READING AND WRITING SKILLS
Patterns of Development of Writing Narration
Narration refers to telling a story or recounting a
series of events. It can be based on personal
experience or on knowledge gained from reading
or observation. The narrative can be an incident
short story, novel, history, myth, legend, fairy tale,
fantasy, and science fiction.
In narrative discourse, chronological
presentation of events plays a huge role. Clue
words smoothly help tell things in order and show
the transition of events when once action ends and
another begins. Most of the common transitional
words are first, next, then, after, while, and
suddenly.
The sequence of events is often presented in a
chronological order showing how the story moves.
Patterns of Development of Writing Description
This refers to a paragraph or essay that
describes a person, thing, place, or situation. It
makes most out of your 5 senses—what you see,
hear, taste, smell, and feel.
A powerful description enriches. To be effective,
a description has to be clear and alive. There
should be a careful selection of details, accurate
choice of words, and proper order details that lead
to a dominant impression or mood.
Patterns of Development of Writing Definition
It explains a concept, term or subject. Its main
purpose is to tell what something is. It consists of
three parts: (1) term, subject, or concept to be
defined, (2) the general class where it belongs, (3)
and the characteristics that differentiate it from
other member of its class.
A definition can be developed in a number of
ways. The method(s) you choose should be
determined by the term you are defining. Some
common methods of definition are by giving the
characteristics or features, function, what is not,
comparison and contrast, examples, and origin.
Patterns of Development of Writing
Exemplification and Classification
Exemplification is one of the most common and
effective ways to show or explain an idea or point
(for example: observation, opinion, belief). It
provides examples and illustrations in order to
clarify or explain the concept or subject matter. It
presents the general statement and then provides
specific and concrete examples to expound on the
main idea.
On the other hand, classification divides things
into groups, classes, or categories. It organizes
ideas into divisions based on the criteria or
standards.
You can use both exemplification and
classification in developing a paragraph. You can
begin by classifying some ideas and then explain
each idea by giving examples.
Patterns of Development of Writing Cause and
Effect
Cause and Effect explains the reasons (causes)
why something happened and describes the
results (effects) of an event, action, or condition.
In developing your texts, some of the signal
words used in this type of paragraph are the
following:
 To express causes: as a consequence of, as
a result of, because, now that, since
 To signify effects: accordingly, consequently,
hence, so, therefore, this resulted in
Patterns of Development of Writing Problem-
Solution
Problem-solution paragraph or essay identifies a
problem and proposes one or more solutions.
Often this type of writing requires more than one
paragraph. How to write a problem paragraph: A
problem paragraph describes and discusses a
problem issue. The topic sentence names the
issue you will discuss. The supporting sentences
show why this issue is a problem. There are three
main parts in a problem-solution paragraph. The
topic sentence establishes the solution to the
problem. The body sentences explain the problem
and solution. The ending sentence calls the
readers to action.
Patterns of Development of Writing Comparison
and Contrast
Comparison and contrast paragraph or essay
explains how two subjects are similar or different.
First, be fair and balanced with the treatment of
the composed or contrasted items. Secondly, use
expressions of comparison such as like, similar to,
both, as well as, and the same as; and contrasting
terms such as unlike, dissimilar, although, but,
however, in contrast, on the other hand, while, so
that reader will know whether you are comparing
or contrasting. Lastly, compare and contrast your
subjects on important rather than on trivial points.
Patterns of Development of Writing Persuasion
Persuasive paragraph aims to convince,
motivate, or move readers toward a certain point
of view, or opinion. It intends to convey the
readers to do or believe in something. It indicates
the position of the writer, the arguments as well as
the evidence supporting each argument.
Persuasive words includes: for this reason,
because, I believe, as evidence shows, etc.
Properties of a well-written text -
Organization
A good composition has organization. It is the
logical progression and completeness of ideas in a
text. Organization is important to effective writing
because it provides readers with a framework to
help them fulfill their expectations for the text.
There should be a beginning, a middle, and an
end. The beginning introduces the topic. It attracts
the attention of the reader. The middle is the
discussion of the topic. It expounds the main idea.
The end clinches or summarizes the topic.
Properties of a well-written text -
Coherence and Cohesion
Coherence and cohesion refer to the connection
of ideas and connections between sentences and
between paragraphs. A text is connected
discourse. This means that the ideas you will write
on a topic will not be considered well-written text if
they do not stick together. In order for you to
assure coherence and cohesion, you need to use
transitional and cohesive devices.
To provide coherence, you may use phrases that
signals that you are adding more information, or
referring to the previous statement, or contrasting
the previous statement, and so on.
To provide cohesion, you must organize old and
new information in your text. Organizing old and
new information can be done by using certain
vocabulary such as synonyms and antonyms, or
repetition of words from the previous.
Coherence means that every part of a
composition must contribute to one main unifying
thought, which means that the various parts of a
text must follow one another in an order which
makes their relationship clear. On the other hand,
cohesion means that the overall text has meaning.
A text with coherence has ideas that are logically
sequenced in a way that is easy to follow for the
reader. Although without cohesion, no central
concept links all these ideas together. The main
point of the text remains unclear for readers.
Remember the following when trying to evaluate
if your text has cohesion and coherence:
 A text with cohesion but no coherence is
difficult to follow.
 A text with coherence but no cohesion has
no definite point.
 A text with both cohesion and coherence is
logically sequenced and stays on topic.
Properties of a well-written text Language Use
Language Use is one of the clearest indicators of
a well-written text. It enables writers to effectively
communicate ideas without confusing the reader.
An effective language is specific, concise, familiar,
correct, and appropriate. English language can be
formal and informal. Moreover, both formal and
informal English should be grammatically correct.
Formal Language is less personal than informal
language. It is used when writing for professional
or academic purposes like university assignments.
Formal language does not use colloquialisms,
contractions, or first-person pronouns such as ‘I’ or
‘We’.
Informal language is more casual and
spontaneous. It is used when communicating with
friends or family either in writing or in conversation.
It is used when writing personal emails, text
messages, and in some business correspondence.
The tone of informal language is more personal
than formal language.
Mechanics: Using End Punctuation
Punctuation is the set of marks used to regulate
texts and clarify their meanings, mainly by
separating or linking words, phrases, and clauses.
Period, question mark, comma, quotation mark,
exclamation point are examples of end
punctuation.
Mechanics: Using Comma
While a period ends a sentence, a comma
indicates a smaller break. Some writers think of a
comma as a soft pause—a punctuation mark that
separates words, clauses, or ideas within a
sentence.
The following are the basic comma rules:
1. Use a comma before the conjunction (for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so) that joins the two
independent clauses in a compound
sentence.
2. Use a comma after relatively lengthy
introductory phrases or dependent
(subordinate) clauses. It is important to note
that a comma should not be used when the
clause or phase comes at the end of the
sentence as illustrated by the third example.
3. Use commas to separate items in a series.
Be sure to insert a comma before the
conjunction that precedes the last item
unless your teacher or style manual
specifically tells you to exclude them.
4. Use commas before and after non-essential
elements (parts pf the sentence providing
information that is not essential in order to
understand its meaning).
5. Use commas to separate the elements of
dates and places.
6. Use a comma before a direct quotation.
Also, commas (and periods as well) go
inside the quotation marks.
7. Use commas before and after words and
phrases like however and nevertheless that
serve as interrupters.
Mechanics: Using Semicolon and Colon
A Semicolon (;) is a form of punctuation that sorts
out complex lists or links complete clauses.
1. Place semicolons between items in lists if
some items the list include commas.
2. Place a semicolon between two
independent clauses (they could stand
alone as a sentence) to link them in the
same sentence.
3. Place a semicolon between independent
clauses linked with a conjunctive adverb,
also known as a transitional word or phrase.
Some common conjunctive adverbs are
therefore, however, consequently, and
hence. Phrases include on the other hand,
in fact, and in conclusion. Follow transitional
words or phrases with commas.

WHEN NOT TO USE A SEMICOLON

 Use commas, not semicolons, after an
independent clause (it could stand alone
as a full sentence) joined with another
independent clause by a coordinating
 conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
so).
 Use a colon—not a semicolon—when
that follows the punctuation restates what
comes before.
 Use commas to separate items in a list if
none of the items in the list requires
commas too.
A colon is a form of punctation used in several
different situations. It often sets up and draws the
reader’s attention to the ideas that come after it.
Some correct uses:
1. Prior to a list
2. Before an explanation that has a complete
clause (could be a sentence) before it
3. To separate an independent clause from a
quotation
4. In a formal or business address
5. To indicate time
6. Between a title and subtitle
7. A scripture reference
8. To indicate a ratio
WHEN NOT TO USE A COLON
 Do not use a colon after a verb of being
(am, are, were, was, will be, shall be,
etc.).
 Do not use a colon after a preposition.
 Do not use a colon after words or
expressions such as, for example,
including, or namely.
Using Quotation Marks
- quotation marks (.) enclose direct quotations
- only the actual words spoken should go
within the quotation marks.
Rules of Using Quotation Marks:
1) Do not use quotation marks if the words
are paraphrased.
2) Single quotes are used to indicate a quote
within a quote.
3) Periods and commas go inside the closing
of quotation marks.
4) Exclamation marks and question marks
are used inside the quotes when they apply
to the quoted material and outside the quotes
when they apply to the whole sentence.
5) Colons and semicolons go outside
quotation marks.
6) Quotation marks enclose words used in a
special sense.
7) Quotation marks are used to enclose short
passages being quoted.
8) Quotation marks are used to enclose titles
of articles, short stories, short poems, songs,
chapters, speeches, episodes of radio or
television series.
Using Apostrophe
- (‘) has three main uses
1. to indicate possession;
2. to indicate an omission of letters or
numbers;
3. to separate the s from plural
letters/numbers and abbreviations followed
by periods.
Rules for Apostrophes:
1. Apostrophes are always used with
possessive nouns.
2.Singular nouns are followed by an’s
3. Plural nouns which end in “s” are followed
by an apostrophe.
4. Plural nouns which do not end in “s” are
followed by an’s.
5. Do not use apostrophes with possessive
pronouns (my,
Using Hyphens and Dashes
- hyphens (-) notify the reader that two or
more elements in a sentence are linked.
- dashes (‒) indicate added emphasis, an
interruption, or an abrupt change of though.
Capitalization
 Capitalizing First Words
 Capitalizing Names of Persons
 Capitalizing Place Names
 Capitalizing Titles
 Capitalizing Religious Terms
 Capitalizing Expressions of Time
 Capitalizing Names of Racial Groups,
Nationalities and Languages
 Capitalizing Trade Names, Names of
Organizations, and Transportation
Claims
- is an expressed opinion or a conclusion that
a writer wants to be accepted by an
audience.
2 KINDS OF CLAIMS
1) Explicit - clearly stated in the text.
2) Implicit - ideas suggested in the text but not
directly stated.
Characteristics of a good claim
(Tiongson, 2016)
1. A claim should be argumentative and debatable.
2. A claim should be specific and focused.
3. A claim should be interesting and engaging.
4. A claim should be logical.
3 types of claims
Claims of Fact
- assert that a condition has existed, exists, or will
exist and are based on facts or data.

Claims of Policy
- are specific and measurable actions that need to
be done in order to address issues or concerns
presented in an argument or proposition.

Claims of Value
- are value judgement made based on moral,
standards and norms.

Steps in Doing Critical Reading

1. Pre-viewing
2. Previewing
3. Annotating
4. Reasoning
5. Analyzing
6. Responding