Juda Integrated Project Final

UPGRADING COBBLESTON ROAD TO PAVEMENT ROAD
NAME ID NO
Habtamu Tesfaye …………………..TER-0590/10
Sineshaw Tadios ……………………TER-0860/10
Yodahe Teklu………………………..TER-0857/10
Ephrem Mequanint…………………TER-1078/10
Bontu Getachew ……………………..TER-0112/11
DEBREMRKOS
UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT
DEBRE MARKOS ETHIOPIA
FEB 2015
DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page i

UPGRADING A COBBLE STON ROAD TO PAVEMENT ROAD
DECLARATION
We declare that the work which being presented in this project is for partial fulfillment of BSc in
civil engineering program for under graduated students and submitted to the institution is an
authentic records of our own work carried during the period from 20/03/2015-10/05/2015 E.C
under supervisions of academic advisor Instructor Gedefaye
DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Our first and foremost gratitude goes to our God for it is of His mercies that we are not
consumed, because his compassions fail not. It would have been impossible to have this project
finished without the help of the Mr. Gedefaye. We would like to acknowledge Debremarkos
University Institute of Technology department of civil engineering for giving us this chance
which enables us to change the theoretically acquired knowledge in to practical understanding.
Thank you for letting us discover what is in the real world. We are ever mindful of the inspiring
and motivating suggestions and directions of our advisor because this report is nothing without
his supports and appreciations. We also wish to appreciate our surveying lab assistant for their
guiding us how to collect data with the help of Total station and giving us any important
information’s
DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page iii

ABSTRACT
Road transport is a type of transport that can be defined as movement of people, vehicles or any
other traffic and goods from one place to another place on the earth surface; which is under taken
to accomplish those basic objectives or tasks that required transfer from one location to another.
Mobility is a basic human need. From the times, everyone travels either for food or leisure. A
closely associated need is the transport of raw materials to a manufacturing unit or finished
goods for consumption.
Yoftahe Nigussie Meeting Hall to Main Entrance gate Road Project is fully accessible using any
vehicle type during all season. The project is located in Debremarkos University. The road
originated Main Entrance Gate and destination is Yoftahe Nigussie meeting hall that covers 1.05
km in length
DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE..........................................................................................................................................7
1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................7
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT AREA.............................................................................8
1.2. PROBLEM OF EXISTING ROAD.............................................................................................8
1.3. OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT................................................................................................9
1.3.1. General Objective................................................................................................................9
1.3.2. Specific Objective................................................................................................................9
1.4. SCOPE OF THE PROJECT......................................................................................................10
1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT.......................................................................................10
1.6. DEFINITION OF TERMS........................................................................................................10
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................................12
2. LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................................................12
2.1. DESIGN CONTROL FACTOR................................................................................................13
2.1.1. Design speed......................................................................................................................15
2.1.2. Design class.......................................................................................................................16
2.1.3. Design Vehicles.................................................................................................................16
2.1.4. Design period.....................................................................................................................16
2.1.5. Terrain type........................................................................................................................17
2.1.6. Functional classifications of Road.....................................................................................18
2.2. TRAFFIC FACTOR..................................................................................................................20
2.2.1. Volume and capacity factor...............................................................................................20
2.2.2. Environmental Factor.........................................................................................................20
2.3. TRAFFIC COUNTING AND FORECASTING........................................................................20
2.3.1. Initial Traffic Volumes......................................................................................................21
2.4. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT.......................................................................................................22
2.4.1. Vertical curve.....................................................................................................................23
DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 1

2.5. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT.................................................................................................26

2.5.1. Tangent section..................................................................................................................28
2.5.2. Circular curve....................................................................................................................29
2.5.3. Super elevation..................................................................................................................31
2.5.4. Transition curve.................................................................................................................32
2.5.5. Control of Sight Distance...................................................................................................32
Stopping sight distance......................................................................................................................33
Passing sight distance........................................................................................................................35
2.5.6. Widening of horizontal curve.............................................................................................38
2.6. CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS..........................................................................................39
2.7. EARTHWORK..........................................................................................................................40
2.8. MASS-HAUL DIAGRAM........................................................................................................42
2.9. PAVEMENT DESIGN..............................................................................................................44
2.9.1. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT......................................................................................................44
2.9.2. RIGID PAVEMENT..............................................................................................................46
CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................................48
3. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................48
3.1. Project Materials........................................................................................................................48
In every step of our work the following methods were followed:..........................................................48
Methodology.........................................................................................................................................48
CHAPTER FOUR...................................................................................................................................49
4. ANALYSIS OF DESIGN DATA......................................................................................................49
4.1. Design control factor.................................................................................................................49
4.2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN............................................................................................................52
4.2.1. Horizontal alignment.........................................................................................................53
4.2.2. Vertical alignment..............................................................................................................63
4.3. EARTH WORK.........................................................................................................................66
4.3.1. Mass haul diagram.................................................................................................................69
4.3.2. Pavement design....................................................................................................................70
4.3.2.1. Design parameters..........................................................................................................70
4.3.2.2. Traffic Classes for Pavement Design.............................................................................73

4.3.3. Laboratory test.......................................................................................................................74

CHAPTER FIVE.......................................................................................................................................80
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.................................................................................80
5.1. Conclusions...............................................................................................................................80
5.2. Recommendation.......................................................................................................................81

Table 2-1Road classification and Design period........................................................................................16

Table 2-2 Terrain types and their slopes....................................................................................................17
Table 2-3 Design Standards vs. Road classification and AADT................................................................19
Table 2-4 types of design vehicles.............................................................................................................21
Table 2-5ambient speed for d3 psd............................................................................................................36
Table 2-6 PSD for different speed.............................................................................................................37
Table 2-7 curve winding standard from ERA manual...............................................................................39
Table 2-8Traffic classes of the pavement design.......................................................................................46
Table 2-9Sub grade strength class.............................................................................................................46
Table 4-1 initial traffic volume of the road................................................................................................49
Table 4-2 geometric design parameter.......................................................................................................50
Table 4-3 selected design parameter..........................................................................................................51
Table 4-4 horizontal curve alignment........................................................................................................54
Table 4-5 Widening on Curves and High Fills..........................................................................................59
Table 4-6 stopping and Passing Sight Distances for Paved Roads.............................................................61
Table 4-7 design value for sight distance..................................................................................................61
Table 4-8 Clearance Distance (d3) for Different Ambient Speeds .......62
Table 4-9 vertical curve information.........................................................................................................63
Table 4-10 Cut fill value of our road project from software out put.........................................................66
Table 4-11 initial traffic volume of the road..............................................................................................71
Table 4-12 cumulative volume of vehicle..................................................................................................71
Table 4-13 cumulative no of vehicles........................................................................................................72
Table 4-14 equivalent single axle load calculation...................................................................................73
Table 4-15 traffic class..............................................................................................................................73
Table 4-16 proctor compaction test...........................................................................................................74
Table 4-17 maximum dry density..............................................................................................................75
Table 4-18 Sub grade strength class and the range of CBR (%)................................................................76
Table 4-19 Sub grade strength class and CBR (%)....................................................................................77

Figure 2-1 crest and sag curves.................................................................................................................24

Figure 2-2highway alignment in 3 dimensions..........................................................................................26
Figure 2-3highway alignment in two dimensional views...........................................................................27
Figure 2-4Circular curve...........................................................................................................................28
Figure 2-5stopping site distance at sag......................................................................................................32
Figure 2-6stopping site distance at crest....................................................................................................32
Figure 2-7 passing site distance.................................................................................................................36
Figure 2-8Mass-Haul Diagram..................................................................................................................42
Figure 4-1 road cross section.....................................................................................................................53
Figure 4-2 Road alignment........................................................................................................................54
Figure 4-3 vertical profile of our road project...........................................................................................63
Figure 4-4 mass haul diagram of our project.............................................................................................69
Figure 4-5 pavement thickens layer for the project....................................................................................77

List of Symbols and Abbreviations
‘ Minute
” Second
º Degree
AC Asphalt Concrete
CBR California Bearing Ratio DC Design Standard
ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority
EDDM ERA Drainage Design Manual – 2013
EPDM ERA Pavement Design Manual – 2013
ESAL Equivalent Standard Axle Load
Km Kilometer
LL Liquid Limit
M meter
MDD Maximum Dry Density
Mm millimeter
OMC Optimum Moisture Content
PI Plasticity Index
PL Plastic Limit
VPI Vertical Point of Intersection (for vertical alignment)

CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
Road transport is a type of transport that can be defined as movement of people, vehicles or any
other traffic and goods from one place to another place on the earth surface; which is under taken
to accomplish those basic objectives or tasks that required transfer from one location to another.
Mobility is a basic human need. From the times, everyone travels either for food or leisure. A
closely associated need is the transport of raw materials to a manufacturing unit or finished
goods for consumption. Road transport plays major roles in the development of the human
civilization. Road may be expressed as path established over land for the passage of vehicles,
people and animals. Roads provide dependable pathways for moving people and goods from one
place to another.
The earliest roads evolved from animal paths and served as trails for early hunters. Paths
eventually grew around primitive settlements and as trade grew longer routes were developed to
transport food and other important materials and then reaches current time. Road may be
construct new road, maintenance existing road or upgrading existing road. Road upgrading
(improvement) means the repair and/or upgrade of existing roads. Road improvement includes
changes to road alignment, sub grade widening, and significant repair of road surface,
repair/replacement of stream crossings and drainage structures, and repair/removal of unstable
material. our project is concerned with upgrading the existing cobble stone road to asphalt road
from Yoftahe Nigussie meeting Hall to main entrance gate in Debre markos University.
Conditions commonly leading to a road improvement project:
 Road sub grades, alignments and/or surfacing need to be upgraded to meet current or
future transportation needs.
 Fill slopes with old side cast material are at risk of failure.
 Cut slopes show signs of failure.
 Road fills are showing signs of failure.
 Unsafe conditions in the transportation system must be repaired.
 To make comfort for vehicles and pedestrians.

Road improvement provides an opportunity to upgrade, improve, or repair a road that is

substandard in one or more of its design elements.
Improvements may include, but not be limited to, the following:
 Re-aligning the horizontal and/or vertical alignment of the road.

 Installing additional cross drainage structures.
 Reshaping the roadbed and/or ditch line for improved surface drainage.
 Upgrading the road surface by adding new rock.
 Removing and/or stabilizing fill slopes that exhibit instability.
 Relocating sections of roads away from sensitive areas such as streams.
 Repair of washouts, fill or cut slope failures, and severe damage to road surfacing.
In general, stream crossings and unstable fill and cut slopes present the greatest challenge to
road improvement, and the greatest opportunities for future erosion prevention and rehabilitation.
1.1.BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT AREA
Yoftahe Nigussie Meeting Hall to Main Entrance gate Road Project is fully accessible using any
vehicle type during all season. The project is located in Debremarkos University. The road
originated Main Entrance Gate and destination is Yoftahe Nigussie meeting hall that covers 1.05
km in length and has 11m width. The project also has 1m width for walkway and 1m for side
ditch in both sides. There was an existing coble stone road to connect main entrance gate to
Yoftahe Nigussie meeting hall.
The nearby project area around DebreMarkos's climate is classified as warm and temperate.
DebreMarkos has a significant amount of rainfall during the year. This is true even for the driest
month. In DebreMarkos, the average annual temperature is 15.9 °C. About 1321 mm of
precipitation falls annually. Temperature variation can often the binder and affect the
performance of road Surface.

1.2.PROBLEM OF EXISTING ROAD

There is a lot of problems are found in existing road. Among those problems are listed
below:
 Since the road is coble stone, no safety for user, air pollution due to dust, time
consuming, energy consuming etc.
 There is no shoulder provide so, it causes for traffic accident.
 There is no normal cross fall. This cause for water percolates to the structural part of
the road.
 There is no enough traffic road width. So we are interested to solve the above
problems by upgrading the existing road from coble stone road to pavement road,
widening the road in order to reduce accident etc.
1.3. OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
1.3.1. General Objective

The general objective of the project is to carry out the geometric and pavement design of
highway road from Yoftahe Nigussie to Main Entrance Gate in Debre markos University.
And to facilitate the movement by upgrading or improving existing coble stone road in to paved
road. This project focuses to design short, easy, safe, economical and functional road.
1.
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.3.1.
1.3.2. Specific Objective

Specific Objective of this project is:
 To determine the functional class of the road.
 To design the geometrical element of the road.

 To design the cross sectional elements.

 To analyze the equivalent standard axle load (ESAL) for determining the appropriate
layers and their thickness.
 To structurally design the pavement.
 To determine earthwork volume of the project.
 To get the knowledge and know how the computer software relating to highway
design by using software
 To increase the width of road
 To improve the standard of road
1.4.SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The scope of this project is to designing the geometry and pavement of a given road section
by using its recommended values from design standards and guidelines.
The project is done based on surveying data on existing road, when we come to our case we
were giving topographic map of the area and traffic data. As a result, we design the
horizontal alignment, vertical alignment and flexible pavement to upgrade coble stone to
asphalt road. Other design data which are related to the geometry of the road are taken from
ERA design manual.
1.5.SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT
 To reduce wastage of energy during travelling

 To increase the access of transport for users
 To reduce wastage of time
1.6.DEFINITION OF TERMS

Free-haul: It is the distance up to which the hauling is done by the contractor free of charge. For
this distance the cost of transportation of the excavated material is included in the excavation
cost.
Overhaul: It is the excavated material from a cutting moved to a greater distance than the free-
haul, the extra distance is overhaul.
Excavation (cut) - is the amount of material that needs to be removed from the grade.
Embankment (fill) - is the amount of material that needs to be added to the grade.
Haul- is the transportation of excavated material from its original position to its final Location
in the work or other disposal area.
Alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and curves.
Profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and the straight grade
lines connecting them.
Cross section: shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and sidewalks, along
with their cross slope or banking. Cross sections also show drainage features, pavement structure
and other items outside the category of geometric design.

CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
In many countries road traffic is growing rapidly in volume, in the size and weight of the
vehicles using the roads. As a consequence, highway engineers concerned with designing new
roads or the strengthening of existing roads require reliable information about the distribution of
axle loads for existing traffic as well as information on national or regional axle load trends. This
information is required so that accurate forecasts can be made of the axle loads that a road will
have to carry over its design life. From transportation types, the trends are towards road
transportation. The reason behind is:
 Roads provide a wide geographical coverage, particularly in hilly regions. And it

provides services for the communities from the start up to end (termination)
 Roads are constructed relatively at low initial coast than others and at the same time
stage construction is possible.
 Road transportation gives a flexible service, i.e. free from fixed program.
 It gives door to door services, personalized service, and creates higher employment
potential for the community.

For the development of any nation, infrastructure like that of road is very important. It’s
impossible to think of development without having accessible roads in a given nation. Roads are
very important for many reasons, some of them are:
 connecting nation to nation

 reduce wastage of energy during travelling
 connecting people to people living in different places
 facilitate international and national trades
 connecting the gap between producers and consumers
 helps in the explorations of natural resources
 Used in the transportation of materials which are unevenly distributed?
Besides the advantages, there are some side effects and these side effects should be reduced by
proper design (project handing) and vehicle operation. Some of the disadvantages are
 Environmental pollution, like noise, vibration, less due to aesthetics point of views.
 Safety: road accidents become a concern in much country.
 Parking: Especially in cities road transportation needs parking land.
 Energy: it contains higher energy per KM.
In general when a road design is done the following are considered:
 horizontal alignment
 vertical alignment
 sight distance requirements
 Cross sectional elements
2.1. DESIGN CONTROL FACTOR
Appropriate geometric standards Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road
in terrain is designed to meet the needs of the road users. The geometric design of roads is the
branch of engineering concerned with the positioning of the physical elements of the roadway
according to standards and constraints.

The basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing
cost and environmental damage. It is the selection of suitable horizontal and vertical alignment
and the road width. Its main objective is producing a highway with safe, efficient and economic
traffic operations while maintaining aesthetic and environmental quality.
The geometry of a road influences its safety performance. While studies of contributing factors
to road accidents show that human factors predominate, roadway factors are the second most
common category, with vehicle factors last. Roads are designed in conjunction with design
guidelines and standards. These are adopted by state and national authorities.
Design guidelines take into account speed, vehicle type, road grade (slope), view obstructions,
and stopping distance. With proper application of guidelines, along with good engineering
judgments, an engineer can design a roadway that is comfortable, safe, and appealing to the eye.
The profile of a road consists of road slopes, called grades, connected by parabolic vertical
curves. Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one road slope to another, so
that vehicles may smoothly navigate grade changes as they travel.
Sag vertical curves are those that have a tangent slope at the end of the curve that is higher than
that of the beginning of the curve. When driving on a road, a sag curve would appear as a valley,
with the vehicle first going downhill before reaching the bottom of the curve and continuing
uphill or level.
Crest vertical curves are those that have a tangent slope at the end of the curve that is lower than
that of the beginning of the curve. When driving on a crest curve, the road appears as a hill, with
the vehicle first going uphill before reaching the top of the curve and continuing downhill.
The profile also affects road drainage. Very flat roads and sag curves may have poor drainage,
and steep roads have high velocity flows.
Design controls to be satisfied are the following:
 Terrain
 Functional classification of the road
 Design speed

 Design vehicle
 Traffic volume
 Volume and capacity factor
 Economic and environmental factor
 Design class
 Design period
2.1.1. Design speed
The functional values of roads depend on convenience, economy, permissible design speed and
safety. Most countries design their roads according to a design speed varied depending on
functional class of road and type of terrain. There is some evidence that the concept of designs
speed is not very appropriate as the bases for geometric design as it will often lead to an
economic design. Design should be justified economically and the optimum geometric standards
will vary with both construction and road user costs.
Construction costs will be related to terrain type and choice of pavement. It is the most
important factor controlling the geometric design element of a highway. Design speed is a speed
determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a highway that influences
vehicular operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be obtained over a specified section of
a highway when conditions are so favorable that the design feature of the highway governs.
Different speed standards are assigned for different classes of the road.
The choice of a design speed depends on primarily on the surrounding terrain and the functional
class of the highway.
Other factors determining the selection of design speed include traffic volume and composition,
costs of right of way and construction, and aesthetic considerations. The speed that a driver
adopts on a highway depends on factors such as:

 Physical characteristics of a high way and its surrounding

 Weather condition in the area.
 Presence of other vehicles and their nature.
 Speed limitations place up on the vehicle either by law or mechanical devices.
2.1.2. Design class

The basic parameters of road function, terrain type and traffic flow are defined initially. On the
bases of these parameters the design classes selected while design speed is used only as an index
which links design class to design parameters of sight distance and curvature to insure that a
driver is presented with a reasonably consistent speed environment.
2.1.3. Design Vehicles

A design vehicle is a selected motor vehicle whose weight, dimension and operating
characteristics are designed for a particular roadway type. The gradient, the lane width, width of
horizontal curve and junction design are factors which affect the selection of a particular vehicle
type for a particular roadway type.
2.1.4. Design period

Design period is a period of time when the road can be used with a minimum maintenance.
Factors affecting decisions on the selection of design period:
 Functional importance of the road

 Traffic volume
 Location and terrain of the project site
 Financial constraints
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic

Table 2-1Road classification and Design period
Road classification Design period (year)

Trunk road 20
Link road 20
Main Access road 15
Gravel road 5
Other road 10
Source: ERA manual, 2013
2.1.5. Terrain type

The geometric design elements of roads depend on the slope of the terrain through which the
road passes. The terrain classification as flat, rolling ,escarpment or mountainous may be defined
as average ground slope measured as the number of five meter contour lines crossed per
kilometers on straight line linking the two ends of the road section.
 Flat or gently rolling- which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road
(transverse terrain slope up to( 5%)
 Rolling: Rolling, hilly or foot hill landscape where the slopes generally rise and fall
moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered resulting in some
restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent).
 Mountainous: This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of
alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight distance
(Transverse terrain slope from 25 percent to 50 percent).
 Escarpment: a fourth class is added to cater to those situations whereby the standards
associated with each of the above terrain types cannot be met with transverse terrain
slope in excess of 50 percent.
Table 2-2 Terrain types and their slopes
Terrain type Transverse slope

Flat 0-5
Rolling 5-25
Mountainous 25-50
Escarpment >50
Source: ERA manual
2.1.6. Functional classifications of Road
I. Trunk Roads (Class I): centers of international importance and roads terminating at
international boundaries. Have a present AADT ≥1000, although they can have volumes between
100 AADT to 15,000 AADT.
II. Link Roads (Class II): centers of national or international importance, such as principal
towns and urban centers must be linked between each other by link roads. • has over 400 - 1000
first year AADT, although values can range between 50-10,000 AADT.
III. Main Access Roads (Class III): centers of provincial importance must be linked between
each other •First year AADTs are between 30 and 1,000.
IV. Collector Roads (Class IV): linking locally important centers to each other, to a more
important center, or to higher class roads must be linked by a collector road. • First year AADTs
are between 25 and 400.
V. Feeder Roads (Class V): link minor center such as market and local locations. • First year
AADTs are between 0-100

Table 2-3 Design Standards vs. Road classification and AADT

Source: ERA manual

1.
2.
2.1.
2.2. TRAFFIC FACTOR

Vehicular characteristics related to cars, buses trucks, motor cycles all have different speed and
acceleration characteristics. The same traffic behavior is also affected by physical, mental and
psychological characteristics of drivers and pedestrians.
2.2.1. Volume and capacity factor

A highway is designed for not the traffic flow but slighter lower values, so a reasonable value of traffic
volume is decided by multiplying the peak flow with a factor.
2.2.2. Environmental Factor

Landscaping, air pollution temperature, humidity and aesthetic conditions also affect road geometries.
2.3. TRAFFIC COUNTING AND FORECASTING

Transport projects should be planned and designed carefully considering not only the present but
also the future demands which increase with the growth of the population, increase of vehicle
ownership, fuel consumption and the like. Prediction of the future traffic pattern can be estimated
with only a limited accuracy. To determine the total traffic volume over the design life:
 Estimate the average daily traffic (ADT) with regards to vehicle classification. Since
traffic counting is subjected to large errors traffic counts are adjusted to obtain the
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT).
AADT is the total annual traffic usually summed for both directions and divided by 365. The
vehicle classification is mainly based on the weight of the vehicles which can be classified in
numbers 1 to 5 by ERA.

Table 2-4 types of design vehicles
Vehicle Vehicle type Description

code
1 Small car Cars, minibuses, taxis, pickups, cruiser
and land rovers
2 Bus Medium and large buses
3 Medium truck Small and medium trucks
4 Heavy truck Trucks above 7 tons load
5 Articulated truck Truck/Tanker trailer or semi trailer and
tanker trailer
Source: ERA manual 2013
2.3.1. Initial Traffic Volumes

This can be obtained by direct counting of vehicle based on the classification of vehicles and
classify as the average daily traffic. Based from the value of these ADT, the AADT can be
determined by the formula used by ERA. Sometime traffic loading that is used in the structural
design is obtained only in one direction.
2.3.2. Traffic Forecasting
Forecasting traffic is predicting the amount of traffic volume after sometime beyond the existing
traffic volume. It is very important for transport planning. Existing traffic is the current traffic
volume before the road is upgraded.

 Attracted of diverted traffic due to the improvement of existing pavement.

 Normal traffic growth due to the increase in number and usage of motor vehicle.
 Generated traffic – traffic due to upgrading of constructing the new road facility
 Development traffic due to changes (improvements) in adjacent land use.
 Converted traffic
2.4. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The vertical alignment consists of straight roadway section (grade or tangent) connected by
vertical curves. Whenever there is a change of grade in the vertical plane, a vertical curve is
required to smoothen the change. It is usually parabolic as parabolic curves provide a constant
rate of change of grade. The vertical alignment of the road has a strong influence on the
construction cost, operation cost of vehicles using the road and the number of accidents. The
vertical alignment should provide adequate sight distances over crests and sags and should not
present any sudden hidden changes in alignment to the driver. Gradients need to be considered
from the stand point of both length and steepness and the speed at which heavy vehicles enter the
gradient. A vertical alignment consists of straight parts of highway (grades) with vertical curves
and the design involves:
 Selection of grade
 Inserting of vertical curves
 Determination of maximum gradient
 Determination of length of maximum gradient
 Minimum stopping sight distance
 Length of vertical curve etc…
Points to be considered during vertical alignment:
 Gradient of the route should between the allowable maximum and minimum
 Vertical and horizontal curve should not be overlap
 Cut and fill should be balanced
 Provision of adequate sight distance overall crests.

 Avoidance of very short sag vertical curves, i.e. minimum of 120m

 Avoidance of short grade between two vertical curves
 Avoidance of combination of two vertical curves in the same direction, i.e. They should
be replaced by single vertical curves.
 Vertical and horizontal curves should not overlap.
2.4.1. Vertical curve

A vertical curve is a parabolic curve that is applied to make a smooth and safe transition
between two grades on a roadway or a highway. Vertical curves are introduced at the intersection
of two gradients either as summit curves or sag curves. The requirement of a vertical curve is
that it should provide a constant rate of change of grade. According to the topography vertical
curves are of two types.
 Crest curve
 Sag curve
Crest curves: the total change in gradient is negative. In determining the length of the curve the
following points are taken in to account:
 Sight distance (both stopping and passing)

 Class of Highway(DS4)
 Topography (mountainous in our case)
 Curvature
 General appurtenance.
Sag curves: the total change in gradient is positive. The length of the curve is determined by
taking the following criteria’s in to account:
 Headlight sight distance

 Passenger comfort
 Drainage control
 General appearance


Figure 2-1 crest and sag curves
Procedure for computing vertical curve
 compute the algebraic difference in grade

A= G2- G1 (in percent)
Where G1 is the first grade in the direction of change
 based on design speed and type of curve, select the appropriate K
calculate the required vertical length
L=K|A|
 Compute the chain age (i.e. station) of VPC and VPT as follows
VPC=VPI-1/
VPT=VPI+1/2
 Compute the distance from VPC to high or low point as follows

x=-LG1/A
 compute the elevation of VPC and VPT by using G1,G2 and L
 compute the curve elevation at every required station by using the following
equation
y=ax2+bx+c
Where:
y=curve elevation
G2−G1
a=
200 L
G1
b=
100
c=elevation of VPC

x=horizontal distance from VPC to station of interest
1.
2.
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

The alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional problem measured in x, y, and z coordinates.
This is illustrated, from a driver's perspective.
The horizontal alignment of a highway is referred to as the plan view, which is roughly
equivalent to the perspective of an aerial photo of the highway.
Horizontal alignment in road design consists of straight sections of road, known as tangents,
connected by circular horizontal curves. Circular curves are defined by radius and deflection
angle.
The design of a horizontal curve entails the determination of a minimum radius (based on speed
limit), curve length, and objects obstructing the view of the driver. Generally horizontal
alignment consists of:
 horizontal curve
 stopping sight distance
 passing sight distance

Figure 2-2highway alignment in 3 dimensions
The actual implementation and construction of a design based on three-dimensional coordinates

has been prohibitively difficult. As a consequence, the three-dimensional highway alignment
problem is reduced to two-dimensional alignment problems, as illustrated by the following
figure.

Figure 2-3highway alignment in two dimensional views
A suitable horizontal alignment is chosen by an iterative process in which trial horizontal

alignments are tested for vertical geometry and conformance to controls on the alignment. The
horizontal alignment must be designed in coordination with the vertical alignment and both
properly coordinated in accordance with the principles stated in Section 10 and the Sight
Distance requirements of Section 9 of ERA manual..

1.
2.
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.5.1. Tangent section

Tangent section uses in aesthetic point of view, and beneficial in flat terrain than other
topographies. However, long tangent sections increase the danger from headlight glare and
usually lead to excessive speeding. Long distance of tangent section in hot climate is difficult in
safety aspect. And due to the broken back effect, short tangents b/n curves in the same direction
should not be used.
2.5.2. Circular curve

The circular part of the horizontal alignment is provided to create a smooth transition between
the tangents of different angle. It is one of the important features which influences efficiency and
safety of road. When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radial out ward by centrifugal
force which is counterbalanced by providing super elevation of the existing side friction
developed between the tires and the road surface.
Figure 2-4Circular curve


Radius, usually measured to the centerline of the road, in meter. = Central angle of the curve in
degrees
PC = point of curve (the beginning point of the horizontal curve)
PI = point of tangent intersection
PT = Point of tangent (the ending point of the horizontal curve)
T = tangent length in m.
M = middle ordinate from middle point of cord to middle point of curve in m.
E = External distance in m.
L = length of curve
D = Degree of curvature (the angle subtended by a 20m arc* along the horizontal curve)
C = chord length from PC to PT
MINIMUM RADIUS
The minimum radius is a limiting value of curvature for a given design speed and is determined
from the maximum rate of super elevation and the maximum side friction factor selected for
design(limiting value of f).
The minimum radius Rmin can be calculated directly from the simplified formula given by;
Rmin=Vd 2 /127(e+f)
The minimum design radius required for a curve should satisfy:
 Tendency of sliding Rmin=vd 2 /127(e+f) where

Vd=design speed.
e=supper elevation
 Tendency of over turning
 Sight distance requirement.
The minimum radius Rmin can be calculated directly from the simplified formula given by;
Rmin=vd 2 /127(e+f)
2.5.3. Super elevation

Super elevation on curves is intended to counter act of the centrifugal force, the remaining part
being resisted by the lateral friction. This is because skidding and unequal pressure on the wheels
of vehicles, which results from high value of side way force between the tires and the road way
surface.
Generally super-elevation rate is the raising of the outer edge of the road along a curve. In order
to counterbalance the effect of radial centrifugal force, the engineer must select appropriate
values of e and friction coefficient (f). The value selected for super elevation, e, is critical
because high rates of super elevation can cause vehicle steering problems on the horizontal curve
Maximum value of e is controlled by:
 Climatic condition
 Terrain condition
 Area type
 Frequency of very slow moving vehicles
2.5.4. Transition curve

When a vehicle travelling from the straight portion to the curved portion, it is suddenly subjected
to centrifugal force which cause shock sway. To avoid this problem it is common to provide
transition curve which has constantly changing radius which varies from infinity to the radius of
the curve.
Transition curves can be inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the appropriate
changes. The curve commonly inserted is known as Euler spiral curve. Therefore we provide
transition curves at the beginning of the circular curves having a radius equal to infinity at the

end of straight and gradually decreased to the radius of the circular curve. It is also provided at
the exit of the curve.
2.5.5. Control of Sight Distance

Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to meet the minimum
requirements. The following values should be used for the determination of sight lines.
Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters
Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters
Figure 2-5stopping site distance at sag
Figure 2-6stopping site distance at crest
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees or other sight
obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance.

Stopping sight distance

Sight distance is the distance over which visibility occurs between a driver and an object or
between two drivers at specific heights above the carriageway. For safety on the road, sufficient
sight distance must be provided to enable drivers to control their vehicles to avoid collisions with
other vehicles or objects on the road.
The factors affecting stopping sight distance are:
 Speed of the vehicle

 Longitudinal slope of the road
 Frictional resistance
 Total reaction time
 Efficiency of the brake
Minimum sight distance based on car braking performance must be obtained at all points along
the roadway for the chosen design speed. The stopping sight distance comprises two elements:
d1 =the distance moved from the instant the object is sighted to the moment the brakes are
applied (the perception and brake reaction time, referred to as the total reaction time) and
d2= the distance traversed while braking (the braking distance).
Reaction time
The reaction time depends on the physical and mental characteristics of the driver, atmospheric
visibility, type and condition of the road and distance to, size color and shape of the hazard. The
distance travelled before the brake is applied is:
d1 =v*t Where; d1 =total reaction distance in time
v=initial vehicle speed in km/hr
t=reaction time in second

The breaking distance d2, is dependent on vehicle condition and characteristics, the
coefficient of friction between tire and road surface, the gradient of the road and the initial
vehicle speed.
Where: d2 =breaking distance in meters
v=initial vehicle speed in km/hr
f=coefficient of longitudinal friction
g=gradient
The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle traveling
at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The minimum stopping
sight distance is determined from the following formula, which takes into account both the driver
reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The formula is:
where: d = distance (meter) V = initial speed (km/h)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
f=coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
Passing sight distance

Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows: d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the Maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formula for these components are as indicated below: Where
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1)
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where:
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent on
ambient speeds as per Table:
Table 2-5ambient speed for d3 psd
Speed (km/hr) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120

d3 (m) 30 55 80 100

d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less the
portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Figure 2-7 passing site distance
Table 2-6 PSD for different speed
Design speed Coefficient of friction Passing sight distance Design sight distance
(f) (m) (m)

20 .42 160 50
30 .40 217 75
40 .38 285 125
50 .35 345 175
60 .33 407 225
70 .31 482 275
85 .30 573 340
100 .29 670 375
120 .28 792 425
Source: ERA manual
2.5.6. Widening of horizontal curve

Extra width of road may be necessary on curves. As a vehicle turns, the rear wheels follow the
front wheels on a shorter radius, and this has the effect of increasing the width of the vehicle in
relation to the lane width of the roadway.
Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions comparable to those on

tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased.
Curve widening is required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to cater for the
design vehicle.
Extra widening are required for horizontal curve because of the following reasons:-
 Rear wheels don’t follow front wheel.

 Trailers fitted on trucks don’t follow path of truck wheels.
 In buildup area in order to have adequate site distance
 Psychologically drivers tend to keep greater clearance with vehicles coming from
opposite direction

Winding of the highway road depends on the following points .those are: -
 Width of traveled way

 Radius of the curve
 Number of lanes
 Design speed of the vehicle
Table 2-7 curve winding standard from ERA manual
2.6. CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS
Cross sectional elements have to be given consideration during design. The following are the
cross sectional elements that need design:
 Shoulders

 Side slopes
 Longitudinal drainage ditches
 Camber
 Formation width
 Right of way (ROW)
 Carriage way
Carriage way: the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic. Includes: Traffic lanes
 Auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and declaration lanes.

 Climbing lanes
 Passing lanes
Road way: consists of the carriage way and shoulders and parking lanes.
Lane width: Feature of a high way having great influence on safety and comfort in the width of
the carriage way.
Shoulders: Shoulders is a portion of the road way contiguous to carriage way for the
accumulation of stopped vehicles, traditional and intimidate non motorized traffic, animals,
pedestrians and emergency use. And also used for the recovery of stopped vehicles and lateral
support of the pavement course. Shoulder width is specified on ERA 2001 standards.
Normal cross fall: Normal cross fall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage
whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. According to ERA normal cross fall
should be 2.5% on paved roads. Since the project is paved road we take a normal cross fall of
2.5%for all the shoulders and carriage way.
Side slope and back slope: Side slopes and back slopes should be designed to insure the
stability of the road way and to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery vehicles. Three
regions of road side slope need to be checked for safety are:
 The top of the slope

 The side slope

 The toe of the slope
The selection of a side slope and back slope depend on safety and economic consideration.
Clear zone: For adequate safety it is desirable to have good clear zone road for recovery
area .that is as wide as a practical on the specific high way section.
2.7. EARTHWORK
Earth work is conversion of natural condition to required section and grade. Earthwork involves
excavation and removal and dumping of earth. Therefore, it is required to make good estimates
of volumes of earthwork. Volume computations are also needed to determine the capacity of
bins, tanks, and reservoirs. Earthwork operations involve the determination of volumes of
material that is to be excavated or embanked in engineering project to bring the ground surface to
a predetermined grade.
Earthwork computation involves:
 The calculation of earthwork volumes

 The determination of final grades
 The balancing of cuts and fills and
 Planning the most economical haul of material
 Area computation
During design, earthwork calculation helps the designer to limit the earthwork quantities so
that proper grade or vertical alignment can be determined with least cost. Earthwork can be:
 Clearing the roadway

 Excavation of earth and rock from the roadway
 Borrowing and formation of embankments
 Haul and overhaul of material
 Compacting and

 Grading to the required geometry of the section
Area is computed from plan which may be enclosed by straight, irregular or combination of
straight and irregular boundaries. When the boundaries are straight the area is determined by
subdividing the plan into simple geometrical figures such as triangles, rectangles, trapezoids, etc.
Volumes of cut in the case of excavation or volumes of fill in the case of embankment can be
determined using end-area rule or prismodal rule.
BASIC EARTH WORK OPERATIONS
 Clearing and garbing (m2) is the removal of top soil, trees, and bushes and from the sub
grade.
 Excavation (m3) is the process of loosing and removal of soil and rocks. It is used to
maintain the grades for roads and drainage.
Classification of excavation
 Rock excavation
 Common excavation
 Borrow excavation
Unsuitable material excavation: removal and disposal of unsuitable materials for the road.
Embankment /compaction is the densification of fill section of the road.
Transporting /hauling: moving excavated material place to place Unit price of excavation
including the cost of transportation from cut to fill is free haul
Over haul: transporting a distance greater than the free haul distance. Cost are increased for the
over haul distance m3-km-station
Grading /shaping the road bed: is shaping the road bed (m2 )
Factors affecting earthwork

Shrinkage: When the excavated material is compacted the volume will be reduced because of
the escape of voids (i.e. water and air) from the soil and this phenomenon is called shrinkage.
This volume difference is due to the loss of material during hauling and compaction to increase
the density of the soil.
Swell: When the earth material are excavated their volume increases. This increase in volume is
called swelling.
2.8.MASS-HAUL DIAGRAM
A mass-haul diagram or curve is drawn subsequent to the calculation of earthwork volumes, its
ordinates showing cumulative volumes at specific points along the centre line. It is a graphical
representation of the amount of earth work and embankment involved in a project and the
manner in which the earth is to be moved.
In other words, mass haul diagram is a continuous curve showing the accumulated algebraic sum
of the cut (positive) and fill (negative) volume from some initial station for any succeeding
section. The horizontal or x-axis represents distance and is usually expressed in meters or
stations. The vertical or y- axis represents the cumulative volume (quantity) of earth work in
cubic meter. The quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered positive, and
embankment is negative. To draw the mass haul diagram it is convenient to tabulate the
cumulative volumes of cuts and fill at each station. Volumes of cut and fill are treated as positive
and negative, respectively. Compensation can be made as necessary, for shrinkage or bulking of
the excavated material when placed finally in an embankment.

Figure 2-8Mass-Haul Diagram
USES OF MASS HAUL DIAGRAM
 If mass haul is drawn for each trial grade line it can be used for selecting the
mosteconomical gradient.
 Once the formation level is designed it can be used to indicate the most economical
methodof moving the earth.
 proper distribution of excavated material
 To know amount and location of waste
 To know amount and location of borrow
 To compute the amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters
 To know the direction of haul
Characteristics of Mass haul Curve:
 Rising sections of the mass curve indicates areas where excavating exceeds fill,
whereas falling sections indicate where fill exceeds excavation.
 Steep slopes reflect heavy cuts & fills, while flat slopes indicate areas of small
amount of earthwork.

 The difference in ordinates between any two points indicates net excess of excavation
over embankment or vice versa.
 Any horizontal line drawn to intersect two points within the same curve indicates a
balance of excavation (cut) and embankment (fill) quantities between the two points.
 Points of zero slopes represent points where roadway goes from cut to fill or from fill
to cut.
 The highest or the lowest point of the mass haul diagram represents the crossing
points between the grade line (roadway level) and natural ground level.
2.9. PAVEMENT DESIGN
A pavement structure is a layer structure which supports the vehicle load on its surface and
transfers and spreads the load to the sub grade without exceeding either the strength of the
sub grade or the internal strength of the pavement itself. there are two types of pavement.
among those flexible pavement is used in our road project.
2.9.1. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Flexible pavement is a type of pavement that have the following characteristics:
 Load distribution through a multilayer structure,

 Stresses & strains in the sub grade soil layers are within the required limits,
 The sub grade soil strength would have a direct bearing on the total thickness of the
flexible pavement,
 Takes advantage of the decreasing magnitude of stresses with depth.
 Generally our road project is design of the flexible pavement.
There are two types of construction have been used for flexible pavements,
 conventional flexible pavement and

 full-depth asphalt pavement
Conventional flexible pavements are multilayered structures.

Surface course: consists of bituminous layer skid resistant travelled surface. The
composition of the bituminous mixtures and the nominal top site aggregates is determined by
intended use, desired surface texture and layer thickness.
Base course: Base and sub base layers of the flexible pavement make up larger proportion of
the total pavement thickness needed to distribute the stresses imposed by traffic loading.
Sub-base course: Is lower quality than the material in strength plastic superior to sub grade
material. It can be compacted granular material or stabilized soil. On weak sub grade it also
serve as a useful working plat form for construction of base course. It can be omitted if sub
grade soil satisfies the requirement specified for sub base material
Sub grade: It is a natural soil forming the road bed for pavement construction. In Highway
engineering, sub grade is finished grade line which is ready to accept sub base, base course
and pavement. Sub grade is normally compacted before construction of pavement. It is a
foundation of pavement structure, on which the sub base is laid. The top layer of specified
depth is usually compacted to achieve the desired density, mostly 95% density.
Depth of compaction and compacted density require depends on the type of soil, and
magnitude of the wheel loads and tyre pressure The flexible pavement has the advantage of
being fairly quiet when driven on and reflecting back light at night
2.9.2. RIGID PAVEMENT

As the name implies, rigid pavements are rigid i.e., they do not flex much under loading like
flexible pavements. They are constructed using cement concrete. In this case, the load
carrying capacity is mainly due to the rigidity ad high modulus of elasticity of the concrete
slab.
Table 2-8Traffic classes of the pavement design
Traffic classes ESA(106)

T1 <3
T2 0.3-0.7
T3 0.7-1.5
T4 1.5-3
T5 3-6
T6 6-10
T7 10-17
T8 17-30
Source: ERA manual
The structural catalog for the design of sub grade strength can be assigned to one of the six
strength classes reflecting the sensitivity of thickness design to sub grade strength.
Table 2-9Sub grade strength class
CLASS CBR (%)

S1 2
S2 3-4
S3 5-7
S4 8-14
S5 15-29
S6 >30
Source: ERA manual
Pavement thickness design:
The main purpose of the road structure is to provide a means of reducing the stress due to the
wheel. This is achieved by constructing a hard layer above the sub grade to transfer the load
from the pavement surface to the sub grade. Therefore, to avoid deterioration before the
design period, proper pavement thickness with proper materials is needed.

CHAPTER THREE
3. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
3.1. Project Materials
In every step of our work the following methods were followed:

 Different books of highway engineering.
 Computer software’s of highway engineering(i.e. Civil 3D)
 Consulting the advisor

.1.
Methodology
 OGL (original ground level) was given in an excel format.
 It was imported to Auto cad CIVIL 3D
 Triangulation was conducted on AUTO CAD CIVIL 3D and boundaries of the road were
drawn.
 Contour was drawn and original ground level elevation was taken from contours.
 Using the corresponding original ground level elevation, formation level was provided on
excel.
 From original ground level elevation and formation level, mass haul diagram was drawn
on excel after the area and volume of cuts and fill were calculated.
 The largest growth rate(r) was taken from the data to be on the safest side so that in the
future the demand will not exceed the capacity of the roadway.
 Using the given AADT0 traffic data, AADT1 was calculated
 Design standard of the road, the lane width and shoulder width were taken from ERA
using AADT1.
 With corresponding AADT1 and terrain type, design speed was obtained from ERA.
 Minimum radius was calculated using design speed, super elevation and coefficient of
friction.
 Horizontal alignment was designed using the above calculated values of radius and the
values of internal Angele (Δ), PI station and number of curves which were taken from the
CIVIL 3D.

CHAPTER FOUR
4. ANALYSIS OF DESIGN DATA
4.1.Design control factor
Functional Classification of roads:-not all roads should be used to the same function. The
functional classification of the road depends on the AADT value of the road. so in order to
classify the road function first of all determine expected value of AADT so the following table
are the initial value of AADT of the road
Table 4-10 initial traffic volume of the road
VEHICLE AADTo
Car 155
Bus 55
Truck 75
Truck trailer 42
Total =327
Our road project(yoftahe negussie to entrance gate) have AADT value (327).hence our road
project is main access road with a Standard Class of DS5. After selecting the function of the road
and design standard we will select design parameters from ERA design manual based on DS5
design standard and main access functional class.
Selected design standard DS5 (Paved) design parameters
Table 4-11 geometric design parameter

So based on above design control factors for our road project we have selected the following
parameters. Design standard DS5 road functional classification main access road for rolling
terrain design speed of 70km/h.
This table shown below selecting design parameters in our project.
Table 4-12 selected design parameter

Design Element Unit Vehicle From DC5 Rolling Type Terrain

Design speed Km/h 70
Min SSD M 110
Min PSD M 270
Minimum horizontal radius M 215
Normal cross fall % 2.5
Super elevation % 8
Design of road cross section element
In our road project we are provided with carriage way of 7m and two side shoulder of 3m.so
10m (7+3) road way are provided. For our road project with DS5 design standard a 3.5m lane
width and the normal crown slope of 2.5% are selected based on design control factors. The
following figure shows the road cross section of our project.
The following figure is the road cross section of our project

Figure 4-9 road cross section
4.
4.1.
4.2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is designed to
meet the needs of the road users. it is an essential component in the design of a high way.
Elements of geometric design include:-
Horizontal alignment
 Minimum radius of curve

 Minimum stopping sight distance
 Minimum passing sight distance
 Super elevation
 minimum and maximum tangent length
Vertical alignment
 Maximum and minimum gradient

 Minimum curvature length (K)
 Sight distance on vertical curves
 Length of vertical curves

4.2.1. Horizontal alignment

The selection of this aliment must be consider the following points. Those are; safe,
economic and short etc. .So the following figure is our selected or lay out of the center
of the road.
Figure 4-10 Road alignment
Calculation of minimum radius
Calculation of our minimum radius for rolling terrain type
VD 2
Rmin=
127(e +f )
Where: Rmin = minimum horizontal curve radius
VD =70Km/hr Design Speed (km/h)
e =8% Maximum super elevation in friction
f =0.14 Side friction coefficient in the ERA manual table
2
70
Rmin= =175.4 m
127(0.18+ 0.14)
So our design radius is 175m

Table 4-13 horizontal curve alignment
Tangent Data
Description PT Station Northing Easting
Start: 0+00.000 1142162 363008.7

End: 1+61.217 1142216 363160.6
Tangent Data
Parameter Value Parameter Value
N 70° 26'
Length: 161.217 Course: 34.0875" E
Curve Point Data
Description Station Northing Easting
PC: 1+61.217 1142216 363160.6

RP: 1142051 363219.2
PT: 2+01.674 1142225 363200
Circular Curve Data
Delta: 13° 14' 44.5929" Type: RIGHT

Radius: 175
Length: 40.457 Tangent: 20.319
Mid-Ord: 1.168 External: 1.176
N 77° 03'
Chord: 40.367 Course: 56.3840" E

Tangent Data
Start: 2+01.674 1142225 363200

End: 2+67.391 1142232 363265.3
Tangent Data
N 83° 41'
Length: 65.717 Course: 18.6805" E
Curve Point Data
PC: 2+67.391 1142232 363265.3

RP: 1142058 363284.5
PT: 3+36.649 1142226 363333.8
Circular Curve Data

Radius: 175
S 84° 58'
Chord: 68.807 Course: 25.5745" E
Tangent Data
Start: 3+36.649 1142226 363333.8

End: 3+80.843 1142213 363376.2
Tangent Data

S 73° 38'
Length: 44.194 Course: 09.8295" E
Curve Point Data
PC: 3+80.843 1142213 363376.2

RP: 1142045 363326.9
PT: 4+28.244 1142194 363419.4
Circular Curve Data

Radius: 175
S 65° 52'
Chord: 47.257 Course: 34.8134" E
Tangent Data
Start: 4+28.244 1142194 363419.4

End: 5+42.705 1142134 363516.6
Tangent Data
S 58° 06'
Length: 114.461 Course: 59.7973" E

Curve Point Data
PC: 5+42.705 1142134 363516.6

RP: 1141985 363424.1
PT: 5+48.164 1142131 363521.1
Circular Curve Data

Radius: 175
S 57° 13'
Chord: 5.459 Course: 22.5906" E
Tangent Data
Start: 5+48.164 1142131 363521.1

End: 7+34.382 1142027 363676.1
Tangent Data
S 56° 19'
Length: 186.218 Course: 45.3839" E
Curve Point Data
PC: 7+34.382 1142027 363676.1

RP: 1141882 363579.1
PT: 7+89.545 1141990 363716.5

Circular Curve Data

Radius: 175
S 47° 17'
Chord: 54.935 Course: 56.2547" E
Tangent Data
Start: 7+89.545 1141990 363716.5

End: 8+58.661 1141936 363759.3
Tangent Data
S 38° 16'
Length: 69.116 Course: 07.1255" E
Curve Point Data
PC: 8+58.661 1141936 363759.3

RP: 1141828 363621.9
PT: 9+02.336 1141899 363781.8
Circular Curve Data

Radius: 175


S 31° 07'
Chord: 43.561 Course: 08.5412" E
Tangent Data
Start: 9+02.336 1141899 363781.8

End: 9+98.366 1141811 363820.8
Tangent Data
S 23° 58'
Length: 96.03 Course: 09.9568" E
A. Design of widening for horizontal curve
Table 4-14 Widening on Curves and High Fills
Extra widening is provided for two cases:-

 Widening for vehicle operation
2
nB
We =
2R

 Extra widening needed for psychological reason

V
w=
10 √ R
Where, n number of lanes
R radius of curvature in meter
B wheel base length in meter
V design speed in km/hr.
Then the total widening needed for n lanes of highway is given by
nB
2
V 2∗4.3
2
70
We = + = + = 0.6m
2 R 10 √ R 2∗175 10 √175
As we can see from the above horizontal curve calculation all curve radius are between 120- 250
m. So from ERA manual if radius is between 120-250 m widening is required. Which is 0.6m in
our case.
B. Design of sight distance

From the literature review table we take the design parameters for sight distance are
selected as shown table below
Table 4-15 stopping and Passing Sight Distances for Paved Roads

Design Coefficient of Stopping site Passing Sight Passing site distance

speed(km/h friction (f) distance(m) Distance (m) to allow manoeuvre
from to be aborted(m)
formulae
70 0.315 120 480 270
Calculation of stopping sight distance
Given –minimum stopping sight distance=120

t = 2.5 second
V =70(km/h)
f =0.315
702
d=0.278∗2.∗70+ SSD=101.5m
(254 ( 0.315+5 /100 ))
Calculation of passing site distance
PSD=d1+d2+d3+d4
Table 4-16 design value for sight distance
Design speed(km/h) Average acceleration Time of initial

(a) maneuver s(t1)
70 5 2.5
For the design speed of 70km/h
at 1 4∗2.5
d 1 = 0.278 t 1 (v- m + ) = 0.278*2.5*(70-15 + ) = 41.7m
2 2
d2=0.278 v * t2 = 0.278 *70 * 3 = 58.38m

Table 4-17 Clearance Distance (d3) for Different Ambient Speeds
d3=55m (from table)
2
d4 = d = 38.92m
3 2
The total passing sight distance for design speed 70 km/hr.
PSD = d 1 + d2 + d 3 +d 4 = 194m < 270………. Safe to pass!

2.
3.
4.
4.1.
4.2.
4.2.1.
4.2.2. Vertical alignment

Vertical curves are the elevation or profile of the center line of the road which used to
provide a gradual change from one tangent to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as
they travel the road. the following figure are our vertical profile of the road.
Figure 4-11 vertical profile of our road project
Table 4-18 vertical curve information

Vertical Curve Information:(sag curve)
PVC Station: 0+153.33 Elevation: 2,449.185m
PVI Station: 0+180.00 Elevation: 2,448.000m
PVT Station: 0+206.67 Elevation: 2,448.000m
Low Point: 0+206.67 Elevation: 2,448.000m
Grade in: -4.44% Grade out: 0.00%
Change: 4.44% K: 12.000m
Curve Length: 53.333m Curve Radius 1,200.000m
Headlight Distance: 118.016m

Vertical Curve Information:(sag curve)
PVC Station: 0+740.31 Elevation: 2,424.016m
PVI Station: 0+761.79 Elevation: 2,422.908m
PVT Station: 0+783.28 Elevation: 2,422.570m
Low Point: 0+783.28 Elevation: 2,422.570m
Grade in: -5.15% Grade out: -1.57%
Change: 3.58% K: 12.000m
Curve Length: 42.971m Curve Radius 1,200.000m
Headlight Distance: 150.885m
Design for Sag curve

The design data are taken from ERA geometric manual 2013, table for DC5
Design speed ------ 70km/hr
Topography --------- rolling
Departed gradient ---- G1=-4.44% and G2=0%
Min. stopping sight ----- 110m
Min .passing sight distance ----- 270m
Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
L=AK ,
Where K is rate of vertical curvature.
K=12 for sag curve
A=/G2-G1/= /4.44+0/=4.44
L= 4.44*12 = 53.3m
Length required for safe stopping site distance
When SSD > L
L=2SSD - 200(h+ SSD* tanα)/A
Where for sag curve, the height from the ground to the eye of the driver, h =0.6 and the angle
between the ray from the observer‘s eye to the object, α= 1o Soothe required curve length is:
L=2SSD - 200(h+ SSD* tanα)/A
L=2*110 - 200(0.6+ 110*tan 10)/4.44% = 64m
Length required for safe passing site distance
LI= 2* PSD- 200(h + PSD * tanα)/A

L = 2*270 – 200(0.6+ 270tan1°) / 4.44% = 117.7m
Length required for passengers comfort
LII = Vd2*A /389
L = 702*4.44/389 =55.9m
Length required for aesthetic (appearance)
L= 30 *A
L = 30*4.44= 133.2m
The remaining curve will be calculated as above
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.1.
4.2.
4.2.1.
4.2.2.
4.3. EARTH WORK

Earth work is conversion of natural condition to required section and grade. Earth work in high
way design includes determination of cuts and fills, waste sites, the free haul and over haul
distance determination.

Table 4-19 Cut fill value of our road project from software out put
Cum. Cum.
Cut Cut Reusable Fill Fill Cum. Cum.
Cut Reusabl
Station Area Volume Volume Area Volume Fill Vol. Net Vol.
Vol. e Vol.
(Sq.m.) (Cu.m.) (Cu.m.) (Sq.m.) (Cu.m.) (Cu.m.) (Cu.m.)
(Cu.m.) (Cu.m.)
0+020.000 7.95 0 0 0.18 0 0 0 0 0
0+040.000 9.73 176.81 176.81 0 1.85 176.81 176.81 1.85 174.97
0+060.000 11.56 212.95 212.95 0 0 389.77 389.77 1.85 387.92
0+080.000 10.38 219.38 219.38 0 0 609.14 609.14 1.85 607.3
0+100.000 10.03 204.05 204.05 0 0 813.19 813.19 1.85 811.35
0+120.000 10.3 203.29 203.29 0 0 1016.48 1016.48 1.85 1014.63
0+140.000 13.54 238.37 238.37 0 0 1254.85 1254.85 1.85 1253.01
0+160.000 11.52 250.61 250.61 0 0 1505.46 1505.46 1.85 1503.62
0+170.000 13.28 124.75 124.75 0 0.01 1630.21 1630.21 1.86 1628.35
0+180.000 17.33 152.98 152.98 0 0.01 1783.19 1783.19 1.87 1781.32
0+190.000 20.45 187.45 187.45 0 0 1970.64 1970.64 1.87 1968.77
0+200.000 18.7 193.36 193.36 0.03 0.13 2164 2164 2 2162
0+220.000 13.6 323.01 323.01 0 0.28 2487.02 2487.02 2.28 2484.74
0+240.000 11.03 246.28 246.28 0 0 2733.29 2733.29 2.28 2731.01
0+260.000 9.57 205.94 205.94 0.38 3.79 2939.23 2939.23 6.06 2933.17
0+270.000 10.36 99.64 99.64 0.09 2.33 3038.87 3038.87 8.4 3030.48
0+280.000 12.3 114.02 114.02 0 0.46 3152.9 3152.9 8.86 3144.04
0+290.000 11.51 120.05 120.05 0 0 3272.95 3272.95 8.86 3264.09
0+300.000 10.05 108.84 108.84 0 0 3381.79 3381.79 8.86 3372.93

0+310.000 9.69 99.72 99.72 0 0 3481.51 3481.51 8.86 3472.65
0+320.000 9.17 95.24 95.24 0 0 3576.74 3576.74 8.86 3567.88
0+330.000 8.46 89.06 89.06 0 0 3665.81 3665.81 8.86 3656.95
0+340.000 6.61 75.99 75.99 0.01 0.05 3741.79 3741.79 8.91 3732.88
0+360.000 5.95 125.66 125.66 0 0.1 3867.45 3867.45 9.01 3858.44
0+380.000 9.54 154.91 154.91 0 0 4022.36 4022.36 9.01 4013.35
0+390.000 11.3 104.98 104.98 0 0 4127.34 4127.34 9.01 4118.33
0+400.000 12.89 121.92 121.92 0 0 4249.26 4249.26 9.01 4240.25
0+410.000 11.22 121.25 121.25 0 0 4370.51 4370.51 9.01 4361.5
0+420.000 8.37 97.84 97.84 0.06 0.28 4468.35 4468.35 9.29 4459.06
0+440.000 6.95 152.69 152.69 0.29 3.4 4621.03 4621.03 12.69 4608.34
0+460.000 8.43 153.84 153.84 2.3 25.87 4774.88 4774.88 38.56 4736.32
0+480.000 1.19 96.22 96.22 4.2 65 4871.1 4871.1 103.56 4767.54
0+500.000 3.85 50.42 50.42 1.6 58.07 4921.52 4921.52 161.63 4759.89
0+520.000 7.84 116.92 116.92 0.03 16.34 5038.44 5038.44 177.98 4860.46
0+540.000 11.56 194.01 194.01 0 0.31 5232.46 5232.46 178.29 5054.17
0+560.000 10.83 224.09 224.09 0 0 5456.55 5456.55 178.29 5278.26
0+580.000 5.27 160.98 160.98 0 0 5617.53 5617.53 178.29 5439.24
0+600.000 4.38 96.48 96.48 0 0 5714.01 5714.01 178.29 5535.72
0+620.000 4.92 92.99 92.99 0 0.01 5807 5807 178.3 5628.71
0+640.000 6.68 116.04 116.04 0 0.01 5923.05 5923.05 178.31 5744.74
0+660.000 7.01 136.94 136.94 0 0 6059.99 6059.99 178.31 5881.68
0+680.000 7.22 142.28 142.28 0 0 6202.27 6202.27 178.31 6023.96
0+700.000 7.19 144.1 144.1 0.07 0.73 6346.37 6346.37 179.04 6167.33

0+720.000 4.92 121.11 121.11 0.25 3.19 6467.48 6467.48 182.22 6285.26
0+740.000 12.79 176.84 176.84 0 2.49 6644.31 6644.31 184.71 6459.61
0+750.000 12.61 127 127 0 0 6771.31 6771.31 184.71 6586.6
0+760.000 11.67 121.86 121.86 0 0 6893.17 6893.17 184.71 6708.46
0+770.000 12.05 119.21 119.21 0 0 7012.38 7012.38 184.71 6827.67
0+780.000 12.31 122.1 122.1 0 0 7134.48 7134.48 184.71 6949.78
0+800.000 6.29 185.45 185.45 3.78 38.43 7319.94 7319.94 223.14 7096.8
0+820.000 8.08 143.74 143.74 0 37.76 7463.68 7463.68 260.9 7202.78
0+840.000 8.41 164.92 164.92 0 0 7628.6 7628.6 260.9 7367.7
0+860.000 12.77 211.79 211.79 0 0 7840.39 7840.39 260.9 7579.49
0+870.000 14.47 135.34 135.34 0 0 7975.73 7975.73 260.9 7714.83
0+880.000 15.88 151.05 151.05 0 0 8126.78 8126.78 260.9 7865.88
0+890.000 15.72 157.55 157.55 0 0 8284.33 8284.33 260.9 8023.43
0+900.000 14.96 153.16 153.16 0 0 8437.49 8437.49 260.9 8176.59
0+920.000 12.69 276.51 276.51 0.03 0.34 8713.99 8713.99 261.24 8452.76
0+940.000 11.57 242.65 242.65 0.03 0.63 8956.64 8956.64 261.86 8694.78
0+960.000 11.37 229.39 229.39 0 0.29 9186.03 9186.03 262.15 8923.87
0+980.000 11.2 225.67 225.67 0 0 9411.69 9411.69 262.15 9149.54
4.3.1. Mass haul diagram

It is a graphical representation of the amount of earth work and embankment involved in a
project and the manner in which the earth is to be moved. Mass haul diagram is a continuous
curve showing the accumulated algebraic sum of the cut (+ve) and fill (-ve) volume from some
initial station for any succeeding section. The horizontal or x-axis represents distance and is
usually expressed in meters or stations. The vertical or y- axis represents the cumulative quantity
of earth work in cubic meter.

The quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered positive, and embankment is
negative. To draw the mass haul diagram it is convenient to tabulate the cumulative volumes of
cuts and fill at each station. The mass diagram allows a high way engineer to determine direction
of haul and the quantity of earth taken from or hauled to any location. It shows ‘balance point ‘
the station between which is the volume of excavation
Figure 4-12 mass haul diagram of our project
4.3.2. Pavement design

There are three main steps to designing pavement. 1. Estimating the traffic and cumulative
equivalent standard axels that pass through this road over the design life. 2. Assessment of the
sub grade strength of the soil over which the road is to be built. 3. Selecting the most economical
combination of pavement material and layer thickness that will provide satisfactory service over
design life of the road.
4.3.2.1. Design parameters

The steps in Pavement design of roads are
 Deciding the pavement design life

 Estimating the amount of traffic
 Assessing the amount of traffic
Selecting the most economical pavement combination and layer thickness.

Pavement Design Life
Pavement design life is the period where the pavement serves the design traffic without major
maintenance. Some of the points we considered in deciding the pavement life include:-
 Functional importance of the road

 Traffic volume
 Location and terrain of the project
By considering the above criteria our project is classified under main access road the design
period is taken as 15 years as per the ERA design manual, 2013.
A. Initial Traffic Volume:-The purpose of the traffic count is to get the average daily
traffic volume currently using the road.
Table 4-20 initial traffic volume of the road
VEHICLE AADT
Car 155
Bus 55
Truck 75
Truck trailer 42
1. Computation of traffic volume
Determination of the annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT1)
The annual average daily traffic volume at the road opening years
AADT1 =AADTO(1+i)X

Where AADT1=traffic volume at the road opening year
AADTo= traffic volume at the road survey year
i = growth rate (4%)
x=year between traffic counting & road opening (3 years)
The annual average daily traffic at the opening of the road show below the table using the
Formula AADT1=AADTO( 1+i)x
Table 4-21 cumulative volume of vehicle
Vehicle type Cumulative volume of one directional

vehicle for a period of three (3) years
Car 0.5*155(1+0.04)3=87
Bus 0.5*55(1+0.04)3=30
Truck 0.5*75(1+0.04)3=41
Truck trailer 0.5*42(1+0.04)3=24
2. Determination of cumulative traffic volumes:-
The cumulative number of vehicles over the design period of the road, can be computed using
the following formula.
T =365∗AADT 1∗Df ∗¿ ]
Where T=cumulative number of the vehicle
AADT1= traffic volume at the road opening year
i = growth rate
n= design period 15 years
Df=directional split factor

Based on the above formula the cumulative number of the vehicle over the design period is
computed and tabulated below. the traffic loading of the project road is almost similar in both
directions, since directional spilt factor is 50%.
Table 4-22 cumulative no of vehicles
Vehicle type Cumulative no of vehicles in one direction over 15 years
Car 365*87((1+0.04)15-1)/0.04=635849
Bus 365*31((1+0.04)15-1)/0.04=226582.9
Truck 365*42((1+0.04)15-1)/0.04=306985.2
Truck and trailer 365*23((1+0.04)15-1)/0.04=175420
Equivalence factor is taken in ERA 2013 table depending on vehicle type and their axle load.
Therefore equivalent standard axles calculated using cumulative traffic volume and equivalent
factor as below table.
Table 4-23 equivalent single axle load calculation
Vehicle type Cumulative no of Equivalency factor ESAL(106)

vehicle
Car 635849 0.00 0.00
Bus 226582.9 0.14 0.032
Truck 306985.2 6.67 2.048
Truck trailer 175420 11.47 2.012
Total 4.09

4.3.2.2. Traffic Classes for Pavement Design

Accurate estimates of cumulative traffic are very difficult to achieve due to errors in the surveys
and uncertainties with regard to traffic growth, axle loads and axle equivalencies.
Table 4-24 traffic class
The calculated Equivalent standard axle 4.09*106 lies in the range of (3-6)*106.Based on ERA‟s
classification of traffic class. our project road is classified as T5
3.
4.
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.3.1.
4.3.2.
4.3.3. Laboratory test

we determine the CBR value using proctor compaction test

Table 4-25 proctor compaction test
Determination 1 2 3
number
Container number A2 D2 A11 A32 A21 A42
Weight of container 165.7 154 133.2 119.1 137.8 133.7
and wet soil W(g)
Weight of container 149.3 138 112.4 100.9 106 102.5
and dry soil W0 (g)
Weight of container 26.4 20.5 23.5 23.8 23.3 23.5
W1(g)
Weight of dry soil 122.9 117.5 88.9 77.1 82.7 79
W2= (W0-W1)
Weight of water 16.4 16 20.8 18.2 31.8 31.2
W3=(W-W0)(g)
Moisture Content % 13.3 13.6 23.1 23.6 38.5 39.5
(W3/W2)*100
Table 4-26 maximum dry density
Determination 1 2 3
number

Weight of mould(g) 4935.3 4935.3 4935.3
Weight of mould 8188.3 9164.1 8758.6

and wet soil W(g)
Weight of soil 3253 4228.8 3823.3
W0(g)
Volume of mould 2068 2068 2068
(πD2h/4) W1(g/cc)
Wet density W2= 1.573 2.045 1.849
W0/W1
Dry density W3 1.388 1.661 1.335
 Calculate Dry density
W3= {(wet density)/ (100+moisture content)}*100
MDD=1661g/cc
OMC=23.1
 Calculating CBR value
CBR2.54=2.61*PT/PS
Where PT: penetration load
PS: standard load,
PS=1370 at 2.54
CBR5.08=2.61*PT/PS
PS =2050 at 5.08

Table 4-27 Sub grade strength class and the range of CBR (%)
Penetration Load reading CBR
0 0
0.64 22
1.27 43
1.91 61
2.54 63.2 12.07
3.18 70.2
3.81 73
4.45 77.5
5.08 81.5 10.38
7.62 103
10.16 107
12.7 113
Table 4-28 Sub grade strength class and CBR (%)

Sub grade strength class Range of CBR (%)
S1 <3%
S2 3-4
S3 5-7
S4 8-14
S5 15-29
S6 30+
From the above table this project sub grade strength is S5. So, by using this structural class select
alternative thickness for this design pavement as follow.
Figure
6-13 key
to
catalogue




Table 6-29 Alternative pavement thickness

Pavement component A1 A2 A3 B1 Table

6-30
AC wearing course 40 40 40 50 Relative
unit
Road base asphaltic - - - - coast of
Crushed stone 225 150 - 175 material
Cement stabilized - - 200 - from ERA
Granular sub base 175 - - 150

Cement stabilized - 175 175 -
Selected fill - - - -
Figure
specification
M T
a h u
t i n
e c i
r k t
i n
a e c
l s o
d s s
e ( t
s m
c m
r )
i
p
t
i
o
n
A 4 0
C 0 .
3
w 4
e
a

r
i
n
g
c
o
u
r
s
e
A 5 0
C 0 .
4
b 0
i
n
d
e
r
c
o
u
r
s
e
A 6 0
C 0 .
4
b 5
a
s
e
c
o
u
r
s
e
A 1 1
s 7 .
p 0 2
h 5
a
l
t

r
o
a
d
b
a
s
e
C 1 0
r 5 .
u 0 8
s 2 2
h 0 1
e 0
d
s
t
o
n
e
r
o
a
d
b
a
s
e
C 2 0
e 2 .
m 5 6
e 3
n
t
s
t
a
b
il
i
z
e
d

r
o
a
d
b
a
s
e
G 3 0
r 2 .
a 5 6
n 1 0
u 7 0
l 5 .
a 1 3
r 2 3
s 5 0
u .
b 2
5
b
a
s
e
S 1 0
e 5 .
l 0 1
e 9
c
t
e
d
f
il
l
/
c
a
p
p
i
n
g

l
a
y
e
r
Table 6-31 unit price for alternative pavement structure
Charts Thickness(mm) Unit price

A1 Surface course 40 0.34
Base course 225 1.0
Sub base course 175 0.33
Total=1.67

Base course (cement) 150 0.82
sub base (cement stabilized) 175 0.49
Total=1.65

Base course (cement) 200 0.63
sub base (cement stabilized) 175 0.38
Total=1.35
B1 Surface course 50 0.34

Base course 175 0.82
Granular Sub base 150 0.42
Total=1.58
Criteria for selecting the appropriate pavement structure

 Financial impute (economical consideration)
 Load of the vehicle that pass on pavement
 Environmental impact

So, based on the above criteria, traffic class (T5) and subgrade strength (S5) we have selected structure
catalogue A3


From ERA 2013 flexible pavement design manual we select the following thickness layer
depending up on the calculated traffic class and sub grade strength which is T5/S4
Figure 4-14 pavement thickens layer for the project

CHAPTER FIVE
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1.Conclusions
From this project we conclude that the road is important for economical, social and political
development of a country so it is necessary to give a special attention for geometric and
pavement design of the road.
The design of the road must be safe functional and also economical. When we say safe design
the road geometric alignment should give comfort for the road users and minimize the accidental
risk which occur on the road. When we design any road project first we collect the necessary
data; the data must be accurate.
After that analysis the collected data and select appropriate design parameters (speed, minimum
radius design standard k value length of vertical curve etc). This study covers the evaluation of
actual highway geometric design elements, and set all geometric cross section elements with
their proper design and analysis of horizontal curves, vertical curves, super- elevations, widening
pavement design etc.
Generally when we design this project we perform the activities safe and short aliment, set out
of the proper profile (vertical alignment) to consider amount of cut or fill of the earth work for
economically and to draw mass haul diagram which is show the cut fill balance and indicates
wastages, borrow that station of the alignment.
To determine the thickness of fixable Pavement for each layers considering the quality of
material with its cost and strength of sub grad soils and equivalent single axle load.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
5.1.
5.2.Recommendation
Base on the above limitation, we propose the following recommendations.
 Adequate and full data should be provided for the students (including metrological data,
Topography data, etc….) which initiates and encourage them to achieve a successful
project on time.
 Adequate reference materials, including handbooks and manuals, should be available for
students in enough amounts for quick reference and empower their knowledge.
 There should be good advising time regarding software analysis

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UPGRADING COBBLESTON ROAD TO PAVEMENT ROAD

Habtamu Tesfaye …………………..TER-0590/10

Sineshaw Tadios ……………………TER-0860/10

Bontu Getachew ……………………..TER-0112/11

SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

DEBRE MARKOS ETHIOPIA

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page i

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page ii

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page iii

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page iv

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 1

2.5. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT.................................................................................................26

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 2

4.3.3. Laboratory test.......................................................................................................................74

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 3

Table 2-1Road classification and Design period........................................................................................16

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 4

Figure 2-1 crest and sag curves.................................................................................................................24

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 5

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

CBR California Bearing Ratio DC Design Standard

ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority

EDDM ERA Drainage Design Manual – 2013

EPDM ERA Pavement Design Manual – 2013

ESAL Equivalent Standard Axle Load

MDD Maximum Dry Density

OMC Optimum Moisture Content

VPI Vertical Point of Intersection (for vertical alignment)

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 6

Conditions commonly leading to a road improvement project:

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 7

Road improvement provides an opportunity to upgrade, improve, or repair a road that is

Improvements may include, but not be limited to, the following:

 Re-aligning the horizontal and/or vertical alignment of the road.

1.1.BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT AREA

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 8

1.2.PROBLEM OF EXISTING ROAD

1.3. OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

1.3.1. General Objective

1.3.2. Specific Objective

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 9

 To design the cross sectional elements.

1.4.SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

1.5.SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

 To reduce wastage of energy during travelling

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 10

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 11

 Roads provide a wide geographical coverage, particularly in hilly regions. And it

DEBREMARKOS UNIVERSITY 2015 Page 12

 connecting nation to nation

In general when a road design is done the following are considered:

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Design controls to be satisfied are the following:

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2.1.1. Design speed

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 Physical characteristics of a high way and its surrounding

2.1.2. Design class

2.1.3. Design Vehicles

2.1.4. Design period

 Functional importance of the road

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Table 2-1Road classification and Design period