e h a s s h o wn t ha t wi t h t h e b e s t i n t e n t i o n s
, ,

t h e di fficu l t y is t o av o id d oi n g t hi s . An d t h e
 C HA P T ER V II

A C N IENT AND M ODERN ST TA UT E S

[ R e p ort s of t h e St a t u t e Law C o m mis s io n ers from 1 83 5 T E . . .

Ho ll a n d , E ssa y s up on t h e F orm of t h e L a w Lo n d o n 1 8 7 0 ; Sir

, ,

Co u rt en a y I lb e rt , L egi s l a t i ve M et h od s a nd F or ms O xfo rd
, ,

T HE act u al p ro c e d ure o f P arliam e n t o r o f an y o th er

l e gi slativ e a ssem bly is a mat t er o f c o n s ti t u ti o n al
l aw n o t t o b e c on s id e re d in t hi s w o rk B ut t h e
.

plac e o f l egi s lat io n amo n g t h e s ourc es o f law is

v ery diffe ren t fro m w ha t it w as in t h e Middl e A ge s ,

an d a s t u d e n t may e a s ily b e m i s l e d if h e ca rri es

back i n t o m e die val hi s t ory n o tio n s d e rive d fro m t h e

c o n stan t a n d s y s t e matic w orkin g o f o ur m o d ern
l egi slat ive m achi n ery In t h e Middl e A ges legisla
.

t i o n w a s n o t t h e p ri mary b us i n e s s o f P a rlia me n t ,

a n d t h e ru l e tha t t h e kin g ca n n o t l egi s lat e w i t h o u t

P arliamen t w as e s t abli sh e d o n ly by d eg ree s Early .

s t a t ut es ,
t h e re fo re are o f a m i xe d charac t er c on
, ,

t ai n i n g b o t h l egi s la t iv e an d ad mi n i s t ra t iv e p ro vi s i o n s .

3 48
OH . v1 1 A N CIEN T A ND M ODERN ST AT UT ES
We c a n hardly s e p a ra t e t h e d e cla ra t i o n o f n e w l aw
fro m t h e e n fo rc eme n t o f old t h e es t abli s hm en t o f
,

n o v e l re m e di es fo r n o v e l m i s chi e fs or n e w ly d e t e c t e d

s h o rt c o m i n g s fro m t h e ki n g s e x e c u t iv e in s t ru c t i o n s t o
’

h is o ffic e rs T h e Ki n g in h is C o u n cil is a l ik e re ady

.

t o m ak e fre s h rul es t o p ro vid e fre s h m achi n e ry fo r

,

t h e b e t t e r w o rki n g o f e xi s t i n g ru l e s a n d t o di s p e n se
,

j us t ic e in e x t ra ord in ary cas es La w m aki n g is n o t

.
-

y e t r e ga rd e d as a di s t i n c t b ra n ch o f s o v e re ig n p o w e r ,

e x t ern al t o t h e j u dicial a u t h o ri t y re q u i ri n g s t ric t

,

a n d li t e ral o b e di e n c e b u t e n t i t l e d t o n o t hin g m o re
, .

H e n c e t h ere is a n o t abl e c o n t ra s t b e t w een a n ci e n t

”
and m o d e rn s t a t ut e s . T h e fo rme r s aid ,the

C rim in al La w C o m mi s s i on of 1 8 3 5 o ft en c on t ai n ,

lit t le m ore t han t h e e nu n ciat io n of a g en eral

prin ciple o f l a w l e avi n g t h e C ou rt s t o w o rk ou t an d
,

es t a bli s h t h e p ro vi s i o n s n e c ess ary for ca rryi n g t h e

law i n t o e ffe c t w hils t in m o d ern s t at u t e s t h e o pp o s i t e
,

e x t re m e app e a rs t o hav e b e e n fo ll o w e d ; a n d t h e

e n a c t m en t s a re e xp re s s e d w i t h m u ch u se l es s ci rc u m

l o c u ti o n an d are o v erl o ad e d w it h mi nu t e p ro vi s i o n s
, ,

d e t ails an d rep et it io n s
, A gain t h e w o rdi n g o f t h e
.
’9

s t a t u t es w as n o t fi n ally se t t l e d by P a rli a m e n t i t s e lf ,

b u t e n t ru s t e d t o a s m aller b o dy o f t h e ki n g s l e arn e d
’

c ou n sello rs an d j u dg es In 1 3 05 He n gh am Chi e f
.
,

J us t ic e o f t h e C o mmo n Pl e a s c u t s h o rt a n arg ume n t

,
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

of c o uns e l o n t h e c on s t ru c t i o n o f t h e s e c on d St atut e
o f W e s t m i n s t er w i t h t h e re m a rk :
“
N on e o f y o ur
gl o s s es o n t h e St a t u t e ; we k n o w it b e t t er t h an y ou
‘

H e n gh a m w a s Chi e f J us t ic e
”
fo r it w as o ur w o rk 1
.

o f t h e Ki n g s B e n ch i n 1 2 8 5 w h e n t h e s t a t u t e w a
’
s ,

pass e d a nd w o uld n a t urally b e o n e o f t h e chi e f

,

p ers o n s c on sul t e d In la t er t im es t he j udg es h a v e

.

t re at e d A ct s o f P a rlia me n t a s p ro c e e di n g fro m a
'

w h o lly e x t e rn al a n d u nj u dic ial a u t h o ri t y C ok e .

,

in t h e P re fac es t o h is R ep ort s an d e l s e wh e re gav e ,

u t t e ra n c e t o t h e fe e li n g t ha t A c t s o f P a rliam en t
w hi ch m e ddl e w i t h t h e C o m mo n La w ( t h a t is w i t h ,

t h e j udicial d e v e l o p me n t o f i t b y t h e c o urt s ) are

'

o n t h e w h o l e lik e ly t o d o m o re ha rm t ha n g oo d .

H is c ri t ici s m did n o t s pa re e v en t h e s t a t u t es o f
E d w ard I .

T h is feel in g w hich m ay n o w b e calle d t radi t i o n al ,

,

is n o t d ue m ere ly t o bli n d pro fe ss i o n al di s lik e o f

chan g e T h e re is re al da n g er o f b o t h t he p ri ncipl es
.

a n d t h e ad m i n i s t ra t i on o f t h e l aw b e i ng i mpai re d

by t h e w e ll me an t adv e n t ure s o f am e n de rs w h o are

-

n o t s u ffici e n t ly i n fo rm e d t o u n d erst a n d t h e di ffic u lti e s .

o f t h e ir t a s k a n d w h o hav e n o t t h e s kill n e e d e d fo r
,

l t s ad e q u at e e x e c ut i o n B o t h t h e m a t t er an d t h e
.

1
Ne gl o se z p o in t le s tat ut no u s le s avo msm e nz d e v o us , qa r
n ou s l es [ si c ] fe im e s
”
: Y ea r B oo k , 3 3 3 5 Ed
-
. e d Horwo o d , p 8 3
. . .
 FIRST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E C HA P .

di s c o v ere d t hat P arlia me nt c o uld b e u se d as a

re v o l u t i o n a ry e n gi n e o f d e s p o t ic a ut h ori t y u n d er
c o n s tit ut io n al fo rm s an d it w as u s e d wi t h ou t s p ar
,

in g b ut al so w i t h o u t an y m e t h o d b e i n g elab o ra t e d
, .

Wh e n a n e n ac t m e n t o f a m bit i ous d es ign an d w id e

applicat i on lik e t h e St a t u t e o f U se s w as fo u n d
, ,

i n ad e q uat e for it s p u rp o ses t h e fail ure t o g et h er , ,

w i t h t h e vari ou s u n i n te n d e d c o n se qu e n c e s a n d

c o mplicat i o n s w as al mo s t en t irely l e ft t o i t self In

, .

t hi s p eri o d o rdi n ary l egi s lat i o n w a s d w arfe d t o a

c o n s id e rabl e e x t e n t by p ro c ee di ngs which w ere

l egi s l a t ive in fo rm b u t in fact p o litical acts o f St a t e
, ,

s u ch a s t h e s eri es o f s t at u t e s w hich ca rri e d o u t t h e

ab olit i o n o f P apal s up rem acy a n d t h e re co n s tit u t i on

o f t h e Ch u rch o f E n gla n d .

In t h e se v e n t ee n th c e n t ury t o o c o n s t itu t i o n al , ,

qu e s t i on s had t h e u pp e r b a n d Fro m t h e St u art .

re ig n s w e hav e p e rhap s half a d o z en A c t s o f P arlia

m e n t which have l eft a p erm a n e n t mark o n t h e

o rdi n ary civil l aw b et w een s ubj ec t an d su bj ec t 1
.

T h us t h e formal art o f l egi s l a ti o n re c e iv e d n o c o n

s id era t i o n a n d mad e n o p rogre s s at all for m ore

t ha n t w o c e n t uri es R apid i n c re a se in t h e b u lk o f
.

l egis l at ion is a c o n spicu ou s fe at ure o f t h e e igh t e e n t h

1 T h St t t
e f Limit t i
a u es o f Ac t i (J m I ) d t h
a on o ons f a es . an os e o

W d ar d Li v i
s an F d
er es , d D i t ib t i
ra u ( Ch l II )
s, a n s r I u ons ar e s . are ,

b e l ie v e , the on ly im p o rt a n t o ne s .
 A N C IEN T A ND M ODERN ST A T UT ES

c e nt u ry ,
b ut , as ix t ee nt h c en t u ry t h e qu ali t y
in t h e s ,

o f t h e w o rk b e c o m e s w o rs e ra t h er t ha n b e t t e r a s t h e

qu a n t i t y t u rn e d o ut is gre at e r It is t ru e t hat in
.

t h e fi rs t h alf o f t h e e igh t e e n t h c e n t u ry t h e re w as a

go o d d e a l o f u s e ful am en d me n t o f l ega l p ro c e d ure ,

a ft e rw a rd s forg o t t e n j u s t b e c au s e it h a d d o n e it s
b us in e s s w i t h o ut t rou bl e ; b ut t h e e n ligh t e n e d j u dge s
o r ch an c e ll o rs w h o p ro c ure d t hi s t o b e d o n e l e ft

p os t eri t y t o re s t o n t h e i r lab o urs a n d n o s ch o o l o r

,

t radi t i o n o f g oo d w o rk m a n shi p w a s fo u n d e d A b ou t.

t h e e n d O f t h e e igh t ee n t h c e n t u ry t h e o n ly a rt o f t h e

parlia m e n t ary d ra ft s man w a s t o pil e u p as m an y

w o rd s as p os s ibl e s ig n ific an t an d i n s ign ifica n t o n
, ,

t h e cha n c e t h a t in t h e i r m ul t i t u d e t h e i n t e n t i o n

o f t h e e n ac t m e n t m igh t fin d s a fe t y P erhap s t h e
.

s t yl e a n d s t ru c t u re o f A c t s o f P a rlia m en t w ere at

t h e i r v e ry w o rs t in t h e g e n e ra t i o n i mm e di a t e ly p re

c e di n g t h e R efo rm Ac t o f 1 8 3 2 T h e C o py righ t
.

Ac t o f 1 8 4 2 is a mo n g t h e la t es t l e gaci e s o f t h e
bad o l d s t yl e o f d raft in g an d a m o re flagran t
,

s p e ci m e n c ould n o t e a s ily b e fou n d I mp ro v e .

m en t b e g an o n ly w h e n t h e b urd en w as b e c o m in g
i n t o le rabl e .

Prop os al s fo r sy s t e m at ic re fo rm had n ot b e en B c ’
a on s

p p l ro o sa s
w a n t m g i n d e e d fro m t h e t i m e w h en t h e mi s c h l e f f
, ,
f m or re o r ,

w as fi rs t fe l t Sir N ich o las Bac o n t h e fa t h er o f

.
,

2 A
 FIR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE C HA P .

Fran ci s Bac o n form e d a plan ,

arly
of t hi s ki n d as e

a n d h is m ore ill us t ri o u s s o n
as
p u t forw a rd
in 1 6 1 6 a ca re full y c o n s id ere d “
P ro p o s i t i o n t ou ch
in g t h e c o mpili n g an d a m e n d m e n t o f t h e law s Of

E n gl an d 2
.
”
Ma n y o f h is id e as an t i c ipat e t h e w ork
o f m o d e rn l a w re fo rm e rs a n d s o m e t h o u gh n o t all , , ,

h a v e b e en m o re or l e s s carri e d o ut in o u r o w n t ime .

H e d es i re d t o h a v e a dig e s t o f a n ci en t l egal ru l e s
r c o n v e n i e n c e n o t as a n a u t h o ri t a t iv e t e x t
( fo , ) a n d ,

re vi s e d e d it i o n s o f t h e St a t u t e s a n d t h e Y e a r B o o k s ,

o m i t t i n g o b s ol e t e m a t t er H e did n o t re c o mm e n d
.

t h e fra mi n g o f a n e w t e x t l a w — w ha t w e s h ou ld
“

n o w call a c o d e — o f t h e C o m m o n La w
“
I dare :

“
not a dvi s e h e s aid ,
t o ca s t t h e l aw i n t o a
,

n ew m o uld C o k e n o fri e n d o f B a c on s g a v e a ’
.
, ,

li m it e d a pp ro val t o t h e s ch e me s o far as re lat e d t o ,

c on s o lidat i o n an d a m e n d me n t o f s t at u t e s in t h e ,

Pre fac e t o t h e F o u rt h P a rt o f h is R ep orts Not hi n g .

w a s d o n e h o w e v e r fo r m o re t han t w o c e n t u ri e s
, ,

aft e rw ard s T h e re w ere p roj e c t s of t his ki n d u n d er

.

t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h a n d aft e r t h e R e s t o rat i o n b u t ,

1
See t h e R ep ort of t h e S t a t u t e La w Com mi s s i on , 1 8 3 5 , a n d t h e
I n t ro d u c t io n t o t h e S t a t u t es of t h e R ea l m, v o l 1 . .

2
Le t t ers a n d L ife , e d S p e d d in g , v i 6 1
. An earl ier d ra ft o f
. .

th e sa proj ec t is a l s o p re serv e d op ci t v 8 4 T h e Aph oris ms

me , . . . .

a pp e n d e d t o b o o k v i ii o f t h e
“
D e Au g m e n t is ( in P h i l Wor ks
'

. .
,

v o l i ) h a v e b e e n c it e d by m o d e rn Co n t in e nt a l a s w e ll a s E n gl i s h
. .

w rit e rs a n d c o n t a i n m u ch t h a t is s t ill O f v a l ue
,
.
 FIR ST B O O K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E C HAP .

P arliame n t c o uld hav e d t h e las t t o u ch e s

e n t rus t e

o f d raft s m a n s hip t o so m e p e rm a n e n t a n d i m pa rt i a l

e xp ert b o dy . Th e fu n c t i o n o f re mo vin g Obvi o u s

bl e mi s h es o f form is a t p res e n t n o t regu larly c o m

m it t ed t o a n y o n e an d t h e H o u s e o f Lord s Can
,

e x erci se it o n ly o cc a s i o n ally a n d pa rt ially P oli t ical .

di ffi c u l t i e s h av e s o far b e en i n s up erable an d n o t ,

o n ly e l e ga n c e b u t e v e n cl e arn es s o f la n g u ag e h as

o ft e n t o b e k n o w i n gly s ac rific e d t o t h e e xig en ci e s

o f w o rki n g a Bill t h ro u gh C o mm i t t e e in th e H o u s e

o f C o mm o n s w i t h a s li t t l e c o n t e n t i o us di s c u s s i o n

as p o ss ibl e . Wi t h all d ra w back s h o w ev er t h e , ,

i mp ro v e me n t s e ffe c t e d are s u ch a s w o u ld hav e

s e e m e d i m p os s ibl e t o a la w y e r o f Black s t o n e s o r
’

E ld o n s t i me Ob s o l et e an d m erely t em p orary or
’
.

o t h e rwi s e e xpi re d en ac t me n t s a re n o w s y s t e m a t ic a lly

re p e al e d by St a t u t e La w R e vi s i o n A c t s a n d t h e ro
p
,

c es s h as b e en b rou gh t d o w n t o A c t s o f t h e y e ar 1 8 8 6 .

T h e re vi s e d e diti on o f t h e St a t u t e s w hich h as b e e n

m ad e p os s ibl e by t hi s p ro c e ss t o g e t h er wi t h t h e
,

o ffi cial I n d e x w hich is p e ri o dically re i s s ue d a n d

,
-
,

e mb o di e s t h e la t e s t al t e rat i on s d o w n t o it s da t e ,

e n a bl es u s t o a s c ert ai n w i t h c o m para t iv e e as e w h a t

l e gi sla t i on is ac t u ally in fo rc e o n an y give n t o pic 1

.

1
B ut t h e s t ud e n t m u s t n o t s u p po s e t h a t t h e St a t ut e s a t l arg e
b
h a v e ec om e a s u p e rfl uo us o rname nt in a l ib ra ry . R
e fe re n c e t o
 A N C IENT A ND M ODERN ST AT UT ES

The I nt e rp re t a t i o n Ac t of 1 8 89 ,
w hich
p e rs ed e d su

a s imilar b ut mu ch l es s c o mple t e a n d w ork m an lik e

“
s t a t u t e o f 1 8 5 0 k n o wn as Lo rd B ro ugh a m s Ac t
’

h as e n s u re d re as on abl e c o n ci s e n e s s an d app ro xi m at e
u n iform i t y in t h e w o rdi n g at an y ra t e o f A c t s o f

Parliam e n t i nt ro du c e d by Mi n i st e rs an d p rep are d

in t h e Pa rliam en t ary C o u n s el s Offic e w hich h as
’

b ee n ra is ed chiefly by t h e w ork of Lord T hring

,

w hil e h e w as a t it s h e ad t o t h e ran k o f a dis t i n c t

,

a n d i m p o rt a n t St a t e d epa rt m e n t T h e chi e f dan g e r

.

o f d own righ t bad d ra ft i n g is n o w in p riva t e m e mb ers

’

am en d m e n t s .

In 1 8 4 5 t h e p rovis io n s u s u ally i n se rt ed in spe cial Th C l

’

e a u s es

C li o ns o
A ct s fo rm 1 ng p uhk o c o mp an 1 e s an d au t h or1 s1 ng d t i
, a on

yt m s s e
t h e m t o a cqu i re la n d for t hei r w o rk s w e re e m b o di e d
.

o n c e fo r all in t h e C o mpa n i e s Clau s e s La n d s Cla us e s , ,

an d R ail w ay s Cla u se s C o n s o lida t i o n A c t s

“
as w e ll ,

for t h e p urp o s e o f av o idi ng t h e n e c e s s i t y o f re p e a t

in g su ch p ro vi s i on s in e ach o f t h e s e v era l A c t s

rel a t i n g t o s u ch u n d e rt aki n g s as fo r e n s uri n g g re a t e r

u n iformi t y in t h e p ro vi s i o n s t h e m s e lv e s T h es e
1 ”
.

w e re fo ll o w e d by s i m ilar A c t s for G a s w ork s an d

Wa t erw ork s It is s aid t h a t in t h e fi rst s ev en y e ars

.

aft er t his sy st em c am e i n t o o p erat i on it s av e d

re pe a l e d a nd o b s o l e t e Ac t s is o ft e n n ec e ssa ry fo r prac t ic a l a sw ell
a s h i s t oric a l p u rp o s e s
.

1
T h e s e w o rd s a re id e n t ic a l in t h e p re a m bl e t o ea ch Of t h e Ac t s .
 FIR ST B O O K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E

fo li o pag e s o f p ri n t A ll o w i n g s o me t hin g
.

for t h e i n c re a s i n g ra t e o f c o mm e rcial d e v e l o p me n t

in t h e t i me t ha t h a s s i n c e e lap s e d t h e s avi n g d o w n
,

t o t h e p rese n t da t e m ay w e ll b e e s t i ma t e d at n o t

l es s t han a m illio n pages T hi s ad mirabl e an d b en e

.

fic e n t i n v e n t i o n w hich e v eryb o dy n o w t ak es a s a
,

m at t er o f c o u rs e w a s d ue t o M r B o o t h t h en t h e
, .
,

Sp e ak e r s C o u n s e l In ou r o w n t i m e t h e s a me
’
.

s y s t e m h a s b een appli e d wi t h s ligh t m o dificat i o n

, ,

t o t h e M u t i n y Ac t T h e A rm y Ac t 1 8 8 1 s t an d s
.
, ,

p erm an en t ly o n t h e St atu t e b o o k an d is c o n t in u e d
-
,

in forc e by a n a nn u al Ac t V a in re p et it i o n o f t h e
.

pro vi s ion s for t h e go v ern m ent an d di s cipli n e o f t h e

army is t h u s av o id e d w hil e t h e c o n st i t u t io n al c o n t ro l
,

o f P a rliam e n t is a s e ffe c t iv e ly m ai n t ai n e d a s e v e r .

Man y c o n sid erabl e b o di es o f s t at ut e l aw have

b e en c on solidat e d a t va ri ous t im es an d in so me ,

ca se s t h e c o n solidat i ng A c t s are really c o d e s t o

t h e e xt e n t o f t h e s u bj e c t s d e al t wi t h T h e fi rst .

n o t abl e e xa m pl e o f t hi s p ro c e s s w a s I b e li e v e t h e
, ,

M erchan t Shippi n g Ac t o f 1 8 54 ; j us t fort y y e ars

la t er t hi s an d t h e la t e r A c t s on t h e s a me m at t e rs
w ere c on s o lidat e d in t h e M e rchan t Shippin g Ac t ,

1 8 9 4 which fill s 2 9 2 pag e s in t h e Law R e p o rt s

,

e di t i o n of t h e St a t ut es Ot h er grou p s o f A c t s
.

rela t i n g t o va ri o u s b ra n ch e s o f p u blic l a w — P u blic ,

 FIRST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN CE

un iv ers ally ad o p t e d ; t h ere d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e

,
.

an y re a so n w h y w e s h o u ld n o t b e fo re l o n g ha v e in ,

s ub st an c e a c o difi e d an d u n iform c om m erci al l a w

,

fo r all t h e C o m mo n Law j uri s dic t i o n s o f t h e B ri t i s h

E mpi re In t h e U n it e d St a t es t h e s am e probl em is
.

b e i n g d e al t w i t h by a b o dy o f c o m mi s s i o n ers rep re
’

s e nt i n g m o st o f t h e St a t es a n d w o rkin g in c On,
.

j un c t io n wi t h t h e A m eri can B ar A s s ociat i on ; a n d ,

n o t w i t h s t a n di n g t h e diffi c u l t y ca u s e d by t h e e xi s t e nc e

o f s o m a n y i n d e p e n d e n t j u ri s dic t i o n s c o n s id e rabl e ,

p rogress h a s b e enm ad e A N e go t iabl e I n s t ru me n t s

.

C o d e g en erally re s em blin g t h e E n gli s h Ac t is al re ady

l aw in t hi rt y e igh t St at e s 1
-
C o d e s o f t h e l aw O f Sa l e
.

o f G oo d s Bill s o f Ladin g Wa re h o u s e R e c e ip t s an d
, , ,

St o ck T ra n s fer hav e b e e n m o re la t e ly s et t l e d an d a re
in forc e in s e v eral St a t e s 2
P art n ers hip is s t ill in
.

ha n d It is h o p e d t h a t t h e s e para t e c o dificat i o n o f
.

e ach b ra n ch o f t h e c o mm e rcial law w ill grad u ally

”
b ri n g ab ou t a g re at c o mm erci a l c o d e 3
.

O ur s t at u t o ry c rim i n al law re m ai n s in p o i n t o f ,

form a t l e as t in a re lat iv e ly back w ard c on di t i on

, ,

n ot w i t h s t a n di n g t h e lau dabl e e n d e av o u rs o f t h e
l a t e Sir J a m es St e ph e n an d o t h e rs Man y p o rt i on s .

1
Rpe o rt s o f A m eric a n B ar A s s o c ia t io n ,
1 9 1 0, pp . 1 045 , 1 1 1 4 .

2
I bi d . 1114 .

3
Rpe o rt o f h
t h e O io S t a t e B o a r d o f Un i fo rm S t at e La w s , D e c .

1 9 03
 A N C IEN T A ND M ODERN ST AT UT ES

of it ,
a nd s o me of the mo s t i mp o rt a n t ,
a re u n a v o id

ab ly e n t a ngl e d w i t h c on t ro v e rs i a l m a t t e r O f s ev eral
ki nd s s o t h at n o n c o n t en t i ou s a m en d men t s ee m s
,
-

e x t rem ely di ffic u l t Ye t t h e I t alia n s h av e s u c

.

c ee d e d u n d e r a s y s t e m o f parli a m e n t a ry g o v e rn m e n t
,

n o t w id ely d iffe re n t in pri n cipl e fro m o ur o w n in ,

pass i n g a n ew a n d t h oro ugh l y re vi s e d Pe n a l C o d e

'

H ere we c an o n ly n o t e t h e fa c t t hat E n glan d h a s

ma d e no a dva n c e o n t h e C ri mi n al La w C on s olid a t i on
A ct s o f 1 8 6 1 w hich are n ot c o difyi ng A c t s b e caus e
,

t h e y a s su m e k n o w l e dg e o f a g re a t d e al o f u n w ri t t e n

l aw ; fo r e xam pl e t h e d e fi ni t i o n s o f m urd er m an
, ,

s l au gh t er a n d l a rc e n y
,
B ro a dly sp eaki n g t h e ad
.
,

mi ni s t ra t i o n o f o u r c rim i n al l aw —w h a t t h e F re n ch
call p ena l i te—is n o w m os t ly if n o t w h olly re d u c e d
’

t o t h e w ri t t e n fo rm t h e s u b s t an c e o f it is n o t .

Lord Wes t b u ry s e l a b ora t e p roj e c t fo r a D ig e s t

’
Co d ific a
t io n
o f t h e w h o l e l aw w hich s e e me d t o p ro m i s e g re a t
.

t hi n g s a g e n e ra t io n a go a n d ca me t o a n e n d in
,

1 8 7 0 n e e d b e m e n t i o n e d h ere o nly fo r t h e p u rp o s e
,

o f s h o w in g t h at it h a s n o t b ee n o v e rl o o k e d It .

n o t o n ly fa il e d o f it s i mm e dia t e p u rp o s e b u t fail e d ,

t o l e a v e a n y c o n s id e ra bl e res u l t s av e t ha t t w o o f
,

t h e g e n t l e me n e mpl o y e d t o p repare s p e ci m e n s o f

t h e p ro p os e d d ig e s t c o n v ert e d t h e i r w o rk in t o
m e ri t o ri o u s a n d u s e fu l t e x t b o o k s o f t h e o rdi n ary
-
 FIR ST B OO K O F JURI SPRUDEN C E
t yp e, w hich w ent t h ro ug h
di t i on s To se v eral e .
1

t h e p rese n t w ri t e r at a n y ra t e it seem s t ha t t h e
, ,

e xa mpl e o f t h e A n gl o I n dia n C o d e s h a s b e en m ore

2 -

practical an d fru i t ful C o dificat i on w as forc e d

.

u p on B ri t i s h I n dia by t h e n e c es s i t i e s o f I ndia n

g o v ern m en t an d t h e e xp eri m en t h as o n t h e wh ol e
,

b een re m arkably s u cc e ss fu l Th ere is n o re a so n .

w h y it s h ou ld n o t s u cc e e d in E n gla n d wh e n p u blic

e d u ca t i o n is s u ffici e n t ly adva n c e d t o d e man d it ,

a nd c o m p e t e n t E n gli s h law y ers are s e t t o d o t h e

w ork i n s t e ad o f di s c us s i n g w h e t h er it is p os s ibl e .

F or t h e c omm ercial part s o f o u r u n w ri t t en l a w

c o dificat i o n is al re ady acc e pt e d in p ri n ciple an d ,

h a s b een carri e d i n t o e x e c u t i o n in s o m e i mp o rt a n t

b ran ch es Th e furt h e r e x t ensi o n o f t h e p ro c es s is

.
,

in my o pi ni on n o l o n g er d ou b t fu l i n p ri n cipl e b ut
, ,

o n ly in t i m e an d o pp ort u n i t y B u t t h e q u e st i o n .

1
On e h e s e is G od d a rd on E a semen t s : t h e Pre fa c e t o t h e
of t
fo urt h e d it io n c o nt ain s an a cc o u n t o f t h e D ig es t o f Law Co m
m iss io n om it t e d i n t h e fift h ( 1 8 9 6 ) a n d l a t e r e d it io n s
,
.

2
E d it e d by D r Wh it l e y St ok e s Oxfo rd 1 8 8 7 Se e h is I n t ro
.
, , .

d u c t io n for a s h o rt h is t o ry o f c o d ific a t io n in I n d ia S ee t o o Sir .

, ,

C o u rt e n ay I lb ert s a rt icl es I n d ia n Co d ific at io n L a w Qu a rt R ev

’
“ ”
. .
, ,

v 3 4 7 ; Sir J am e s St e ph en a s a Le gis l a t o r i b x 2 22 ; a n d
.
“
,
”
. .

a rt icl e s o f m y o wn o n Sir J a m es St e ph e n i n t h e N a t i o n a l R e vi ew

fo r A u g u s t 1 8 9 5 a n d t h e E n cy c l op ced i a B ri t a n n i ca 1 l t h e d
,
It ,
.

is u n fort u n a t e t h a t t h e c o d i fic a t io n o f c o mm erc ia l l a w in I n d ia s o ,

far a s i t h a s g o n e b eg a n a n d h a s p ro c ee d e d 0 11 l in e s o f it s o w n s o
, ,

t h at u l t im a t e u n i fo rm it y w it h t h e c o mm e rc ia l c o d e s o f t h e
E n glis h s p eak in g w orl d will b e d iffic u l t o f a t t ainm ent
- .
 I ND E X

c
A t io n , R o m an mea n in g o f, 91 p c y
C a a it , o f n a t u ra lp e rs o n s , 1 1 9

A c t io igh t o f
n, r ,
fo r b reach of l fic
d is qu a i a t io n o f, 1 2 1
p blic d u t y
u ,
96 o f a rt i fic l p
ia ers o n s , 1 2 2
”
Ac t O f t h e l a w , m e a n in o f, 1 4 1 g Cas e l a w , 2 3 7
-

”
Ac t i n t h e l a w , me a nin o f, 1 4 2 g E gl
in n an d , 2 4 2
c g h
A t s , d is t in uis e d fro m e e n t s , v h c ll
C an e o r, e ar ly c
j uris d i t ion o f,
1 39 254
h c
u n d e r w a t o n d it io n s re ard e d g fic
C o d i a t io n , 3 5 9 , 3 6 1
b y l aw , 1 3 8 , 1 4 3 in t h e U
n it e d St a t e s , 3 5 9 , n , .

v o id a n d o id a ve, 1 61 bl 3 60
c l
A t s o f P a r ia m en t , s ee St a t ut e s l c ll
C o o n ie s , s pe ia a w s o f, 3 4 6
g
A re e men t , re a b
o f, 9 0 ch l
Co mmo n La w , re at io n o f, t o
Al p
ien s , o s it io n o f, 5 8 c u st o m , 2 5 2

gl ch
An o F re n , u s e a n d d e gra d a
-
C o mm o n s , H o u s e o f, p l cl
o it i a

t io n o f 2 9 4, 2 9 7
, p
s u re ma cy o f, 2 68

l
Aris t o t e o n int e n t an d m o t i e , v vl c
Co n sen t , a id , o n d it io n s o f, 1 5 9 ,
1 46 1 61
fic l p
Art i ia e rs o n s , 1 1 2 c p x
C o n se qu e n es , ro im a t e a nd re
c p
or ora t io n s , 1 1 7 mo t e , 1 5 5 , 1 5 6, 1 6 3
fi
rms 1 17 ,
u n in t e n d e d , 1 5 7 , 1 6 3
t h e St a t e , 1 1 8 C o n s t it ut io n , l a w o f t h e , 9 4
c p c y
a a it o f, 1 2 2 c b
C o nt ra t , re a ch
o f, 9 0

A p c
t t e m t t o o mmit o ffe n e 1 5 7 c ,
p c
im ort an e o f, in m o d e rn l aw , 9 1
h y lg
A u t o rit , d e e a t e d an d d e o e d , v lv v lv g p
in o in l k ll
ers o n a s i , 2 08

2 44 l
for sa e , 2 1 0
u s e o f, 3 1 2 py
fo r a m e n t , 2 1 3
x b k
t e t o o s are n o t , 3 1 3
-
p l by l c l
h o w s u p e m e nt e d o a

xl y l
Au i ia r ru e s , 7 3 c us t o m , 2 85
vy c p c c
Co n e an e rs, ra t i e o f, 3 2 3
Ba c o n, F
h is ro o s a
ran cis ,
p p l s fo r Co py gh
ri b k
t in oo s , 1 34, 1 37 ,
l a w re o rm , 3 5 4 f 1 9 7 2 01
-

l ck
B a s t o n e o n t h e s u re m a p cy of p
Co r o rat io n , an a rt i ia fic l p e rso n ,

l
P ar iam e nt , 2 62 1 1 1 1 1 4, 1 1 7
-

k
B o o s o f a u t o rit , 2 4 6 h y h
d iffe re n t t e o rie s o f it s n a t ure ,
B rac t o n s
’
N
o t e B o o , 29 0 k 113
 F IR ST B OO K OF JURI SPRUDEN C E
Co r p orat io c eat ed by e xpres s or
n, r D ti c
u es , reat e d by ac t s , 1 58
gen eral a t h o it y o f St at e 1 2 6
u r ,

c ann ot b e gu ilt y o f c rime 1 2 3 ,

E “m t
as e 174
en s ,
"
1 24 in gros s , 1 9 0, 1 9 6 , n .

C ro wn as , 1 1 8 l
re a t i on o f, t o o wn e rs i hp , 1 89
l bl
ia i it y o f, fo r wro n s, 1 2 3 g s qq.

J
Corp u s J wris , u s t inian s , 2 4 0
’
g v 1 95
n e at i e ,

Co ur t fo r Cro w n C as e s e ser e d , R v E quit abl e est at e 2 1 2 ,

336 Equit y o igi of 2 5 3

, r n ,

pp l
C o urt s o f A e a , 3 2 4 Et hics n ot c o ext e sive -
n w it h l a w,
l
C rimin a Law C o mmiss io n, re ort s p 45
o f, 3 49 , 3 5 5 m u s t d ea w it l h o u t w ard a ct s ,
p
C ro w n as Co r o rat io n , 1 1 8 46
C us t o m, n at u re o f, 1 0 Ev en t s , 1 3 8 , 1 3 9

l
re a t io n o f C o mm o n La w t o , Ev c
id e n e , ar ai ch c n o t ion s o f , 44
25 0 l
ru e s o f, 7 7

lgl
e a mean in g
o f, 2 7 6
c o n d it io n s o f it s vl
a id it , 2 7 7 y F a mily , p erso n al d ut ie s in id e n t c
c
a n ie n t , 2 7 9 t o , 2 04
o f m er ch
an t s , 2 8 2 l
re a t io n s , 8 6, 8 9

l cl
o a , 28 5 pl
F ee s im e , Lit t et o n o n , 1 7 3 l
F g
ore i n l a w , u se o f, 3 4 6

Dmg mt
a a e , re o e n es s o f,
1 66 F orm, ru es o f, 5 0 l
D b t ch ic
e ,
ar a n o t io n o f, 2 1 9 c
o f a t s , ru e s as t o , 1 62 l
c
D e is io ns , C o n t in en t a l
C o urt s
g
e n era lly
not oun d b , 24 0 by l
G e n era P a rt , mean in g of ,
1 05
h
a u t o ri t y
o f, 3 1 5

f
man i es t erro r in , 3 2 2 Ho bb es , h is t h eo ry of t h e St at e ,
o f C o u rt o f A pp l
e a , 3 24 67
o f H o u s e o f Lo rd s , 3 2 6 3 3 4 -
l
H o n o ur, aw s o f, 1 4, 1 5 , n .

J c l
o f u d i ia C o m mit t ee, 3 3 4 , 3 38 H o u s e o f C o m mo n s , s ee C o mmon s ,
p
o f S u re me C o u rt o f U S , 3 3 7 . . H o u se o f
3 40 o f Lo rd s , s ee Lo rd s , H o u s e O f
of ris I h a n d S o t t is c h
Co urt s ,
Ig c f l w 1 60
n o ra n e o a ,

at N is i P r iu s , 3 40 I f cy 1 1 9
n an ,

rea s o n s for as ri in au t oritc b g h y I t ti

n en d i t i ct i
on , s n on o f, fro m
t o, 3 4 1 m ot ive, 1 4 4
Dfie nit io n o f l a w , 2 9 proo f o f, 1 5 0
D c
is re t io n , j u d i ia , 3 8 , 39c l c o mpl exit y o f, 1 5 2
D y p
ut , v
os it i e a n d n e at i e , 5 8 , g v g
d isre a rd e d in a r ai l aw , 1 5 6 ch c
7 0, 7 1 In t ernat io na La w , 1 4 l
p f c
e r o rm an e o f, h o w far c o m I p
n t er re t a t io n o f l a w , 2 29 , 2 3 4

p e l l ab l e , 5 9 I l
re an d , d e is io n s c
in , h o w far
h
n o n e w it o u t ri t , 64 gh au t o rit h
in n y
an d , 3 39 , E gl
o f S t at e , 6 5 3 40
p l
e rso n a , 8 2 8 7 -

p bl c
u i , 92 J dg
u e, h en o ne c an b e in h is
w ,

D l
ut ies , re a t io n o f, t o ri t s , 7 2, gh o wn c u s 2 65 2 6 7
a e, -

73 n o t a b o ve P arl iam e nt 26 6 26 7 , ,
 FIR ST B OO K O F J URI SPRUDEN C E
O bl ig a t io n s a ris i ng fro m wro n gful R em, d ut ie s in , 8 3a n d ri gh t s

c t 22 3
a s, Rpe ort s , n at ur e an d o ri in o f, 2 8 7 g
O wn ersh ip 1 7 5 ,
-
177 m o d ern t yp
e o f, 3 03 , 3 04
e s t imat e d n u m er o f, 3 1 0 n b .

l
P a r ia m e n t , s u re m a p
o f, 2 5 7 cy R es t rain t o f T rad e ,
”
a nt iq uit y
c
A t s o f, n o t j u d i ia d is c lly o f t h e d o t rin e , 2 5 2 c
p u t ab l e , 2 6 4 , 2 6 5 R gh
i t , m ea n in s o f, 1 8 g
p
P e r et uit ies , ru e a a in s t , 2 3 5l g in d e t erm in a t e o r d et e rmin at e ,
P e rs o n , in l a w , w a t is , 1 1 0 h 61
l y
P e rs o n s , e qu a it o f, in l a w , 1 02 c a n a m an h a e , a a ins t h im v g
p res u m t io n pof t e ir e qu a h l se 4 67 lf '

ri gh
t s , 1 03 c
a qu is it io n a n d t ra n s e r o f, 7 4 f
l
re a t io n o f, t o t h in s , 1 08 g Rgi h t s , i n re m a n d in p ers o n a m, 8 3
n at ur a , l 119 e qu a , l pre s u m t io n o f, 1 03 p
a rt i fic l
ia , 1 1 2, 1 2 2 c p l
in or o rea , 131
P ers on a m, d u t ie s a n d ri t s in , 8 3 gh l
R o a d , ru e o f, 5 0
p
P o e, lg
e e n d ar se y
d e o s it io n lf p - R o man La w , d i is io ns o f, 1 00 v
o f, 2 7 4 , 2 7 5 l y
in e q ua it o f ers o n s i n , 1 02 p
P os s es s io n , 7 6 g
mean in o f a t io n i n , 9 1 c
l
n a t u re a n d res u t s o f, 1 7 1 , I 7 7 , u s e o f, n by E gl h
is C o u rt s , 3 4 3
1 85 l
R u e s o f Co u rt , 8 0
fi
d e n it io n o f, 1 9 4
ri ght t o, 1 7 2, 1 7 3, 1 7 8 l c
Sa e, o n t ra t s fo r, 2 1 0 c
v
a s e id e n e o f t it e , 1 80c l c
San t io n o f l aw , 23
gf l
w ro n u , 1 8 3 c l
S o t an d , C o u rt s o f, s t an d in o f
. g
b y t e m o rar or
'
p y
art ia use , p l t h e ir d e is io n s in n c
an d , E gl
1 91 33 9
c c lgl
P ra t i e , in e a se n s e , w a t , 1 2 h h
S are s a n d s t o s , 2 1 8 ck
c
P re e d e n t , m e d ie a im o rt a n e vl p c Sm it , h
Sir T o m a s , on theh
o f, 3 1 7 3 2 0 -
s u re m a p of cy
P ar ia m e nt , l
c p
P res ri t io n, 1 8 7 2 5 8 26 1 -

a ppl c i at io n o f, t o e as e me nt s , v g y
So ere i nt , 25 7
1 92 g h
d is t in uis e d fro m u t imat e l
v I
P ri at e n t ern a t ion a La w , 9 9 l p l c lp
o it i a o w e r, 2 6 7 269 -

v ”
P ri a t e La w , m e an in o f, 93 g v
d i id e d , 2 7 0
P ri vy cl
C o un i , s ee u d i ia C o m J c l St a t e , n at ure an d un t io n o f, 7 f c
mit t ee l
re a t io n o f, t o l a w , 7 , 8 , 2 7

c c l
P ro e d u re , j u d i ia d e n it io n o f, fi c
s a n t io n o f l a w , 23 by
7 8 , 11 . d ut ie s o f s u j e t s t o , 5 7 b c
p y
P ro e rt , 1 68 f c
e n or e m e n t o f l a w ,
63 by
C o mmo n La w a o rs a uu m bh v c cl g
a ims a a in s t , 65

o f, 1 3 6 h h b
w e t e r o u nd ru es o f l a w , by l
c p l
in o r o re a , 202 66
f by c
t ra n s e r o f, c o nt ra t , 2 1 0 as art p y
t o ro ee d in s , 9 7 p c g
bl c g
P u i La w , m e a n i n o f, 9 2 as o wn e r e x rc is in g
e p ivat e r

g h f p v
d is t in uis e d ro m ri a t e l a w, ght s 9 7ri ,

9 6, 9 7 as a t ific ia l p ers o n
r 118 ,

St t ut s me d i v l 3 4 8
a e , e a ,

Q ua s i p o ss e ss io n , 1 9 4
-
d g e t io n i
e e n ra w o kma n sh ip n r

Q uia Empt o re s s t a t u t e o f, 3 5 1, o f 35 1
 t o, 273
cod i fic
at io n in , 3 5 9 , n , 3 6 0 .

p
Su re me C o urt o f, 3 3 7 3 4 0 -

V i d ic t i i R m L w 1 80
n a on , n o an a , ,

1 85
“
V id d i t i g i h d f m “v id
o
”
s n us e ro o

a bl e ,
"
161
it is , 1 2 7
Writ t e n an d u n w rit t e n
l a w , 22 9 , 2 4 3
Wro ng ,
”
l eg l me aning o f
a , 69
l
re at io n o f, to p e rs o n s , 1 38 Wro ngs , rel at io n of to ,

d u t ie s , 7 0
v f p
d e ri e d ro m o s s es s io n , 1 7 4 ,
. o f vio l en c e, 9 4
.

1 8 0, 1 8 1 , 1 8 3
c
it e d , 1 5 4 Y e ar B oo ks , 29 1 , 297 s qq .

T HE END

P r i n t ed by R . R . CLA R K, LI M IT E D ,
 By A V . . D IC EY, D C L . . .

I N T R O D U C T I O N T O T H E ST U D Y O F T H E
LAW O F T H E C O N ST I T U T I O N Se v e n t h E d it io n . .

8 vo . 1 05 . 6d . net .

LE C T U R E S O N T H E R E L A T I O N B E T WE E N
LAW AN D U L C O N O N IN E N G LA N D P B I PI I
I
D U R N G T H E N NE T E E NT H C E NT U R Y 8 vo I . .

1 05 6d n e t
. . .

B y Sir I F ST EP H EN, B a rt . . .

A D IG E S T O F T H E L A W O F E V I D E N C E .

Eig h t h E d it i on . B y Si r H .ST E P H E N ,
'

B a rt ,
and H .

LU S HI N G T O N ST E P H EN . C ro wn 8 vo 65 . .

A D I G E ST OF T HE C R I M I N AL L AW
( C R I M ES AN D P U N I S H M E NT S ) . S ix t h E d it io n . B y Si r

H . ST E P H EN B ,
a rt ,
an d H . LU S HI N GT O N S T E P H EN .

8 vo . 1 65 .

A H I ST O R Y O F T H E C R I M I NA L L AW O F
E N G LA N D . T h re e vo l s . 8 vo .
4 8s .

A G E N ER AL V I EW O F T H E C R I M INA L
LA W O F E N G LA N D S e c o n d E d it io n 8 vo 1 45 . . . .

B y Sir I F ST EP H EN , B a rt
. . .
, an d
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