LESSON 1
situations, or ideas is to show how they are different. To do
Patterns of Development in Writing across Disciplines
 Certain patterns or structures which guide the
writers or readers in the way they view the
relationship of ideas presented in a text
 Help writers or readers follow ideas easily and
understand the text better
 Help in distinguishing major details from minor
ones, in predicting ideas and noting details
 Signal words may indicate a certain pattern
NARRATION
Narration tells a story. It relates an incident or a
series of events that leads to a conclusion or ending. It tells
the readers when, where, and what happened.
A narrative paragraph contains action verbs and
transition words that indicate time or sequence. The
following are some transition words used to signal time or
sequence order:
DESCRIPTION
Description gives information of what a person, an
object, a place, or a situation is like. It appeals to the
reader’s senses; it makes the reader see, hear, taste, smell,
or feel the subject.
A descriptive paragraph has concrete and specific
details, which are carefully chosen by a writer to paint a
picture in the mind of the reader. Literary analyses,
descriptive essays, business plans, lab reports, and
research papers are
. pattern of development in writing. With the cause-and-
DEFINITION
The main purpose is to clarify and explain concepts,
ideas, and things by answering the question “what does it
mean?” This pattern explains the information through the
use of illustrations, examples and descriptions. It may
include one or more patterns
COMPARISON
To compare persons, things, places, events,
situations, or ideas is to show how they are alike. You need
to identify the points of comparison and make a list of
similar characteristics or qualities for each point of
comparison. The following are words that signal
similarities: also, like, both, and as…as
CONTRAST
To contrast persons, things, places, events,
so, you need to make a list of the characteristics or
qualities of the subjects and then identify the differences
between them. The following are some words that signal
contrast: but, however, though, on the other hand, in
contrast
USING EXEMPLIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION
Is one of the most common and effective ways to
show or explain an idea or point
(e.g., observation, opinion, belief). In this pattern of
development, the main idea is explained by giving an
extended.
EXEMPLIFICATION
You can use both exemplification and classification
in developing a paragraph. You can begin by classifying
some ideas and then explain each idea by giving examples.
For instance, a series of detailed examples.
CLASSIFICATION
Refers to sorting or arranging subjects (e.g.,
persons, places, things, ideas) into groups or categories
according to their common or shared characteristic. The
subject can be grouped in different ways depending on
your purpose. For instance, classifying historical events by
year, popular TV shows by genre, diseases based on mode
of transmission, cleaning products based on manufacturer,
and animals based on habitat.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
A cause is simply “why something happens” and an
effect is “what happens”. Together, they can be used as a
effect in pattern, the writer can explain how an event or
action leads to another.
PERSUASION
A persuasive paragraph intends to convince readers
to do or believe in something. Many writing genres such as
critiques or reviews, reaction papers, editorials, proposals,
advertisements and brochures make strong use of
persuasive paragraphs to state opinions and to influence
others.
PROBLEM-SOLUTION
A problem in general is an unsatisfactory situation that
causes troubles or difficulties. Therefore, it needs a
solution, a way to deal with the situation so that the
troubles or difficulties are removed.
LESSON 2
 A paragraph is a series of sentences that are
organized, coherent, and are all related to a single topic.
For a paragraph, or for any composition, to be effective, it
must always consider the Properties of a Well-Written
Text. These properties are: Organization, Coherence and
Cohesion, Unity, Language Use, and Mechanics.
The first line of a paragraph is usually indented.
This indentation of a paragraph indicates where the
paragraph begins. Remember that you must capitalize the
first word in each sentence and end each sentence with a
punctuation mark, most often a period (.).
Parts of Paragraph
Introduction -The first section of a paragraph; it
should include the topic sentence and any other sentences
at the beginning of the paragraph that give background
information or provide a transition.
Body- Follows the introduction; discusses the
controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis,
examples, or other information.
Conclusion- The final section; summarizes the
connections between the information discussed in the
body of the paragraphs and the paragraph's controlling
idea.
Qualities of a Paragraph
ORGANIZATION- also known as arrangement, is
achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged
with focus on the arrangement of ideas, incidents,
evidence, or details in a definite order in a paragraph,
essay, or speech. It can be done with a recognizable plan
that defines one sentence connection to the other sentence
and paragraph to the other paragraph.
Check the following paragraph arrangements and
the words which are useful in securing in each of them:
1. Chronological Order - first, second, later, before,
next, as soon as, after, then, finally, meanwhile,
following, last, during, in, on, until
2. Order of Importance - less, more, primary, next,
last, most important, primarily, secondarily
3. Spatial Order - above, below, beside, next to, in
front of, behind, inside, outside, opposite, within,
nearby
4. Definition Order - is, refers to, can be defined as,
means, consists of, involves, is a term that, is
called
5. Classification - classified as, comprises, is
composed of, several, varieties of, different
stages of, different groups that
6. Process - first, next, then, following, after that,
last, finally
7. Cause and Effect - Causes: because, for, since,
stems from, one cause is, one reason is, leads to,
causes, creates, yields, due to, breeds, for this
reason // Effects: consequently, results in, one
result is, therefore, thus, as a result, hence
8. Comparison and Contrast - Similarities: both,
also, similarly, like, likewise, too, as well as,
resembles, correspondingly, in the same way, to
compare, in comparison, share// Differences:
unlike, differs from, in contrast, on the other
hand, instead, despite, nevertheless, however, in
spite of, whereas, as opposed to
9. Listing - the following, several, for example, for
instance, one, another, also, too, in other words,
first, second, numerals (1, 2, 3...), letters (a, b,
c...)
10. Clarification - in fact, in other words, clearly
11. Summary - in summary, in conclusion, in brief,
to summarize, to sum up, in short, on the
12. Example - for example, for instance, to illustrate
13. Addition - furthermore, additionally, also,
besides, further, in addition, moreover, again
COHERENCE refers to the overall sense of unity in a
passage, including both the main point of sentences and
the main point of each paragraph. A coherent passage
focuses the reader’s attention on the main ideas and the
specific people, things, and events you are writing about.
Unity and logic on a conceptual level.
COHESION is also a very important aspect of
academic writing because it immediately affects the tone
of your writing. Cohesive writing does not mean just
“grammatically correct” sentences; cohesive writing refers
to the connection of your ideas both at the sentence level
and at the paragraph level. Cohesion is important because
it allows writers to make multiple references to people,
things, and events without reintroducing them at each
turn. If we had to repeat every time, we wanted to refer to
them, the text would be very tedious to read. In short,
connections on a sentence level.
Check these examples:
Coherent but not cohesive - "My favorite color is blue.
I'm calm and relaxed. In the summer I lie on the grass and
look up." Cohesive but not coherent - “My favorite color
is blue. Blue sports cars go very fast. Driving in this way is
dangerous and can cause many car crashes. I had a car
accident once and broke my leg. I was very sad because I
had to miss a holiday in Europe because of the injury."
Coherent and cohesive - "My favorite color is blue. I like
it because it is calming and it relaxes me. I often go outside
in the summer and lie on the grass and look into the clear
sky when I am stressed. For this reason, I'd have to say my
favorite color is blue."
UNITY is achieved when a composition is focused
on one idea. In a unified text, all supporting ideas are
relevant to the main thought. Without unity, text will be
confusing. Topic Sentence/ Thesis Statement/ Lead
Supporting Sentences Cohesive Device Conclusion
LANGUAGE USE is one of the clearest indicators of
a well written text. It enables writers to effectively
communicate ideas without confusing the reader. An
effective language is: Specific, Concise, Familiar, Correct,
and Appropriate
Levels of Language Use
1. Informal/ Personal - slang, local expressions,
text messaging
2. Standard/Academic - widely accepted words
and phrases found in books, magazines, and
newspapers
3. Business/Technical - scientific terms, jargons,
and special expressions
Principles in Language Use/ Diction
1. Use clear and concise sentences, usually about 18
words long.
2. Avoid redundancies, cliches wordiness, and
highfalutin
3. Although may be used, avoid overusing “There”
and “It”, drop it
4. Use precise vocabulary. Be accurate. Condensed.
5. Be consistent in pronoun POV
6. Avoid sexist language.
7. Use appropriate level of formality.
MECHANICS focuses on the technicalities of the structure.
It determines errors on subject-verb agreement,
prepositions, tenses, the grammar, spelling, capitalization,
abbreviations and acronyms, the use of numbers as part of
the statement, and the punctuation marks. (Spelling,
Capitalization, Abbreviation and Acronyms, Number,
Punctuation Marks, Grammar
LESSON 3
A statement is something that is expressed
through speech or writing. An example of it is a module.
Another could be a discussion of a certain topic.
Exchanging statements is often use in conversation to
provide information, something expresses something of
value to one’s understanding.
Determining explicit and implicit information
- Critical reading also means that you are able to
distinguish the information that is clearly
stated (explicit) in the text from ideas that are
suggested (implicit). This will help you make
inferences about what you read.
Defining claims
- The important skills needed in critical reading is
knowing how to identify explicit and implicit
information and also evaluating the claims made
by an author. This involves going back to the text
to recognize the writer’s arguments and evidence
so you can begin judging the writer’s work.
- Whenever you read something, you find yourself
looking for the writer’s point or position
regarding the chosen topic. That point is also
known as the claim, or the central argument or
thesis statement of the text. This claim is what
the writer tries to prove in the text by providing
details, explanations, and other types of
evidence.
- The claim is the most important part of the text.
The quality and complexity of the reading
depends on the claim, because the claim defines
the paper’s direction and scope. The claim is a
sentence that summarizes the most important
thing the writer wants to say as a result of
his/her thinking, reading, or writing.
 - The following are the characteristics of good
claims:
1. A claim should be argumentative and
debatable.
- It must have a particular perspective on the
topic and objections are expected to be raised.
- Raising objections can be done if the claim is
something that can be reasonably challenged
- Claims that are only factual or based on opinion,
thus, are not debatable
 Claim of value
2. A claim should be specific and focused
- An unfocused claim will result being too broad
in scope and will lack direction and clear
connection to the support provided.
- It may also lead to overgeneralizations and
vague assertions.
3. A claim should be interesting and engaging
- It should hook the reader, who may or may not
agree with you, to encourage them to consider
your perspective and learn something new from
you.
4. A claim should be logical
- It should result from reasonable weighing if
support provided.
- Here are some questions to help you determine
the writer’s claim while you are reading a text:
 What is the author’s main point?
 What is the author’s position regarding
it?
 Claim of policy
Distinguishing between the types of claims
- The claims can be easily identified by examining
the type of questions they answer about the text.
 Claim of fact
- It states a quantifiable assertion or a
measurable topic.
- It is something has existed, exists, or will exist
based on data.
- It must have reliable sources or systematic
procedures in order to be considered as valid.
- It answers the question “what”.
- The following questions are useful in
determining whether something is a claim of
fact.
 Is this issue related to a possible cause
or effect?
 Is this statement true or false? How can
its truthfulness be verified?
 Is this claim controversial or debatable?
- It is something that can be qualified.
- It consists of arguments about moral,
philosophical, or aesthetic topics.
- It tries to prove that some values are more or
less desirable compared to others.
- It makes judgments, based on certain
standards, on whether something is right or
wrong, good or bad, or something similar.
- It attempts to explain how problems,
situations, or issues ought to be valued.
- The following questions will help you
discover these explanations.
 Which claims endorse what is good or
right?
 What qualities should be considered
good? Why is that so?
 Which of these values contend with
others? Which ones are more
important, and why? Whose standards
are used?
 What are some concrete examples of
such values?
- It has specific actions that should be
chosen as solutions to a particular problem.
- It is easily identified because they begin with
should, ought to, or must
- It has an actionable plan and usually answer
“how” questions.
- The following questions will be useful in
evaluating a claim of policy.
  Does the claim suggest a specific
remedy to solve the problem?
 Is the policy clearly defined?
 Is the need for the policy established?
 Is the policy the best one available? For
whom? According to whose standards?
 How does the policy solve the problem?
LESSON 4
Being a critical reader also involves
understanding that texts are always developed with a
certain context. A text is neither written nor read in a
vacuum; its meaning and interpretation are affected by
a given set of circumstances.
Context is defined as the social, cultural,
political, historical, and other related
circumstances that surround the text and form the
terms from which it can be better understood and
evaluated. Knowledge of the text’s context helps in
appreciating the text’s message more deeply. In
discovering a reading’s context, you may ask questions
like:
 When was the work written?
 What were the circumstances
produced it?
 What issues does it deal with?
INTERTEXT
- Intertextuality is the modeling of a text’s
meaning by another text. It is defined as the
connections between language, images,
characters, themes, or subjects depending on
their similarities in language, genre, or
discourse. This is seen when an author
borrows and transforms a prior text, or when
you read one text and you reference another.
This view recognizes that the text is always
influenced by previous texts and in turn
aniticpates future texts. A text contains many
layers of accumulated cultural, historical, and
social knowledge, which continually adds to
and affects one another.
Thus, intextuality becomes a dialogue among
differe texts and interpretations of the writer,
the audience, and the current and earlier
cultural contexts.
Types of Intertextualities
 Obligatory Intertextuality
- It is when the writer deliberately involves a
comparison or association between two or
more text.
 Optional Intertextuality
- It has a less vital important on the
significance of the hyperlinks. It is impossible,
but not essential relationship that if, the
connection will slightly shift the understanding
of the text.
- The intent of the writer when sing optional
intertextuality is to play homage to the
original writer.
 Accidental Intertextuality
- It is when readers often connect a text with
another text cultural practice or a personal
experience without there being any tangible
anchor point within the original text
HYPERTEXT
that
- It is a non-linear way of showing information. It
connects topics on a screen to related
information, graphics, videos, music-information
is not simply related to text. This information
appears as links and is usuallly accessed by
clicking. The reader can jump to more
information about a topic, which in turn msy
have more links. This opens up the reader a
wider horizon of information or to a new
direction.
- A reader can skim through section of a text, freely
jumping from one part to another depending on
what aspect of the text interests him/her. Thus,
in reading with hypertext, you are given more
flexibility and personalization because you get to
select the order in which you read the text and
focus on information that is relevant to your
background and interests.