BFC 32002 Hydrology

Chapter 2. Precipitation

Prepared by:
Siti Nazahiyah Rahmat
Tan Lai Wai
Wan Afnizan Wan Mohamed
Hartini Kasmin
 Chapter 2. Precipitation

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

i. list type of precipitation,

ii. understand how measurement of rainfall depth are made,

iii. estimate for missing rainfall data for a particular rainfall station, and

iv. determine areal rainfall using data from rainfall stations

2.1 Types of Precipitation

a. Snow - consists of ice crystals. Average water content is about 10% of an

equal volume of water.

b. Hail - 5 mm to over 125 mm diameter balls of ice. Specific gravity is

about 0.7 to 0.9. Hailstones have the potential of causing damage
to agricultural crops and other properties.

c. Sleet - due to freezing of raindrops. Usually the combination of snow and

rain.

d. Rain - consists of water drops of diameter between 0.5 mm to 7 mm.

e. Drizzle - small, numerous and uniformly dispersed water drops which

appear to float and flow with air currents. Drizzle are drops of
diameter less than 0.5 mm. Settling velocity is small, rarely
exceeding 1 mm/hr. It is also known as warm precipitation.
 Types of Precipitation
Snow on twigs, Poland Hailstone of diameter approx. 6 cm

Sleet or freezing rain Drizzle on the glass

2.2 Types of Rain Based on Intensity

a. Light rain (hujan renyai) - < 2.5 mm/hr

b. Moderate rain (hujan sederhana lebat) - 2.5 - 7.5 mm/hr

c. Heavy rain (hujan lebat) - > 7.5 mm/hr

Heavy rainfall
 2.3 Formation of Rain

As air rises and cools, water condenses

Droplets become heavy
enough to fall (~ 0.1 mm)
Many droplets decrease in
size by evaporation
increase in size by
Droplets increase in size by
condensation
Larger drops break up
(3 − 5 mm)
Droplets form by nucleation –
condensing of vapor on tiny
solid particles called aerosols
(0.001 − 10 m)
from the vapor to the liquid state. Water
droplets are formed by nucleation
process which is condensing of vapor
on tiny solid particles. The diameters of
these particles range from 0.001 μm to
10 μm and the particles are known as
aerosols. The tiny droplets grow by
condensation and impact with their
neighbors as they are carried by
Some droplets turbulent air motion, until they become
large enough so that the force of gravity
impact and overcomes that of friction and they begin
aggregation to fall, further increasing in size as they
hit other droplets in the fall path.
However, as the drop falls, water
evaporates from its surface and the
drop size diminishes, so the drop may be
reduced to the size of an aerosol again
and be carried upwards in the cloud
through turbulent action. An upward
current of only 0.5 cm/s is sufficient to
carry a 10 μm droplet.

Rain drops
Water vapor (0.1 − 3 mm)
2.4 Types of Rain Based on Air Lifting Mechanism
Three major categories of precipitation are convective, orographic and
frontal/cyclonic
a. Convective precipitation (hujan perolakan)

Commonly occurs in warmed or heated areas such as equatorial/tropical

regions, where there is almost daily occurrence and even distribution of rain.

It happens when the ground surface is locally overheated and the adjacent air,
heated by conduction, expands and rises.

During its ascent, the air mass remains warmer than the surrounding
environmental air. Further cooling of the air causes the water vapour in the air
to condense into water droplets and it is likely to become unstable forming
towering cumulonimbus clouds.

The rain comes in thunderstorm and fall heavily in the afternoon. The rain is
intense but short-lived which last for minutes and is localized. It is usually
accompanied by lightning and common in the tropics and temperate
continental summers. Convectional rain is usually associated with tropical
depression (typhoons) and thunderstorms.
Convective precipitation
b. Orographic precipitation

Orographic precipitation results from the mechanical lifting of moist horizontal

air currents over natural barriers such as mountain ranges. This type of
precipitation is very common on the West Coast of the United States where
moisture laden air from the Pacific Ocean is intercepted by coastal hills and
mountains.
c. Cyclonic/ Frontal precipitation

Frontal precipitation results when the leading edge (front) of a warm air mass
meets a cool air mass. The warmer air mass is forced up over the cool air. As
it rises the warm air cools, moisture in the air condenses, clouds and
precipitation result. This precipitation is common in Atlantic Canada.
d. Artificial precipitation
2.5 Measuring Rainfall Depth
Precipitation is measured as the vertical depth that would accumulate on a flat level
surface if all the precipitation remained where it had fallen.

To size water transport and storage systems, quantitative data for rainfall events must
be provided either as rainfall depth d or rainfall intensity i (depth per unit time).

Rainfall depth d is the sum of rainfall, which is mentioned as depth of water on the
flat surface.

Rainfall intensity i is the depth per unit time, commonly reported in the units of
millimeter per hour (mm/hr).

Duration t is the duration of a storm is the time from the beginning of rainfall to the
point where the mass curve becomes horizontal indicating no further accumulation of
precipitation within a certain time after the rain stops.

Frequency of rain is usually known as the return period T, for example once in T
years.

A hyetograph is a plot of rainfall intensity (in/hr) versus time.

Example 2.1

From the precipitation data given, estimate cumulative rainfall and rainfall intensity.

Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(min)
Rainfall 0 0.18 0.21 0.26 0.32 0.37 0.43 0.64 1.14 3.18
(cm)

Time 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
(min)
Rainfall 1.65 0.81 0.52 0.42 0.36 0.28 0.24 0.19 0.17
(cm)
Solution t (min) d (cm) d (cm) i (cm/hr)
d
0 0
+ 0 0 i=
= t
10 t 0.18 0.18 1.08
20 0.21 0.39 1.26
30 0.26 0.65 1.56
40 0.32 0.97 1.92
50 0.37 1.34 2.22
60 0.43 1.77 2.58
70 0.64 2.41 3.84
80 1.14 3.55 6.84
90 3.18 6.73 19.08
100 1.65 8.38 9.9
110 0.81 9.19 4.86
120 0.52 9.71 3.12
130 0.42 10.13 2.52
140 0.36 10.49 2.16
150 0.28 10.77 1.68
160 0.24 11.01 1.44
170 0.19 11.20 1.14
180 0.17 11.37 1.02
 20

15

 d (cm)
10

0
0 50 100 150 200
t (min)

20

15
i (cm/hr)

10

0
0 50 100 150 200
t (min)
2.5.1 Types of Rain Gauges
Rain gauge is an instrument used to measure the rainfall depth.

a. Non recording gauges 8²

2.53²

Requires an observer to
manually measure the rain at regular
intervals (i.e. every 24 hours). 24²
20²

A standard 8-inch-diameter rain 8²

gauge (203 mm) (U.S. Weather

Service) is shown. A smaller metal
tube may be located in this larger Support (wood) Overflow can Measuring Receiver
overflow can. An 8-inch-diameter tube

receiver cap may be on top of the Measuring stick

overflow can and is used to funnel 050 (to road directly in .01 of an inch of precipitation)

the rain into the smaller tube until it 040

overflows. The receiver cap has a

030
knife edge to catch rain falling
precisely in the surface area of an 8- 020

One - tenth inch

inch-diameter opening. 010

One - hundredth inch division

2.5.1 Types of Rain Gauges
Rain gauge is an instrument used to measure the rainfall depth.

a. Non recording gauges

8²
2.53²

Measurements are made using a special measuring

stick with graduations devised to account for the 8-inch
receiver cap opening, funneling water into the smaller tube.
24²

When the volume of the smaller tube is exceeded, the 20²

volume from the smaller tube is dumped into the larger 8²

overflow can.

Support (wood) Overflow can Measuring Receiver

tube

Measuring stick
050 (to road directly in .01 of an inch of precipitation)

040

030

020

010 One - tenth inch

One - hundredth inch division

b. Recording gauges (Pluviograph)

Recording gauges does not require constant observation.

There are at least three types of gauges commonly in use to record depth:

i) Weighing gauge
ii) Tipping bucket
iii) Float type

i. Weighing gauge

Weighing-type precipitation gauge consists of a storage weighing

bin to record the mass. The mass is recorded using a pen on a
rotating drum, or by using a vibrating wire attached to a data logger.

The advantages of this type of gauge to tipping buckets is that it

does not underestimate intense rain, and it can measure other
forms of precipitation, including rain, hail and snow.

However, these gauges are more expensive and require more

maintenance than tipping bucket gauges.

The weighing-type recording gauge also contains a device to

measure the quantity of chemicals contained in the location's
atmosphere
ii. Tipping bucket

The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a large copper cylinder set into the ground. At the top
of the cylinder is a funnel that collects and channels the precipitation.
The precipitation falls onto one of two small buckets or levers which are balanced in same
manner as a scale. After an amount of precipitation equal to 0.2 mm (0.007 in) falls to the lever
tips, water is dumped, and an electrical signal is sent to the recorder.

The recorder consists of a pen mounted on an

arm attached to a geared wheel that moves
once with each signal sent from the collector.
When the wheel turns the pen arm moves
either up or down leaving a trace on the graph
and at the same time making a loud click.

Each jump of the arm is sometimes referred to

as a 'click' in reference to the noise. The chart
is measured in 10-minute periods (vertical
lines) and 0.4 mm (0.015 in) (horizontal lines)
and rotates once every 24 hours and is
powered by a clockwork motor that must be
manually wound.
iii. Float type

The rain passes into a float chamber containing a light float. As the level of the water
within the chamber rises, the vertical movement of the float is transmitted, by a
suitable mechanism, to the movement of a pen on a chart or a digital transducer.

By suitably adjusting the dimensions of the collector orifice, the float, and the float
chamber, any desired chart scale can be used.
2.6 Installing Rain Gauge

There are a number of factors which can affect rainfall depth measurements.

The positioning of the gage is very important in order to reduce errors in data collection.

Buildings, landscaping and trees, and even the wind can affect the amount of
precipitation arriving at the rain gauge.

Proper placement is critical to ensure that rain sensor readings are an accurate
representation of the actual rainfall.

The ideal site for a rain gage is in an open area that is protected from the wind in all
directions.

A good guideline is to allocate the rain gauge at a minimum distance of twice the height
of building/tree away.
 The ideal site for a rain gage is in an open
area that is protected from the wind in all
directions.

h
Rainfall h
gauge

Tree > 2h > 2h Building

A good guideline is to allocate the rain gauge at a minimum distance of twice the
height of building/tree away.
2.7 Missing Rainfall Data

Due to instrument or system malfunction, rainfall gage fails to provide continuous or

accurate record of rainfall.

For example, a tipping-bucket may not function for a short period of time and the
rainfall data is missing for that particular period of time.

Meanwhile, for manual recording, the person may miss his/her visit to record the
data which lead to missing data.

Nonetheless, if it rains, the rainfall depth has to be estimated.

The procedure for estimating daily totals relies on the data from the adjacent rainfall
stations.
2.7 Missing Rainfall/ Precipitation Data

Point Precipitation

Normal Ratio
Method
Arithmetic Mean
Method
Quadrant
Method
2.7.1 Point Precipitation

Precipitation measured at a rain gauge is called point rainfall.

2.7.1.1 Arithmetic Mean Method

If the average annual precipitation of any of the adjacent stations differs from the
average at the missing data station by + 10%, the following formula can be used to
estimate the missing daily data:
1 n
Px =  Pi
n i =1
1
Px = (P1 + P2 + P3 + ... + Pn )
n

where, Px = missing rainfall data at site X

P1, P2, P3, ... Pn = available rainfall data from the adjacent stations, 1, 2, 3.. n
Example 2.2

Rain gauge X was out of operation for a month during which there was a storm. The
total rainfall at three adjacent stations A, B and C are 37 mm, 42 mm and 49 mm,
respectively. The average annual rainfall for all the stations are X = 694 mm, A = 726
mm, B = 752 mm and C = 760 mm. Using the arithmetic method, estimate the missing
total rainfall for gauge X.

Stations Total Average annual

precipitation precipitation
(mm) (mm)
A 37 726
B 42 752
C 49 760
X ? 694
 Stations Total Average annual Average annual difference with
precipitation P precipitation N respect to station X (%)
(mm) (mm)
(726 − 694 )  100 % = 4.61%
A 37 726
694
(752 − 694 )  100 % = 8.36%
B 42 752
694
(760 − 694 )  100 % = 9.51%
C 49 760
694

X ? 694

Since, the difference in average annual precipitation of stations A, B and C are less than
10% of station X, then the arithmetic mean method is used to determine the missing data.

1 n 1
Px =  Pi Px = (37 + 42 + 49 )
n i =1 3

1 Px = 42.7 mm
Px = (P1 + P2 + P3 )
3
Or,

Stations Total Average annual

precipitation P precipitation N
(mm) (mm)
A 37 726 The maximum permissible
average annual precipitation
B 42 752 relative to station X is
C 49 760  10 
Nmax = 694 +   694 
X ? 694  100 
Nmax = 763 .4 mm

Average annual precipitation of stations A, B and C are all less than 10% that of station
X, therefore arithmetic mean method is used to determine the missing data,

1 n
Px =  Pi Px =
1
(37 + 42 + 49 )
n i 3

1 Px = 42.7 mm
Px = (P1 + P2 + P3 )
3
2.7.1.2 Normal Ratio Method

If the difference between the average annual precipitation at any of the adjacent stations
and the missing data station is greater than 10%, a normal ratio method is to be used.

n
N Pi
Px = x
n
N
i =1 i

where, Nx = average annual precipitation at the missing data station X

Ni = average annual precipitation at the adjacent rainfall stations
Example 2.3

The average annual precipitation for gauges A, B, C and D are 1120 mm, 935 mm, 1200
mm and 978 mm, respectively. In year 1975, station D was out of operation. Stations A,
B and C recorded total rainfall of 107 mm, 89 mm and 122 mm, respectively during the
same period. Estimate the amount of precipitation for station D in year 1975.

Normal annual Total precipitation in

Station
precipitation N (mm) 1975, P (mm)
A 1120 107
B 935 89
C 1200 122
D 978 ?
Solution
Normal annual Total precipitation in
Station
precipitation N (mm) 1975, P (mm)
A 1120 107
B 935 89
C 1200 122
D 978 ?
The maximum permissible average annual precipitation relative to station D is
 10 
Nmax = 978 +   978  Precipitation allowed = ??? mm ~ 1075.8 mm Since all annual precipitations
 100  (1120, 935
applied
and 1200) exceeded 1075.8 mm, normal ratio method is

Nmax = 1075 .8 mm
NA and NC exceeded ND by more than 10%,
therefore the normal ratio method is used to
determine the missing data at station D.
n
N Pi
Px = x
n
N
i =1 i PD =
978  107
 +
89
+
122 

3  1120 935 1200 
ND  PA PB PC 
PD =  + +  = 95.3 mm
3  N A NB NC 
2.7.1.3 Quadrant Method

In this method, all the adjacent rainfall stations are divided into quadrant with the missing
data station as the reference station. Once all the rainfall depths have been estimated,
they are summed, and the sum is divided by the number of rainfall stations to obtain the
areal average precipitation.

The quadrant method (U.S.A. National Weather Service) procedure is:

a) Consider that rainfall is to be calculated for station X. Establish a set of axes running
through X and determine the absolute coordinates of the nearest surrounding points
P, Q, R, S, T and U, i.e. choose one station in each quadrant.
y

I II
•Q
•R
•P
X •S
x • x
• T•
U

III IV

y
b) The estimated precipitation at X is determined as a weighted average of the other six
points. The weights are reciprocals of the sums of the squares of distance X and Y;
that is,
n
Px = Wi Pi
i =1 y

where, Wi =
(1 L )2
i I II
•Q
 (1 L )
n

•R
2
i
i =1
•P
L2i = x 2 + y 2 X •S
x • x
• T•
U

III IV

y
Example 2.4

Stations A, B, C, D, E, F and G are rain gauge stations. During a period of time, station A
was out of operation. During the same period, the total rainfall for other stations were 40
mm, 45 mm, 37.5 mm, 50 mm, 47.5 mm, and 42.5 mm, respectively. Compute the missing
total rainfall of station A using the quadrant method.
y
Scale:
1 unit
4
I II

• 2 •
B F
•
G A
4 2
• 2 4
x

D• 2
•
E
4
III IV
6 •C
 1
Coordinate L2
Quadrant Stn P (mm) L2 W WP (mm)
x y
B 40 4 2 20 - - -
I
G 42.5 2 1 5 0.2 0.591 25.12
II F 47.5 5 2 29 0.034 0.102 4.84
D 37.5 3 2 13 0.077 0.227 8.52
III
E 50 3 3 18 - - -
IV C 45 1 6 37 0.027 0.080 3.59
Total 0.338 42.07

n
L2i = x 2 + y 2
Px = Wi Pi
i =1

Wi =
(1 L )2
i

 (1 L )
n
2
i
i =1

Therefore, rainfall at station A, PA = 42.07 mm

 Example 2.5

Station X failed to report the rainfall recorded during a storm event. The coordinates of
four adjacent rainfall stations available in each quadrant are (10, 15), (−8, 5), (−12, −9)
and (5, −15) km respectively. Determine the missing rainfall at X, if the storm rainfalls at
the four surrounding gages are 73 mm, 89 mm, 68 mm and 57 mm, respectively.

Coordinate 1
Quadrant Stn P (mm) L2 W WP (mm)
x y L2
I A 73 10 15 325 0.003 0.136 9.955
II B 89 −8 5 89 0.011 0.5 44.5
III C 68 −12 −9 225 0.004 0.182 12.364
IV D 57 5 −15 250 0.004 0.182 10.364
Total 0.022 77.18

Therefore, the missing rainfall PX = 77.18 mm

2.8 Rain Gage Inconsistency

If a rain gage station is suspected to contain discrepancies, the double mass curve
technique can be used to test the consistency.

The inconsistencies in the rainfall data of a station may be due to various reasons.
One reason is, the raingauge might have been installed at different sites in the past.
The rainfall depth is being recorded continuously between the previous and the
current sites. Therefore, the entire data is not homogeneous.

Other reasons include change of exposure conditions of the gage due to growth of
trees or the construction of tall buildings in the proximity of the gage site, change in
the instrument, say from 125 mm to 200 mm raingauge, or the raingauge may have
been faulty for a part of the period of record.
2.8.1 Double Mass Curve
The principles of double mass curve is as follows:

i. A certain number of stations (usually 5 as minimum) with reliable data of approximately

the same length and in the same climatic region are selected as base stations.

ii. The average annual rainfalls at these base stations is computed for every year and is
cumulatively added beginning with the latest year.

iii. Plot a graph between the cumulative rainfall of the base stations as the x-axis and the
cumulative rainfall of station X as the y-axis. The resulting plot is called the double mass
curve.

iv. If the data of station X is homogeneous and consistent with the data of the base stations,
the double mass curve is nearly a straight line. If there is a change in slope at a certain
point of time, the data of station X from this time into past is either inaccurate or non-
homogeneous.

v. That portion of data which is found to be inconsistent can be adjusted by extending the
mass curve line with original slope. Alternatively, the data can be adjusted by multiplying it
with a correction factor, i.e. the slope of the adjusted mass curve Ma to the slope of the
unadjusted mass curve Mo. Therefore,
Po P
M
Pa = Po a where, Mo = and Ma = a
Mo P P
 Double Mass Curve

A change in slope should not be considered significant unless it persists for at least 5 years
and there is a collaborating evidence of a change in location or exposure or some other
change.
Example 2.6

The annual rainfall at station X and the average of annual rainfalls at 25 surrounding
base stations in cm are given below for a period of 36 years starting from 1941. Check
whether the data of station X is consistent. In which year a change in regime indicated?
Compute the adjusted annual rainfalls at station X for the affected period.
2.9 Mean Areal Rainfall

The representative precipitation over a defined area is required in engineering

application, whereas the gaged observation pertains to the point precipitation.

Arithmetic Mean Method

Thiessen Polygon Method

Isohyetal Method
2.9 Mean Areal Rainfall

2.9.1 Arithmetic Mean Method

The arithmetic average method uses only those gaging stations within the topographic
basin and is calculated using:

P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ....... + Pn
n
P =  Pi
n
where,
P = average precipitation depth (mm)
 Pi = precipitation depth at gage (i) within the topographic basin (mm)
n = total number of gaging stations within the topographic basin
Example 2.7

Rainfall during the month of July measured at four raingauge stations A, B, C and D in a
catchment was 290 mm, 125 mm, 190 mm and 475 mm, respectively. Compute the
mean rainfall using the arithmetic mean method.

1 M
P =  Pi
M i
1
P = (PA + PB + PC + PD )
4
1
P = (290 + 125 + 190 + 475 )
4

P = 270 mm
2.9 Mean Areal Rainfall

2.9.2 Thiessen Polygon Method

Another method for calculating average precipitation is the Thiessen method. This
technique has the advantage of being quick to apply for multiple storms because
it uses fixed sub-areas. It is based on the hypothesis that, for every point in the
area, the best estimate of rainfall is the measurement physically closest to that
point.

This concept is implemented by drawing perpendicular bisectors to straight lines

connecting each two rain gauges. This procedure is not suitable for mountainous
areas because of orographic influences. The procedure involves:

i) Connecting each precipitation station with straight lines;

ii) Constructing perpendicular bisectors of the connecting lines and forming
polygons with these bisectors;
iii) The area of the polygon is determined.
2.9 Mean Areal Rainfall

2.9.2 Thiessen Polygon Method

Which :-
P = Average precipitation depth (mm)
Pi = Precipitation depth at each station (mm)
Ai = Sub area at each station (Polygon area)
A = Total area
 Procedures:
Catchment boundary

St2 St2
S
St3
St1 St3
S

St4
St1
S

St4
S
St5
St6

St5 St6
S

1. Connecting each precipitation station with straight lines;

 Catchment
boundary
St2

St3 Stn Area Precipitation Area x Precipitation

A2
(km2) (cm)
St1 A3
A1 St4
A4
A5 A6

St5
St6
Total

2. Construct perpendicular bisectors of the connecting lines and forming polygons

with these bisectors
3. Determine the area of the polygon
4. Calculate average precipitation using formula:
A perpendicular bisector
can be defined as a line segment
 A iPi which intersects another line
P= perpendicularly and divides it
A into two equal parts.
Example 2.8

Using data given below, estimate the average precipitation using Thiessen method.
 Solution:

Step !!
1. Based the data given, compute AVERAGE PRECIPITATION using
Theissen formula :-

 AiPi
P=
A

2. For easy calculation construct table :-

Solution (cont’):
 Solution (cont’):

3. Form the calculated table :-

 AiPi
P=
A

69210
P= = 121.8 mm
568
2.9 Mean Areal Rainfall

2.9.3 Isohyetal Method

•Based on interpolation between gauges.

•Resembles the calculation of contours in surveying and mapping.
•Procedures:
1. Plot the rain gauge locations on a suitable map and record
the rainfall amounts.
2. Next, an interpolation between gauges is performed and
rainfall amounts at selected increments are plotted.
2.9 Mean Areal Rainfall

2.9.3 Isohyetal Method

3. Identical depths from each interpolation are then connected

to form isohyets. The areal average is the weighted average
of depths between isohyets.

70mm

57mm

10mm 45mm
A3 A6
20mm A5
A4
A1 A2

42mm

36mm 51mm

p5=60mm
p4=50mm P6=70mm
p3=40mm
p0=10mm
p1=20mm p2=30mm
2.9 Mean Areal Rainfall

2.9.3 Isohyetal Method

4. Compute the mean areal rainfall using the following formula

2.9 Mean Areal Rainfall

2.9.3 Isohyetal Method

4. Or simplify the formula into:

 A i Pi
P=
A
Which :-
P = Average precipitation depth (mm)
Pi = Average precipitation between 2 isohyets
lines (mm)
Ai = Sub area between 2 isohyets lines
A = Total area
Example 2.9

Use the isohyetal method to determine the isohyets lines

70mm

10mm 57mm
45mm

20mm

42mm

36mm 51mm
 Solution:

70mm

57mm

10mm 45mm
A3 A6
20mm
A5
A4
A1 A2

42mm

51mm
36mm

p5=60mm
p4=50mm P6=70mm
p3=40mm
p0=10mm
p2=30mm
p1=20mm
Example 2.10

Use the isohyetal method to determine the average precipitation depth within
the basin for the storm. Plot the isohyet lines.
Solution:

Plot the isohyet lines.

 Solution (cont’):

Step !!
1. Based the data given, compute AVERAGE PRECIPITATION using following
formula :-

 AiPi
P=
A

2. For easy calculation construct table :-

 Isohyetal Average Area (km 2) Area x
interval precipitation Average
(mm) (mm) precipitation
(km2.mm)
<10.0 10 0 0
10 - 20 15 84 1260
20 – 30 25 75 1875
30 - 40 35 68 2380
40 - 50 45 60 2700
50 - 60 55 55 3025
60 - 70 65 86 5590
Total 428 16830

Average precipitation =  Area x Average precipitation

 Area
Average precipitation = 16830
428
Average precipitation = 39.3 cm
Assignment #2

Q1. Using the data given, estimate precipitation depth that has fallen on the entire watershed.

Station Precipitation Polygon Thiessen

(mm) area (cm2)
A 20 112.25
B 13 53.5
C 18.3 120.0
D 12.5 62.5
E 10 119.0
F 5.8 144.0
G 6.7 72.0
H 14.8 130.0
I 13.9 62.5
J 11 85.0
K 5.5 110.0
L 3.7 40.0
Q2. Lines delineating a particular measurement are drawn within the watershed. Precipitation data and the area
in between each isohyet are shown in the table below. Estimate the average precipitation within this
watershed.

Isohyetal line 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 80 80 - 90 90-100

(cm)
Area (cm2) 32 162 155 92 228 120 65

Q3. Estimate the precipitation depth at station X with coordinates (0,0) using four quadrant method.

Quadrant Rain Precipitation depth Coordinate

gauge (cm) X

Y
I A 10 3 9
B 3.5 18 26
C 9.5 6 4
II D 4.0 11 -8
E 0.5 14 -26
III F 2.3 -4 -22
G 7.6 -10 -5
IV H 2.3 -21 19
Q4. Gauge X was installed in January 1975 and removed from its original location in January 1962. Adjust
the record as in Table Q4 for the period from 1958 to 1962 using the records at gauges P, Q and R.

Table Q4 Annual rainfall for each station

Annual rainfall (cm)

Year
P Q R X
1958 54 50 56 50
1959 60 60 66 58
1960 64 58 70 60
1961 68 66 74 62
1962 58 58 60 52
1963 56 52 54 60
1964 64 68 68 72
1965 70 68 72 76
1966 62 58 68 72
1967 56 54 58 62
1968 50 44 50 56
1969 56 50 58 60
1970 66 60 68 74