AMD Training Report

A Training on Litho-structural mapping, methods
of Uranium exploration & Reserve estimation in

and around Patharghara -Bagjata -
Khadandungri area, East Singbhum, Jharkhand
From 8th August, 2022 to 19th August, 2022
Conducted by Atomic Mineral Directorate for Exploration and

Research (AMD-ER/DAE)
Industrial training report submitted for partial fulfilment of Master

of Science degree in Applied Geology
Submitted by,
TORSA RAHMAN
Registration no:18215260026
M.Sc. 2nd year,
Department of Geology,
Presidency University, Kolkata.
1
Submitted by:
Torsa Rahman,
Registration no: 18215260026
2nd Year, M.Sc. in Applied Geology,
Field Supervisors
Dibakar Ghosh, Scientific Officer-E
Ankur Kumar, Scientific Officer-C
AMD-ER/ DAE, Jamshedpur
Team members in fieldwork:

Arnab Seal (Reg no: 21416170006)
Archisman Chowdhury (Reg no: 18215120005)
Rabindranath Murmu (Reg no: 21416130014)
2
Declaration
I, Torsa Rahman, pursuing M.Sc in Applied Geology from Presidency University,

Kolkata, have completed the industrial internship at Atomic Mineral Directorate for
Exploration and Research (AMD-ER/DAE), Eastern Region on the topic “Litho-
structural mapping, methods of Uranium exploration and reserve estimation in
and around Patharghara-Bagjata-Khadandungri area, East Singbhum,
Jharkhand, India” from 8th August 2022 to 19th August, 2022. I hereby declare that
this report is entirely written by me based on my fieldwork and reviewed literature cited
accordingly.
Torsa Rahman
Registration no: 18215260026
M.Sc 2nd year,
3
Acknowledgement
I express my gratitude and sincere thanks to our supervisors Mr. Dibakar Ghosh,
scientific officer-E and Mr. Ankur Kumar, scientific officer-C, AMD-ER/DAE,
Jamshedpur for their constant support, encouragement, and motivation during the
course of my work. I really appreciate the value and guidance from the beginning to the
end of the project. I am also Thankful to UCIL for approving our one-day underground
mine visit at Narwapahar Uranium Mines, Jharkhand.
My sincere thanks to Atomic Minerals Directorate, Eastern Region for granting me the
approval to carry out this industrial training.
I am also thankful to my batchmates for their constant help during the fieldwork
training.
I am equally grateful to my Head of the Department, Dr. Arijit Ray, Department of
Geology, Presidency University, Kolkata for his invaluable encouragement,
suggestions, and support during the training.
I would like to thank AMD for their administrative support during the tenure of my stay
at the Ghatsila.
Last but not least I thank my parents, family, and friends for showing their belief and
letting me grab this opportunity.
4
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction……………………………………………08
Chapter 2. Prospecting and exploration…………………………...16
Chapter 3. Borehole drilling………………………………………28
Chapter 4. Ore Dilution and Grade calculation of radioactive
bands………………………………………………………………63
Chapter 5. Ore reserve estimation……………………………..…..69
Chapter 6. Narwapahar Uranium mine visit…………………...….81
Chapter 7. Discussion………………………………………..…....88
5
List of Figures:
Figure 1.1: Location of East Singbhum district in Jharkhand and India
Figure 1.2: Singhbhum Craton map after Iyengar & Murthy (1982), Misra (2006) and
Meert et al. (2010)
Figure 2.1: Tourmaline bearing sericite-biotite feldspathic schist in core
Figure 2.2: Quartzite in rock exposure
Figure 2.3: Apatite magnetite bearing quartzofeldspathic muscovite biotite schist
Figure 2.4: Muscovite-biotite Schist in core
Figure 2.5: Kyanite bearing quartzite
Figure 2.6: Cross beds
Figure 2.7: Foliation defined by mica in a core
Figure 2.8: Sigma structure
Figure 2.9: Riedel shear
Figure 2.10: S-C fabrics
Figure 2.11: Joint planes
Figure 2.12: Fold observed in field
Figure 2.13: Geological Map of Pathargora Area showing the radioactive zone, East
Singhbhum, Jharkhand
Figure 2.14: Geological Map of Khadandungri Area showing the radioactive zone, East
Singhbhum, Jharkhand
Figure 2.15: Geological Map of Khadandungri Area showing the radioactive zone, Dist-
East Singhbhum, Jharkhand
Figure 3.1: Mapped area with proposed borehole locations
Figure 3.2: Hypothetical transverse section of the area with proposed boreholes of
preliminary stage
Figure 3.3: Scintillation Counter in use
Figure 5.1: Plan view of Kanyaluka boreholes
Figure 5.2: Transverse section of Kanyaluka-03,06 & 09
Figure 5.3: VLS of Kanyaluka-01,03 & 04
6
Figure 6.1: Levels in Narwapahar mine
Figure 6.2: Representative underground layout of mine
List of tables:
Table 1. Borehole deviation calculation exercise
Table 2. Core logging in Bagjata area
Table 3. Core logging in Patharghara area
Table 4: Grade calculation of radioactive band from borehole K-06
Table 7. Different methods of ore reserve estimation
Table 8. Ore reserve calculation based on triangular method
Table 9: Ore reserve estimation based on sectional method
7
Chapter 1: Introduction
8
1.1. Aim and Objective of the Training:
This training at Atomic Minerals Directorate (AMD), eastern region was undertaken
as an industrial training for partial fulfilment of M.Sc. course in Applied Geology at
Presidency University, Kolkata. The training emphasized on litho-structural mapping,
exploration and reserve estimation based of different methods in and around Ghatslia.
Litho-structural mapping was done for Khadandungri and Patharghara area, Purbi
Singbhum. Reserve estimation was done for Kanyaluka boreholes from Kanyaluka,
Purbi Singbhum. This entire training was supervised by officials from AMD. One day
uranium mine visit at Narwapahar mine was also done under the guidance of UCIL
officials.
1.2. Location and Accessibility:
The study area falls under toposheet no. 73 J/6 and 73J/11 issued by The Survey of
India and is located in the Purbi Singbhum district, Jharkhand. The nearest railway
station is Ghatsila and it is well connected by road and rail to Kolkata on the East and
Jamshedpur on the west. Ghatsila town has latitude of 22° 36' 0.00" N and longitude of
86° 28' 48.00" E. The camp was set in Ghatsila town and the field area was located at
south from the town. Transportation between the camp and field area was provided by
AMD officials.
1.3. General field area:

The camp was set at Ghatsila town. Two main area was visited for mapping purpose:
Khadandungri which is approx. 35 km away from the camp in the southeast direction
and Patharghara which is approx. 10 km away from the camp in the south. Bagjata
located approx. 20 km away from camp was visited for core logging purpose. Uranium
mine visit was done at Narwapahar mines, UCIL located about 32km away from camp
in the northwest direction.
9
Figure 1.1: Location of East Singbhum district in Jharkhand and India (source: google
images)
General Geology:
The Singhbhum Craton (SC) is located in the eastern part of the northern Peninsular
Shield of India between latitudes 21–23˚15̍ N and longitudes 84–87˚30̍ E. The SSZ
separates different grades of metamorphic rocks to the north and south. The Singhbhum
Uranium Province (SUP) consists of three major tectonostratigraphic units: the Archean
granitic SC, bounded to the north by the highly folded metavolcanic and meta-
sedimentary formations of the Singhbhum Group; the Chotanagpur Granitic Gneissic
Complex (CGGC) still further north. The Dalma Lavas, made up of basic to ultrabasic
flows, occur centrally in the Singhbhum Group. The Singhbhum Group had a complex
crustal evolution in the Proterozoic and has been described as the Northern Singhbhum
Mobile belt (SMB). The SMB consists of the high-grade Chaibasa and Dhalbhum
formations between the SSZ and Dalma Volcanics, with a low- to medium-grade
volcano-sedimentary belt between the Dalma range and the CGGC. Two major shear
zones, including the SSZ and the Barabhum Shear Zone (BSZ), dissect the SUP and are
of interest from the point of view of metallogeny. The SSZ is an arcuately disposed
shear zone of deep-seated fractures, acid and basic volcanism, and hydrothermal
10
metasomatic activity. The BSZ cuts across the supracrustal belt to the north of the
Dalma Volcanics close to Chotanagpur migmatite-granulite belt and is relatively much
less mineralized (Anand et al 2006).
The Singhbhum shear zone (SSZ) separates the Archean cratonic nucleus in the south
and the Proterozoic North Singhbhum Fold Belt in the north is one of the most important
polymetallic mineralization zones in India. Two prominent basins, namely the Iron ore
basin (Iron ore Group of greenstone sequence) and the Dhanjori basin (Dhanjori Group
of rocks) occupy the north-western and south-eastern parts of the cratonic nucleus,
respectively. The fold belt, near the northern margin of the craton, is occupied by
predominantly siliciclastic rocks of the Singhbhum Group. The typical rocks in the SSZ
are quartz–chlorite schist, quartz–sericite schist, quartz– biotite schist, quartzite, meta-
conglomerate, tourmaline bearing soda granite/feldspathic schist, and granophyre.
Some of these rocks are restricted in the shear zone including soda granite/feldspathic
schist, granophyre, and tourmaline. Recent radiometric studies revealed that the iron ore
group appears to be older than the so-called underlying Singhbhum Granite. The
deformational history of this ductile shear zone is highly complex, marked by a repeated
phase of folding, mylonitisation and rotation of fabrics. The evolution of Singhbhum
shear zone is multi-episodic (Misra, 2006) at 2200, 1800, 1600 and 1000 Ma. ‘Soda’
granite is emplaced at 2200 Ma; Cu mineralization occurred at 1800 Ma; Kuilapal
granite intrusion and U- mineralisation at 1600 Ma; and final reactivation at 1000 Ma
(Arkasani granite having Rb-Sr age of 1052 + 84 Ma, and K-Ar ages of micas).
11
Figure 1.2: Singhbhum Craton map after Iyengar & Murthy (1982), Misra (2006) and
Meert et al. (2010)
1.4. Regional Geology:

North Singhbhum orogeny, about 50-60 km wide, exposes folded sequences in a
number of sub-basins. A prominent ductile shear zone, known as Singhbhum Shear
Zone, passes close to the southern margin of the orogeny. The shear zone is well known
12
for its Cu-U, Apatite-Magnetite mineralization. The orogen is divided into 3 tectono-
stratigraphic domains namely - Dhanjori domain, Singhbhum shear zone, Ghatsila
domain, Dalma volcanics and Chandil domain. Ghatsila domain is divided into a lower
Chaibasa Formation and an upper Dhalbhum Formation. Sarkar and Saha (1983) have
named this succession as Singhbhum Group (2100-2300 Ma Rb-Sr and 3100 Ma Pb-
Pb). The Chaibasa Formation is dominated by mica schists. Progressive metamorphic
zonation of chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite and sillimanite is seen. The
general lithology of Chaibasa Formation is garnet-staurolite-kyanite mica schists with
numerous bands of quartzite, ortho and para amphibolites, and acid to basic tuffs. Three
sets of folds and related fabrics of varying intensity, geometry, and style are seen from
different sectors of the Ghatsila domain.
Newer Dolerite (different age)

Kolhan Group
Soda Granite
Malangtoli Volcanics
Dalma Group
Koira Group
Dhanjori Group (Simplipal Group)
----------Unconformity----------
Mayurbhanj Granite
Badampahar Group
Older Metamorphic Tonalite Gneiss Group
Older Metamorphic Group
Granite Basement
1.5. Chemical composition of various Uranium Ore:

Uranium is silvery white metallic element. Uranium (U) was discovered by Martin
Heinrich Klaproth a German Scientist in 1789. It is classified under the Actinide group
in the Periodic Table. The atomic number of U is 92. Being a highly oxyphilic in nature
it has occurred as Oxide, Hydroxide, Phosphate, Vanadate, Molybdite, Carbonate,
Sulphates etc. In nature U occurs as +4 and +6 states. +4 is stable in Reducing and +6
is highly oxidising conditions. It has low concentration in soil, rock and water. Uranium
is commonly extracted from Uranium-bearing minerals such as Uraninite. Natural
occurrences of Uranium are 234U,235Uand 238U. The proportion of these isotopes are
13
0.0054%, 0.720%, 99.275% respectively. 235 and 238 U decay to 207Pb and 206 Pb
respectively. U235 undergoes a fission reaction.
Primary Uranium Minerals

Primary Uranium Minerals Chemical Compositions
Uraninite UO2
Thucolite U bearing Pyrobitumen
Pitchblende U3O8
Coffinite U(SiO4)1-X(OH)4X
Brannerite UTi2O6
Secondary Uranium Minerals

Secondary U minerals Chemical compositions
Autonite Ca bearing phosphate
Carnotite K bearing vanadate
Gummite Mixture of Uranite and secondary U
minerals of variable compositions.
Seleeite Mg(UO2)2(PO4)210H2O
Torbernite Cu bearing phosphates
Tyuyamunite Ca(UO2) 2(VO4)25 8H2O
Uranocircite Ba(UO2)2 (PO4)2 8-10 H2O
1.6. Major types of Uranium Deposits:

According to the origin, process of mineralization and geological setting the Uranium
deposits are classified in to following types:
i. Intrusive deposits- Included in this type are those associated with a variety of
intrusive rocks including alaskite, granite, pegmatite, and monzonites.
ii. Granite-related deposits- Two main sub-types: Endogranitic and Perigranitic.
Includes many vein deposits in granite, deposits in adjacent meta-sedimentary
rocks, and also disseminated mineralisation in granite.
14
iii. Volcanic-related deposits- Uranium deposits of this type occur in and near
volcanic calderas, in acid to intermediate volcanic rocks, and are related to faults
and shear zones. Uranium occurs in veins or is disseminated and is commonly
associated with molybdenum and fluorite.
iv. Metasomatite deposits- Metasomatite deposits consist of unevenly disseminated
uranium in structurally deformed rocks that were affected by sodium and/or
potassium metasomatism.
v. Metamorphite deposits- Metamorphic-type uranium deposits occur in
metasediments and/or metavolcanics unrelated to granite. In Australia the largest
of this type was Mary Kathleen uranium/rare earth deposit near Mount Isa,
Queensland and it occurs in a zone of calcium-rich alteration within Proterozoic
metamorphic rocks.
vi. Proterozoic unconformity related deposits- Unconformity-related deposits
arise from geological changes occurring close to major Proterozoic
unconformities. Below the unconformity, the metasedimentary rocks which host
the mineralization are usually faulted and brecciated. The overlying younger
Proterozoic sandstones are usually undeformed. Unconformity-related deposits
constitute about one-third of the western world’s uranium resources and they
include some of the largest and richest deposits. Minerals are uraninite and
pitchblende associated with strong quartz dissolution.
vii. Collapse breccia pipe- These occur in circular, vertical collapse structures filled
with coarse fragments and a fine matrix of the penetrated sediments. The collapse
pipes are 30-200 meters in diameter and up to 1000 meters deep. Uranium
mineralization is mostly within permeable sandstone breccias within the pipe.
The principal uranium mineral is pitchblende.
viii. Sandstone- Impermeable shale/mudstone units are interbedded in the
sedimentary sequence and often occur immediately above and below the
mineralized sandstone. Uranium is precipitated under reducing conditions caused
by a variety of reducing agents within the sandstone including: carbonaceous
material, sulphides, hydrocarbons, and interbedded basic volcanic ash with
abundant ferro-magnesian minerals.
ix. Palaeo-quartz-pebble conglomerate deposits- Detrital uranium occurs in some
Archaean-early Palaeoproterozoic quartz-pebble conglomerates that
unconformably overlie granitic and metamorphic basement. Quartz-pebble
conglomerate uranium deposits occur in conglomerates deposited in the range
3070-2300 million years ago. Fluvial transport of detrital uraninite was possible
at the time because of the prevailing anoxic atmosphere.
x. Surficial Deposits – Young to recent age uraniferous sediments, which have not
been deeply buried and may or may not have been calcified to some degree.
15
xi. Lignite-coal deposits- Uranium occurs in lignite or coal mixed with mineral
detritus (silt, clay), and in immediately adjacent carbonaceous mud and
silt/sandstone beds. Pyrite content is high here.
xii. Phosphate deposits- Sedimentary phosphorites of marine origin contain low
concentrations of uranium in fine-grained apatite. Estimates range to 22 million
tonnes of uranium in these deposits, but most is subeconomic at present even as
by-product of phosphate fertilizer production, unless new processes are deployed.
xiii. Black shale deposits- Black shale-related uranium mineralization consists of
marine organic-rich shale or coal-rich pyritic shale, containing synsedimentary
disseminated uranium adsorbed onto organic material and clays.
xiv. Polymetallic iron-oxide breccia complex- Olympic Dam is the world’s largest
deposit of uranium, and accounts for the major part of Australia’s uranium
resources, though it is only recovered as a by-product with copper. Both it and
Carrapateena occur in a hematite-rich granite breccia complex in the Gawler
Craton, overlain by approximately 300 meters of flat-lying sedimentary rocks of
the Stuart Shelf geological province. Details of the origin of the deposit are still
uncertain. However, the principal mechanisms which formed the breccia complex
are considered to have been hydraulic fracturing, tectonic faulting, chemical
corrosion, and gravity collapse. Much of the brecciation occurred in the near
surface eruptive environment of a crater complex during eruptions caused by
boiling and explosive interaction of water with magma.
16
Chapter 2:
Prospecting and Exploration
17
Mining needs a significant amount of investment and resources, which is why rigorous
tests and analysis are typically performed at this stage of mineral exploration. Those
tests include: Locating potential deposits, Metallurgical tests, Environmental
assessments, Risk assessment, Resource modelling, Mine design and strategy,
Preliminary Economic Assessment (PEA), Feasibility Study etc. Determining the
location of a potential mineral deposit in one of the first steps of mineral exploration
and prospecting. As the mineral deposits tend to form in clusters, prospective areas may
be near other areas of known mineralization or near existing mine sites. Alongside with
airborne survey and satellite imagery, Geological field survey also plays an important
role mineral exploration and prospecting.
2.1. Methodology of Geological Mapping:
Geological field survey and consists of mainly data collection and putting the data on
the map to see the bigger picture. The given field area has both highly cultivated land
and high-altitude hillocks with dense vegetation. This situation actually results in the
scanty occurrence of outcrops. That is why a large area has to be covered in order to
collect a considerable amount of data. The presence of steep hills in most of the area
and scanty outcrops causes to priorities the “Traversing method” of Geological mapping
over ‘Across the Strike’. Our desired purpose includes the collection of structural,
lithological and radioactivity data. The study area was a part of Singbhum Shear Zone
that is why this region has the signs of multiphase deformation and such that foliation,
porphyroblasts, microfolds, S-C fabric, C-C’ fabric, Riedel Shear, Sigma Structure (as
a shear sense indicator), quartz-ribbons etc. While traversing, high radioactive anomaly
observed in feldspathic schist and in laterite zone of study area with the help of
scintillation counter.
2.2. Location visited for prospecting:
In the first two days the regions of Patharghara and Bagjata were visited. The location
details of these areas are given in the table below:
Date Location Easting Northing

1 443625 2492462
2 441841 2493131
8/8/22 3 441841 2493143
4 442411 2493086
5 442437 2493297
9/8/22 1 449989 2485318
2.3. Litho-structural Description:
18
2.3.1. Major rock types: In these two days the following rock types were observed:
1. Tourmaline bearing sericite-biotite feldspathic schist: This is a dark-coloured
metamorphic rock. These rocks are strongly foliated and they contain tourmaline,
sericite, biotite and K-feldspar where the foliation is defined by sericite, biotite and K-
feldspar. The order of relative quantity of the minerals is:
Tourmaline<Sericite<Biotite<K-feldspar.
Tourmaline was present as
porphyroblasts. Quartzofeldspathic
ribbons, assymetric folds were also found
along with the foliation plane as
significant structural feature. This rock
types belong to SInghbhum Shear Zone
(SSZ) stratigraphic unit.
Figure 2.1: Tourmaline bearing sericite-

biotite feldspathic schist in core
2. Quartzite:
Mainly quartzite is found here.
The quartzite contains
Quartz, feldspar, with small
amount of fuchsite and Fe-
oxide. This outcrop was
more or less massive in
nature with little or no
significant structural
features. This rock unit is a part
of Dhanjori Formation which is at
the base of SSZ and the other
formations of Singhbhum
Mobile Belt.
Figure 2.2: Quartzite in rock exposure

3. Basalt/Metabasalt: This location had the outcrop of melanocratic, aphanatic rock
which was identified to be basalt. The basalts contained small patches of quartz on
19
their surface. Those patches were identified as amygdules. This outcrop was more
or less massive in nature with little or no significant structural features.
4. Apatite magnetite bearing muscovite quartz biotite feldspar schist: This is a
dark coloured strongly foliated metamorphic rock. This rock consists of Apatite,
biotite, magnetite, muscovite, quartz and K-feldspar. The foliation is defined by
biotite and muscovite. Apatite and magnetite are present as accessory mineral. The
sequence of relative quantity of the minerals is: Apatite < Magnetite < Muscovite <
Quartz < Biotite < Feldspar. These rocks belong to Singhbhum Shear Zone (SSZ).
Figure 2.3: Apatite

magnetite bearing muscovite quartz biotite feldspar schist
5. Muscovite-biotite Schist: This is a dark

coloured, strongly foliated
metamorphosed rock. This rock
contains mainly muscovite and biotite with the
amount of biotite dominating than that of
muscovite. The foliation is defined by
muscovite and biotite. This rock also belongs
to Singhbhum Shear Zone (SSZ).
Figure 2.4: Muscovite-biotite

Schist in core
20
6. Kyanite bearing quartzite: This outcrop contains the rocks of metasedimentary
origin. This rock is identified to be a quartzite with the abundance of kyanite in it.
This rock type belongs to Dhanjori Formtaion.
Kyanite
Figure 2.5: Kyanite bearing quartzite
7. Quartz-garnet-tourmaline bearing Muscovite-biotite Schist: This is a dark

coloured highly foliated metamorphosed rock. The rock contains garnet,
tourmaline, quartz, muscovite and biotite. The rocks are strongly foliated with
foliation defined by muscovite and biotite. The sequence of relative abundance of
the minerals is: Quartz < Garnet < Tourmaline < Muscovite < Biotite. The rock
shows both tourmaline and garnet porphyroblast. The foliation is defined by
muscovite and biotite. This is a shear zone rock which belongs to Singhbhum Shear
Zone (SSZ).
2.3.2. Primary Structure:

• Cross-bedding: Cross-bedding is a primary sedimentary feature characterized by
layers that intersect at an angle with each other through planar erosional surfaces
that truncate inclined beds and laminae. This structure is the result of the
migration of bedforms, such as dunes, ripples, and mega-ripples, produced by
wind or water currents in sand-rich sediment.
21
Figure 2.6: Cross beds
2.3.3. Secondary Structures:
As this area is a part of Singhbhum Shear Zone there are a number of secondary
structures that were found in that area. Those are described below:
i) Foliations: This region has undergone progressive ductile deformation and it has
been metamorphosed upto greenschist facies. Due to intense shearing foliation
plane developed. The foliation planes are defined by platy minerals like, chlorite,
biotite, muscovite, sericite, feldspar etc. Apart from that Some internal foliations
are found in the garnet and tourmaline porphyroblasts of that region suggesting
that the porphyroblasts are pre to syn tectonic with respect to the foliation. The
attitudes of the foliation plane are written in the table below:
Sl. No Attitude
1 310/30->40
2 315/32->45
3 350/35->80
4 348/36->78
5 176/40->86
6 165/40->75
Figure 7 164/39->74 2.7: Foliation defined by mica in a core
22
ii) Sigma Structure: This is a type of mantled porphyroblast which is used as a
shear sense indicator. Here, the porphyroblast is of tourmaline and the mantle is
quartzofeldspathic composition. The shear indicated by it is 170-350.
Figure 2.8: Sigma structure
iii) Riedel Shear: This is a special type of structure found in the shear zone where
the surface is developed at a lower angle to the wall of the shear zone. Here it is
denoted as R The shear sense is roughly 165-345.
Figure 2.9: Riedel shear
iv) S-C fabric: S-C fabric is a metamorphic fabric formed by the intersection of
shear surfaces within rocks affected by dynamic metamorphism. The foliation
that develops in a shear zone is usually thought to trace the XY-plane of the strain
ellipsoid. The sense of rotation of the foliation from the margin into the shear
zone is generally a safe kinematic indicator. As strain accumulates, a set of slip
23
surfaces or shear bands commonly forms parallel to the walls of the shear zone.
These shear bands are called ‘C’ and the foliation is named ‘S’.
C-surfaces are not really surfaces, but small-scale shear zones that affect the
foliation within the main shear zone, the foliation curves into and out of the C-
surfaces, and the sense of deflection shown by the curving foliation reflects the
sense of shear of the entire shear zone. These discrete shear zones are visibly less
penetrative than foliation planes S. The composite C-S fabric usually weakens
outward i.e., larger spacing between C-planes towards the shear zone boundaries
and ultimately disappears outside the shear zone, which suggests its direct
affiliation to shearing.
The angle between S and C can vary but is typically about 25-45°.
C'
surface: As high shear strain is approached, the C and S surfaces become sub-
parallel, so that their separate identity is lost. In strongly foliated rocks, one or
more sets of secondary, spaced planar elements may appear systematically
oblique to both the early foliation and the shear plane and shear zone boundary.
These micro shear zones are usually less continuous than C planes and delineate
an extensional crenulation cleavage termed C' planes.
24
Figure 2.10: S-C fabrics in a core
v) Joint planes: Joints are cracks or fracture that divide the rocks into parts or blocks
and there is no relative displacement. They most frequently appear as joint sets
and systems.
Figure 2.11: Joint planes

vi) Fold: Folds are geological features created by the deformation of rock due to
compressive stress. In this process layers of rocks bents due to there ductile
behavior.
We mostly found tight isoclinal folds and recumbent folds on our field because
of intense shearing effect.
Isoclinal folds: A very tight fold, in which the limbs are parallel or nearly parallel
to one another is called an isoclinal fold.
25
Recumbent Folds: Isoclinal folds that have been overturned to the extent that
their limbs are nearly horizontal are called recumbent folds. Folds with axial
planes dipping at less than 45°, but with zero plunge, have been referred to as
recumbent fold.
Fig 2.12 is actually a recumbent fold.
Figure
2.12:
Fold
observed in field
Recumbent fold
2.4. Litho-structural mapping of Patharghara and Khadandungri:
26
Figure 2.14: Geological Map of Pathargora Area showing the radioactive zones, Dist-
East Singhbhum, Jharkhand
27
Figure 2.15: Geological Map of Khadandungri Area showing the
radioactive zone, Dist-East Singhbhum, Jharkhand
28
Chapter 3: Borehole Drilling
29
Drilling is the process of penetrating through the ground and extracting rocks
from various depths beneath the surface for confirming the geology beneath and further
investigations. Due to the costs of drilling, it is usually a late step in the mineral
exploration process. If previous work has yielded sufficiently successful results, drilling
may eventually be used to physically confirm any mineralisation, and further develop
the geological picture. After drilling a sufficient number of boreholes to satisfy the
geologists that there is an ore body of a certain size and quality the decision may be
made to develop a mine considering the other requirements.
3.1. Different Types and techniques of drilling:

Generally drilling can be of four types based on objectives:
1) Stratigraphic drilling for the purpose of understanding the litho-structural setup,
2) Reconnoitory drilling for the purpose of establishing correlation between the
discovered ore loads,
3) Exploratory drilling for the purpose of understanding correlation of ore loads and
preliminary resource estimate,
4) Finally, evaluation drilling for the purpose of resource estimating in indicated
category.
The drilling technique can be of three types:
1) Core drilling: This type of drilling method is used for deep concealed ore-body and
for the deposits where lithological information and sample analysis is important. Core
drilling is normally used when faster exploration drilling is needed.
2) Non-core drilling: This drilling technique is used for shallow level mineralization
and it can be used to cover a large area at low cost. In most of the cases, non-core drilling
is followed by coring drilling at deeper levels.
3) Combination drilling: This drilling technique is used for probing deeper extensions
of shallow dipping ore body beneath thick overburden. The overburden is drilled
quickly by non-coring drilling and then switching over to core drilling in the ore zone
by using conversion kits.
3.2. Borehole deviation:
30
When a borehole is drilled in layers of stratum the borehole changes its direction of
travel while going deep into the strata somewhat analogous to the refraction of light
phenomena. When a borehole is drilled the borehole deviates in a updip direction due
to inherent heterogeneity of rock layers. As the drilled borehole is in 3d space it will
always have an initial amount of inclination (the vertical component of the position of
the borehole in the 3d space) and azimuth (the horizontal component of the position of
the borehole in the 3d space). Now, as the borehole changes its direction of travel in the
strata both inclination and azimuth changes, accordingly. The inclination change is
called deviation and the azimuthal change is called drift.
3.2.1. The deviation calculation: The deviation calculated as an angle from the zenith/
vertical. The deviation has two components one is vertical and another is horizontal.
A
B C
The angle BAC = 𝛉 is the angle of deviation measured from the vertical line AC. AB=dL
is the small distance along the borehole. Hence, the vertical (AC) and horizontal (BC)
component will be:
Vertical Component(dz)= dL cosθ
Horizontal Component(dh)=dL sinθ
3.2.2. The drift Calculation: The drift is basically the azimuthal change of the drilled
borehole. Here the horizontal component(dh) of the deviation is further divided into 2
different components. The angle of drift is basically measured from the north in quarter
circle measurement. This also has two components. Those are departure and latitude.
E C
31
B F
Angle EBC = α is the azimuthal angle. BC is the horizontal component obtain from
deviation calculation; BF is the departure; CF is the latitude. Thus the formulas will be:
Latitude (CF) = dh cosα
Departure (BF) = dh sinα
3.3. Apparatus for Deviation Survey:

There are several apparatuses which are used to perform deviation survey. Some of them
are described below:
3.3.1. HF: Eatch method is a method of measuring borehole deviation. This method
uses Hydrofluoric acid (HF). It has the tendency to make a mark on the test tube when
kept at least 3-4 hours. Procedure: Test tube has been half filled with HF (Hydrofluoric
acid), and housed in short barrel. The apparatus is lowered at desired depth i.e., at an
interval of 30 mts each. The test tube is kept in the borehole for at least 3-4 hours. Result:
HF itches out elliptical mark on the tube measuring the horizontal depth at a position.
Inclination of the tube is determined. HF marks on the test tube. The etched marked
meniscus is used to estimate etched angle. A meniscus correction for capillary action of
HF is advisable to measure the angle. The estimated etched angle is correlated with the
True angle and the deviation is established. Disadvantage: Azimuthal deviation couldn’t
be measured.
3.3.2. Maxibor: Maxibor is an optical instrument and it measures the curvature of
consecutive hole segments using reflected light inside its steel tubes. In basic setup
Maxibor device has two reflector rings at three metres intervals in a six metres long
tube. In a straight hole the rings are concentric. When the tool is bent following the
curved drillhole, the rings are shifted correspondingly. By quantifying this shift, a
measure of the bend can be calculated. Maxibor measures the rotation angle and uses
the information to separate true bend from instrument rotation. Three carefully
calibrated and perpendicularly placed accelerometer units provide the dip values and
the rotation of the instrument. The diameter of the tube is adjusted for 46 mm size. When
measuring larger drillholes four centralizing rings of suitable size are installed directly
around the reflector rings, camera and top coupling. Based on the initial coordinates and
azimuth of the hole and deviation readings of the reflector rings a computer program
calculates the coordinates and direction of the hole at each survey station. The results
are presented as a table and in graphic form. The Maxibor survey was carried out at
32
three metres intervals. Maxibor is an optical instrument and it measures the curvature
of consecutive hole segments using reflected light inside its steel tubes. In basic setup
Maxibor device has two reflector rings at three metres intervals in a six metres long
tube. In a straight hole the rings are concentric. When the tool is bent following the
curved drillhole, the rings are shifted correspondingly. By quantifying this shift, a
measure of the bend can be calculated. Maxibor measures the rotation angle and uses
the information to separate true bend from instrument rotation. Three carefully
calibrated and perpendicularly placed accelerometer units provide the dip values and
the rotation of the instrument. The diameter of the tube is adjusted for 46 mm size. When
measuring larger drill holes four centralizing rings of suitable size are installed directly
around the reflector rings, camera and top coupling. Based on the initial coordinates and
azimuth of the hole and deviation readings of the reflector rings a computer program
calculates the coordinates and direction of the hole at each survey station. The results
are presented as a table and in graphic form. The Maxibor survey was carried out at
three metres intervals.
The HF method does not give us the exact amount of deviation. That’s why the HF
method is now obsolete. Maxibor is the dominant method for deviation survey of
boreholes.
Table 1. Borehole deviation calculation exercise:
Dirction:N 40 E
Casing depth-24 m. R.L. of the B.H. collar: 130m
Prospect: Pathargora
Borehole No: PTG/6
Drilled Depth: 218.35m District: Singhbhum
33
Depth along Deviation Deviation Direction Direction Total
Segment Direction Horizontal Vertical Total Vertical Total Total
Sl.No. the borehole from vertical from vertical (Degrees) (Convered to Horizontal Latitude Departure
length(m) (Degrees) component (m) Component (m) depth (m) Latitude (m) Departure (m)
(m) (Degrees) (Radian) (Quarter circle) Radians) distance (m)
1 1.5 1.5 0 0.00 casing 40 0.70 0.00 1.50 0.00 1.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2 10 8.5 0 0.00 casing 42 0.73 0.00 8.50 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3 20 10 0 0.00 casing 44 0.77 0.00 10.00 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
4 40 20 3 0.05 S45°W 45 0.79 1.05 19.97 1.05 39.97 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74
5 60 20 6 0.10 S45°W 45 0.79 2.09 19.89 3.14 59.86 1.48 1.48 2.22 2.22
6 80 20 11 0.19 S45°W 45 0.79 3.82 19.63 6.95 79.50 2.70 2.70 4.92 4.92
7 100 20 16 0.28 S35°W 35 0.61 5.51 19.23 12.47 98.72 4.52 3.16 9.43 8.08
8 115 15 22 0.38 S35°W 35 0.61 5.62 13.91 18.09 112.63 4.60 3.22 14.04 11.30
9 125 10 25 0.44 S35°W 35 0.61 4.23 9.06 22.31 121.69 3.46 2.42 17.50 13.73
10 140 15 27 0.47 S37°W 37 0.65 6.81 13.37 29.12 135.06 5.44 4.10 22.94 17.82
11 160 20 29 0.51 S40°W 40 0.70 9.70 17.49 38.82 152.55 7.43 6.23 30.36 24.06
12 180 20 30 0.52 S38°W 38 0.66 10.00 17.32 48.82 169.87 7.88 6.16 38.24 30.21
13 200 20 32 0.56 S39°W 39 0.68 10.60 16.96 59.42 186.83 8.24 6.67 46.48 36.88
14 215 15 34 0.59 S40°W 40 0.70 8.39 12.44 67.80 199.27 6.43 5.39 52.91 42.27
34
Borehole deviation graph. Borehole drift graph
35
3.4. Borehole planning:
Borehole planning is a very crucial part of subsurface exploration since cores from
boreholes determine the next steps of the exploration process.
Borehole is generally planned step by step, in a grid pattern. Different patterns are used
for different alignment of ore bodies, e.g.:
i) Square pattern, for shallow dipping ore bodies,
ii) Rectangular pattern, for sub vertical ore bodies,
iii) Diamond pattern, for homogenous ore bodies.
Besides, this entire borehole exploration is done through different drilling stages where
each stage has a specific purpose e.g., stratigraphic drilling, reconnoitory drilling,
exploratory drilling and evaluation drilling.
Borehole planning is entirely concerned with the economic aspects. In field area the
distance between two bore hole is generally 200 meters at the final stage of exploration.
Generally, the following steps are considered which planning borehole sites for
exploration:
i) First borehole is located against the highest radioactive zone of the anomaly
on downdip side of the surface anomaly at a distance from outcrop such that
the intercept is below the weathered zone, normally 30-40 m.
ii) Attempt is always made to intercept the ore body at right angle.
iii) Inclination of boreholes < 40° are avoided.
iv) Sometimes same platform can be used for drilling two or more boreholes at
different angles.
3.4.1. Borehole planning at Khadandungri Area:
For the mapped area of Khadandungri, boreholes can be planned in the following way:
Stage I- Stratigraphic drilling: The radioactive zone is concentrated in the south-
eastern part of the mapped region and found within Feldspathic schist and Chlorite
sericite quartz schist. Hence the first set of boreholes can be made at a distance of 30-
40 m from the outcrop in the north-east direction i.e., within the outcrop of Quartzite
and kyanite quartzite. The borehole should have a dip of 40-45° dipping towards SW
since the schistosity in the radioactive exposure dip 40-50° in the NE direction.
Stage II- Reconnoitory drilling: Mineralized boreholes will be marked and second
stages of boreholes will be dug around it, preferably following square grid pattern with
lesser interval between the boreholes.
36
Stage III- Exploratory drilling: In the next step, more infilling boreholes should be
dug in even more closed spaced drilling and within lesser areal extent in order to modify
ore boundary to further extent.
Stage IV- Evaluation drilling: Lastly, last set of boreholes should be dug with a
purpose of finalised evaluation of ore reserve. These are generally coring type of drilling
with least interval and maximum in number among all the stages. Resource is estimated
in indicated category.
Figure 3.2 : Hypothetical transverse section of the area with proposed boreholes of
preliminary stage
3.5. Core logging and techniques:

Core logging is basically gathering data from the recovered cores. Various aspects are
recorded, Such as:
i) Geological logging i.e., recording the lithological changes, structural information
like fracture, dip, beddings etc.
37
ii) Geotechnical logging i.e., deals recording data related to fracture, joints, apparent
shear, RQD, hardness etc.
iii) Geophysical logging to confirm the presence of deposit. Gamma-Gamma logging
is generally used for Uranium deposits.
3.5.1. Geophysical Logging for Uranium deposits:
Gamma ray logging is a method of measuring naturally occurring gamma radiation to
characterize the rock or sediment in a borehole or drill hole. Different types of rock emit
different amounts and different spectra of natural gamma radiation. The gamma ray log,
like other types of well logging, is done by lowering an instrument down the drill hole
and recording gamma radiation variation with depth. For standard gamma-ray logs, the
measured value of gamma-ray radiation is calculated from concentration of uranium in
ppm, which in turn helps to identify the possible ore bodies of uranium.
3.5.2. Instrumentation used for radiometric recording:
Generally, two types of instruments are used in the field:
i) GM counter or Geiger-Muller counter: A Geiger counter consists of a
Geiger–Müller tube and the processing electronics, which displays the result.
The Geiger–Müller tube is filled with an inert gas such as helium, neon, or
argon at low pressure, to which a high voltage is applied. The tube briefly
conducts electrical charge when a particle or photon of incident radiation
makes the gas conductive by ionization. The ionization is considerably
amplified within the tube by the Townsend discharge effect to produce an
easily measured detection pulse, which is fed to the processing and display
electronics. The electronics also generate the high voltage, typically 400–900
volts, that has to be applied to the Geiger–Müller tube to enable its operation.
This voltage must be carefully selected, as too high a voltage will allow for
continuous discharge, damaging the instrument and invalidating the results.
Conversely, too low a voltage will result in an electric field that is too weak
to generate a current pulse. To stop the discharge in the Geiger–Müller tube a
small amount of halogen gas or organic material is added to the gas mixture.
ii) Scintillation Counter: In this instrument, radiation coming from the sample
is picked up by the counter and if alpha particle is picked the detector is ZnS
Ag activated crystal, for beta- particle anthracene crystal and for gamma
radiation particle NaI thallium activated crystal is used. The gamma radiation
gives rise to scintillation or flesh light or small spots of light which are picked
up by photomultiplier tube which convert this radiation into electric pulses.
These pulses are further amplified and then recorded. In GM counter pulses
are of all same size but in Scintillation counter the pulses are proportional to
38
the gamma-emitter. By looking the pulses, it can be detected that from what
source gamma radiation are emitted i.e.; due to U or Ra of Th.
Figure 3.3: Scintillation Counter in use
39
Table 2. Core logging in Bagjata area: BH NO: BJ-XX
Angle of BH: Vertical
From(m) To(m) Angle of lithology Description Remarks

with Core Axis (In
degrees)
23.5 26.5 125 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet- Biotite -

schist with quartzofeldspathic Muscovite Schist.
vein parallel to schistosity.
Occurrence of Garnet increases
with depth and sites retrograde
metamorphism.
26.5 29.5 120 Biotite - Muscovite Schist with Garnet- Chlorite-

chlorite. Quartz vein intruded Muscovite -Biotite
before shearing, as it is also Schist
sheared. Garnet present. Hinge
and limb of fold are seen.
29.5 32.5 118 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Muscovite-

schist with quartzofeldspathic Biotite Schist
with depth and shows retrograde
metamorphism by showing
chloritization phenomena around
the garnet grains. Kink band is
seen.

with depth and shows retrograde
metamorphism by showing
chloritization phenomena around
the garnet grains. Kink band is
seen. Both Pre-syn kinematic
and post kinematic garnet is
seen.

metamorphism. The Garnets are
Post and Pre-Kinematics Garnet.
Sigma and omega structures are
40
observed. Pseudotachylite is
found.
38.5 41.5 116 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Biotite-

schist with quartzofeldspathic Muscovite schist
Post and Pre-Kinematic Garnet.
Muscovite is increasing with
depth.
41.5 44.5 115 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Biotite-

schist with quartzofeldspathic Muscovite schist
Post and Pre-Kinematic Garnet.
Biotite is increasing with depth.
44.5 47.5 118 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet- Muscovite-

schist with narrow bands of Biotite Schist.
Pseudotachylite. Garnet content
remains constant.
47.5 50.5 116 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Chlorite-Garnet-

schist with increased amount of Muscovite-Biotite
chlorite and having disseminated Schist
chalcopyrite bodies in quartz
vein.
50.5 53.5 117 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

chalcopyrite stringers in quartz
vein.

vein.

vein.

schist with more or less constant Muscovite-Biotite
amount of chlorite and having Schist
disseminated chalcopyrite
41
bodies in quartz vein. With
increased amount of garnet.



garnet decreasing with depth.

garnet decreasing with depth.

bodies in quartz vein. The
abundance of garnet is less.

abundance of garnet is more or
less constant.

less constant.

42
less constant.

less constant. Pseudotachylite is
found along with small amount
of pyrite in the quartz veins.

less constant. With increased
amount of chlorite.

amount of chlorite.

amount of chlorite.

abundance of garnet is
decreasing. With increased
amount of chlorite.

43
amount of chlorite.

amount of chlorite.

abundance of garnet and chlorite
is more or less constant.





44
abundance of garnet increases
and chlorite is decreasing.




and chlorite is more or less
constant.

Pseudotachylite is present in a
thick band.

45


is more or less constant. Pyrite is
also found in the quartz veins.
152.5 185.35 ------ Not studied. -------
185.35 185.62 120 In this run of 3m, muscovite Biotite – Muscovite

content is increasing upwards Schist
with the weakening of
schistosity. Chloritization of
garnet is happening which
indicates retrograde
metamorphism.
185.63 185.93 110 In this zone the biotite is present Muscovite – Biotite
in high ratio and denotes strong Schist
schistosity. Small garnet grains
(>1mm) and shear fabric also
with lenticular feature are
present.
185.94 186.54 110-120 Grain size of garnets are Biotite – Muscovite

increasing simultaneously with Schist
depth the quartz veins are
present with a thickness of 2cm
(approx.).
186.55 187.67 110 Here biotite defines moderate Chlorite Muscovite

schistosity, chlorite minerals are Biotite Schist
present and the biotite minerals
have the high ratio with the
muscovite.
187.68 196.75 110 High muscovite composition in Chlorite Biotite

schistose rock also chloritization Muscovite schist
of finer garnet has been seen
which denotes retrograde
46
metamorphism. Fluid intrusion
observed in some places.
196.76 227.29 110 In this zone size of garnet Quartz Feldspar

increases in a continuous order bearing Biotite
with muscovite and the chlorite Muscovite Schist
band. Feldspathic schist is
present.
227.3 228.34 In the zone a continuous order Quartz Feldspar

with muscovite and the chlorite bearing Biotite
band with feldspathic schist with Muscovite Schist
higher size of garnet.
228.35 230.34 In the zone a continuous order Biotite Muscovite

with muscovite and the chlorite Schist
band with feldspathic schist with
higher size of garnet, a meta
dolerite zone has been spotted
with a sharp contact which has
been identified by fractured
apatite in a dark coloured zone.
230.35 245.34 120 Meta dolerite zone continues up Meta Dolerite

to certain thickness. Moreover a
14 cm thick quartz vein is
spotted in the zone.
245.35 247.74 Meta-dolerite zone continues Meta Dolerite

here also but the difference is
here chloritization of garnet is
also unlike the upper section and
this is also an indication of
retrograde metamorphism.
247.75 248.34 Chloritization decreases as Meta Dolerite

described in previous section
despite continuation of meta-
dolerite layer which suggests
that retrograde metamorphism is
confined in the particular zone
and not in the entire meta-
dolerite.
248.35 278.84 110 Meta-dolerite layer ends here Feldspathic Schist

and more light-coloured quartz
feldspar bearing biotite
muscovite schist has been
observed.
278.85 296.24 Schistosity is also prominent Biotite Muscovite

here but some alteration of Schist
composition of rocks has also
been observed. But the actual
nomenclature is not possible as
the concentration of the
component minerals cannot be
measured.
47
296.25 305.45 With continuation of the Chlorite bearing
previously mentioned schistose Biotite Muscovite
rock, here we have observed schist
considerable amount of chlorite
in the aforementioned schist.
305.46 308.34 Abrupt change of chlorite Biotite Muscovite

content in the aforementioned Schist
schist. Also, sulphide
mineralization has been
observed in the form of
chalcopyrite and sometimes
rectangle shaped pyrite too.
308.35 309.05 Biotite and muscovite content is Feldspathic Schist

also going lower in this section.
Alternatively, quartz and
feldspar content are going high
which alters the nomenclature of
the rock. But the actual contact is
not found due to gradational
change of composition.
309.06 317.34 110 Abrupt change in composition as Muscovite biotite

chlorite become the main chlorite schist
component of the schist rather
than other minerals.
317.35 318.39 110 Abrupt decrease of chlorite Biotite Muscovite

composition and simultaneous Schist
increase of biotite muscovite in
schist. However sharp contact is
found in between the
compositional change.
318.4 320.33 105 Abrupt increase of chlorite Biotite Muscovite

composition rather than the rest Chlorite schist
of the minerals and that’s why
the nomenclature is changed
here.
320.34 323.34 115 Unlike the previous log sections, Feldspathic Schist
sudden increase of quartz
feldspar rich layer has been
observed here and the content of
them is sufficiently higher to
change the nomenclature of the
rock but sharp contact is not
measurable in every portion.
Also, sulphide mineralization
has been observed in the form of
chalcopyrite and sometimes
rectangle shaped pyrite too.
323.35 330.85 112 Abruptly chloride has been Muscovite Biotite

increased in content and biotite Chlorite Schist
and muscovite as well as quartz
feldspar has been diminished so
48
hereby the nomenclature has
been changed again.
330.86 334.94 113 Chlorite abruptly vanished and Quartz Feldspar

biotite has been increased in Muscovite Biotite
higher percentage than Schist
muscovite, feldspar and quartz
respectively.
334.95 335.34 110 Abruptly chloride has been Muscovite Biotite

increased in content and biotite Chlorite Schist
and muscovite as well as quartz
feldspar has been diminished so
hereby the nomenclature has
been changed again.
335.35 343.34 112 Sudden increase of quartz Biotite Muscovite

feldspar rich layer has been Quartz Feldspar
observed here and the content of Schist
them is sufficiently higher to
change the nomenclature of the
rock but sharp contact is not
measurable in every portion.
344.35 347.35 120 Comparatively dark in colour; Tourmaline bearing

biotite rich; feldspar, chlorite, chlorite muscovite
muscovite, chalcopyrite, pyrite feldspar biotite
and arsenopyrite present; quartz schist
tourmaline present as
porphyroblast (pre to syn-
kinematic); weak S-C fabric
seen; sheared quartz vein found
indicating intrusion before
shearing; magnetite layers seen
(0.5-1cm thick).
347.35 350.35 118 Muscovite rich; biotite, feldspar, Tourmaline bearing

chlorite, chalcopyrite, pyrite and chlorite biotite
arsenopyrite present; tourmaline muscovite feldspar
porphyroblast present; quartz schist
schistosity defined by biotite,
feldspar, chlorite; sheared quartz
vein found (average thickness 2-
3cm); magnetite layers seen
(0.5-1cm thick).
350.35 353.35 108 mineral constituents muscovite, Do

biotite, feldspar, chlorite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, arsenopyrite
with tourmaline porphyroblast;
Dolerite dyke found of thickness
1.5cm at 353.23m with an
intrusion angle of 90-100°.

biotite, feldspar, chlorite with
smaller tourmaline
porphyroblast; intense shearing
49
with finer grain size; changed
lithology from 355.64m to
356.19m with biotite
enrichment.
356.35 359.35 112 mineral constituents muscovite, Apatite bearing

biotite, feldspar, chlorite with chlorite biotite
smaller tourmaline muscovite feldspar
porphyroblast; layers of apatite quartz schist
with porphyroblast of the same
found; chlorite rich meta dolerite
dyke found from 358.95m to
359.82m with a contact angle of
110°.
359.35 362.35 108 Mineral constituents muscovite, Tourmaline bearing

biotite, feldspar, chlorite with chlorite biotite
tourmaline porphyroblast (pre to muscovite feldspar
syn kinematic; pyrite present; C- quartz schist
S fabric seen.
362.35 365.35 112 Mineral constituents muscovite, Chlorite muscovite

biotite, feldspar, chlorite, quartz; biotite feldspar
no porphyroblast; no C-S fabric. quartz schist

biotite, feldspar, chlorite, quartz chlorite muscovite
with tourmaline porphyroblast biotite feldspar
(post kinematic); chlorite rich quartz schist
layer found at 369.45m and
370.39m.

biotite, feldspar, chlorite, chlorite muscovite
chalcopyrite, pyrite, arsenopyrite feldspar biotite
with tourmaline porphyroblast quartz schist
(post kinematic).
371.35 374.35 115 Mineral constituents muscovite, Chlorite muscovite

biotite, feldspar, chlorite, feldspar biotite
chalcopyrite, pyrite, quartz schist
arsenopyrite.
374.35 377.35 118 mineral constituents muscovite, Chlorite muscovite

biotite, feldspar, chlorite, feldspar biotite
chalcopyrite, pyrite, quartz schist
arsenopyrite; radioactive horizon
with uraninite mineral from
376.84m, thickness 28.5cm

biotite, feldspar, chlorite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite,
arsenopyrite; radioactive
horizons present from 377.49m
with a thickness of 36cm (2x
activity) and from 378.75m with
50
a thickness of 163cm (1.5x
activity).
Table 3. Core logging in Patharghara area: No of BH: PTG-XX

Angle of Drilling: 65°
Direction of Drilling: S50W
From(m) To(m) Angle of lithology with Description Remarks

Core Axis (In degrees)
11 14 115 High amount of Muscovite with Chlorite- Garnet -

occurrence of Biotite and Pre- to Biotite-
Syn-kinematic garnet. In some Muscovite Schist
places Garnet shows occurrence of
Chlorite around it; signifying a
retrograde metamorphism. This part
also contains quartzofeldspathic
veins that runs parallel to
schistosity.
14 17 115 High amount of Muscovite with Chlorite- Garnet -

schistosity. With increasing
abundance of Chlorite and Garnet.
17 20 115 High amount of Muscovite with Garnet-Chlorite-

schistosity. Here the amount of
Biotite and Chlorite increases and
garnet amount decreases.
20 23 112 High amount of Muscovite. This Chlorite-Biotite-

part also contains quartzofeldspathic Muscovite Schist
schistosity. No garnet is present and
biotite is increasing with depth.
23 26 110 High amount of Muscovite with Chlorite-Biotite-

occurrence of Biotite. At 23.62 m Muscovite Schist
there occurs a dark layering that Chlorite-Biotite
51
contains biotite and chlorite. This Schist
band is foliated and is 68cm long. Chlorite-Biotite-
Muscovite Schist
26 29 110 Feldspar high with Muscovite and Feldspar - Biotite

Biotite. Biotite is increasing with - Muscovite
depth. Schist

depth. From 31 to 31.04 m Chlorite Schist
- Biotite Schist is present. There is Chlorite-Biotite
also a meta dolerite dyke Schist
32 35 115 Feldspar high with Muscovite and Chlorite- Garnet -

Biotite. Biotite is increasing with Biotite-
depth. Chlorite and Garnet amounts Muscovite-
are increasing here. Feldspar Schist

are increasing here. A banding of Feldspar Schist
chlorite biotite schist observed up to Chlorite-Biotite
56cm. Schist

are increasing here. Disseminated Feldspar Schist
chalcopyrite present. A banding of Chlorite-Biotite
chlorite biotite schist observed from Schist
40.10 to 41.00.
41 44 120 Feldspar high with Muscovite and Garnet-Chlorite -

chalcopyrite present.


depth. Thin band of chalcopyrite Schist
present.

depth. Thin band of chalcopyrite Schist
present. Garnet amount is
increasing.
52
53 56 120 Feldspar high with Muscovite and Feldspar -
Biotite. Biotite is increasing with Muscovite-
depth. Chlorite and Garnet amounts Biotite Schist
are increasing here. Disseminated

are increasing here and garnet size Feldspar Schist
also increases. Garnet present in Garnet-Chlorite-
Chlorite-Biotite schist. Biotite Schist
Disseminated chalcopyrite present.
59 62 115 Muscovite content is higher than Chlorite- Biotite-

that of biotite. Amount of chlorite Garnet-
and garnet increases with depth and Muscovite Schist
the garnet is having retrograde
texture
62 65 115 Muscovite content is higher than Tourmaline-

that of biotite. Amount of chlorite Chlorite- Biotite-
and garnet increases with depth and Garnet-
the garnet is having retrograde Muscovite Schist
texture. Occasionally tourmaline is
present as a porphyroblast.
65 68 115 Muscovite content is high but that of Chlorite-Garnet-

biotite is low. Garnet is decreasing Biotite-
with depth. Quartz and chlorite Muscovite Schist
present.
68 71 115 Biotite and Muscovite is defining Garnet-Chlorite-

foliation. Chlorite is abundant and Biotite-
garnet is decreasing. Muscovite Schist
71 74 112 From 71 to 72.20 a quartzite, sericite Biotite-

schist layer is present, it is 20 cm Muscovite Schist
thick. Biotite Muscovite increases.
74 77 115 Biotite is present all over the length. Biotite-

Biotite and Muscovite is defining Muscovite Schist
foliation. Disseminated pyrite
present in equant shape.
77 80 110 Chlorite and biotite mark the Chlorite-

schistosity plane. Amount of biotite Muscovite-
is decreasing with depth and Biotite Schist
muscovite is increasing.
Disseminated chalcopyrite
observed.
80 83 115 Chlorite and biotite mark the Chlorite-

schistosity plane. Amount of biotite Muscovite-
is decreasing with depth and Biotite Schist
53
observed. Equant shaped pyrite
present.
83 86 115 Chlorite and biotite mark the Chlorite-Biotite-

schistosity plane. Amount of biotite Muscovite Schist
is decreasing with depth and
observed.

observed.

observed.

observed.
95 98 112 Chlorite and Muscovite marks the Biotite-Chlorite-

observed. A thin layer of sericite
schist is also observed


54
104 107 112 Mineral constituents muscovite, Chlorite sericite
sericite, chlorite, quartz and possibly muscovite quartz
lazulite. Biotite present from 105m. schist. (Pyrite
Pyrite and chalcopyrite present bearing Sericite
(disseminated and layered). biotite muscovite
quartz schist from
105m).
107 110 105 Mineral constituents muscovite, Pyrite bearing

sericite, chlorite, quartz, possibly Sericite biotite
lazulite, biotite, pyrite and muscovite quartz
chalcopyrite (disseminated and schist
layered).
110 113 100 Mineral constituents muscovite, Chlorite

biotite, chlorite, quartz, muscovite biotite
disseminated pyrite. New bed from quartz schist
110.6m.

biotite, chlorite, quartz, little amount plagioclase
of feldspar. muscovite biotite
quartz schist

biotite, chlorite, quartz, increased muscovite biotite
amount of feldspar, chalcopyrite, feldspar quartz
pyrite and arsenopyrite (layered and schist
disseminated).
119 122 110 Mineral constituents muscovite, Do

biotite, chlorite, quartz, increased
amount of feldspar, chalcopyrite,
pyrite and arsenopyrite (layered and
disseminated).

increased biotite (from 122.46m to
122.61m), chlorite, quartz, increased
amount of feldspar, chalcopyrite,
pyrite and arsenopyrite (layered and
disseminated).
125 128 102 Mineral constituents muscovite, Tourmaline

biotite, chlorite (as metadyke too bearing Chlorite
from 125.88m to 126.01m), quartz, muscovite biotite
increased amount of feldspar. C-S feldspar quartz
fabric seen. Tourmaline present as schist
porphyroblast (pre- and syn-
kinamatic).

biotite, chlorite, quartz, feldspar,
tourmaline as porphyroblast.

tourmaline as porphyroblast. From
55
129.44m muscovite content
increased and pyrite present.
134 137 115 Mineral constituents muscovite, Do (Tourmaline

biotite, chlorite, quartz, feldspar. bearing biotite
Meta dolerite dyke present from schist after
131.42m to 131.62m with a contact 131.62m).
angle of 100°. Appearance of
tourmaline and increased biotite
content observed after 131.62m.

biotite, chlorite, quartz, feldspar, bearing chlorite
tourmaline as porphyroblast. From muscovite
137 to 139.20m muscovite schist feldspar biotite
and after that biotite schist. quartz schist


Metamorphosed quartz veins
present.

Layered pyrite present. Asymmetric
folding seen.

pyrite, tourmaline as porphyroblast.
Radioactive layer with 2x of
background activity found from
149.30m to 150m.

Radioactive layer with 2x of
background activity found from
153.89m to 154.30m.

biotite, chlorite, quartz, feldspar and muscovite
pyrite. feldspar biotite
quartz schist

biotite, chlorite, quartz, feldspar and bearing chlorite
tourmaline as porphyroblast. muscovite
feldspar biotite
quartz schist
56
biotite, chlorite, quartz, feldspar and muscovite
pyrite. feldspar biotite
quartz schist

biotite, chlorite, quartz, feldspar, bearing chlorite
pyrite and tourmaline as muscovite
porphyroblast. feldspar biotite
quartz schist

biotite, chlorite, quartz, feldspar and

pyrite and tourmaline as
porphyroblast.

porphyroblast.

porphyroblast.

Dolerite dyke observed from
179.96m to 180.56m with a contact
angle of 115°.

porphyroblast.

porphyroblast. From 188m to
188.68m muscovite rich layer
present.

porphyroblast. Radioactive layer
observed with 2x of background
activity from 189.55m to 190.18m.

biotite, chlorite, quartz, feldspar. muscovite
57
feldspar biotite
quartz schist

biotite, chlorite, quartz, feldspar and bearing chlorite
tourmaline as porphyroblast. muscovite
feldspar biotite
quartz schist

200 202.99 In this run of 3 meter, the rocks are Muscovite Biotite
mainly biotite rich and muscovite Schist
defined the weak schistosity.
203 205.99 In this segment a massive quartz Do

layer is present, some places have
high sulphide mineralisation and
also contains magnetite with the
coarse quartz grains.
206 208.99 Alternate banding of biotite rich

layer and quartz feldspathic schist
layer, sulphide minerals are present.
209 211.99 In the layer of muscovite biotite

schist shear banding of quartz
feldspathic schist has been observed,
shear bandings are prominent by
quartz.
212 214.99 Quartz feldspathic schist with low

percentage of biotite & muscovite.
This core has partially shown low
radioactivity in a particular region.

Percentage of muscovite fluctuates
throughout the run, nevertheless
biotite percentage is always lower
than that of muscovite.

Percentage of muscovite fluctuates
throughout the run, nevertheless
biotite percentage is always lower
than that of muscovite.
221 223.99 Unlike the previous run biotite

content of the rock increases. None
the less prominent quartz-
feldspathic schist layering has been
observed.
58
224 226.99 Biotite content of the rock increases.
None the less prominent quartz-
observed.
227 229.99 This core has partially shown

radioactivity in a particular region
i.e., 227.8-228.87 m. dip. Quartz
feldspathic schist layering is
prominent which is showing the
sense of shearing. Small to medium
size porphyroblast of garnet has
been present. Chlorite rings
surrounding garnet suggests that
retrograde metamorphism happen
there. Sulphide mineralisation has
also occurred here. Prominent 3-4
cm thick chlorite banding has also
been observed in this run.
230 232.99 Unlike the previous run biotite

content of the rock increases. None
the less prominent quartz-
observed.

observed. Quartz vein is present
here. Magnetite porphyroblast has
been observed here. Chloritization
of garnet crystals has also been
observed which is indication of
retrograde metamorphism.

Quartz feldspathic schist layering is
there.

there. Prominent biotite
59
mineralisation has also been
observed in this run.

there. Prominent thick biotite
mineralisation has also been
observed in this run. Prominent 3-4
cm thick chlorite banding has also
been observed in this run.
245 247.99 Prominent chlorite layering has also

been observed in this run. This core
has shown radioactivity in middle
portion of the run. Quartz vein is
present here. Magnetite
porphyroblast has been observed
here. Sulphide mineralisation has
also occurred here.

feldspathic schist has been observed.
Magnetite layer is also present in the
middle portion of the run.
Chalcopyrite mineralisation has also
occurred here.
251 253.99 In the midst of quartz feldspathic

biotite schist numerous 2 cm thick
feldspathic schist layering is also
present. Sulphide mineralisation has
also occurred here.
254 256.99 Biotite content of the rock increases

in the beginning of the run.
Simultaneously muscovite content
has become rarer. Quartz-feldspar
content of the schist is increasing
going down dip direction of the core.
257 259.99 110 Sulphide mineralisation has also

occurred here. Quartz vein present
in the run. Elliptical shape structures
are also present which is an
implication of hinge zone of a fold.
60
After 259m dip chlorite-sericite
schist zone is present with showing
a sharp contact.
260 262.99 This run has shown radioactivity in

a particular zone i.e.,262.00-
262.62m down dip. chlorite-sericite
schist is present in thus run.
Prominent quartz-feldspathic schist
banding is present.
263 265.99 Magnetite and sulphide

mineralisation is present in this run
in the midst of quartz-feldspathic
schist and on the both side of the log,
in biotite muscovite schist also. In
the middle portion of the rock, high
muscovite content is present,
nevertheless, biotite content is
higher in both the maximum sides of
the log. In quartz feldspathic schist,
apatite porphyroblast is present.
Prominent folds are also present in
the log.
266 268.99 105 Quant layering of feldspathic schist

is also present in the muscovite
biotite schist as described above.
Apatite porphyroblast is present
which has shown chloritization.
Apatite crystal is brecciated as per
observation. However, in the
downdip direction chlorite sericite
schist content is higher and shows a
sharp contact with biotite muscovite
schist.
269 271.99 In this section, banding of

feldspathic schist has been observed
with the chloritization of garnet,
besides this the big layer of chlorite
mineral has been observed with
relict fractures of medium apatite
porphyroblast.
272 274.99 In this run schistosity is defined by Chlorite Biotite

biotite, chlorite mineral percentage Muscovite schist
is less than the previous layer with
the feldspathic schist banding,
Magnetite is also present. Some
elliptical closed structures are
present which is supposed to be a
hinge of a fold.
61
275 277.99 In the beginning of the log, Do
muscovite biotite schist is present
where muscovite has shown
prominent schistosity. In this run,
muscovite content decreases in
downdip direction as well as the
decrement of biotite content has also
been observed. Apatite and garnet
porphyroblast are also present in the
middle of the run. However, garnet
with chlorite mineralization is an
indication of retrograde
metamorphism in this particular run
too.
278 280.99 In this run muscovite containing

rocks are in high percentage and
muscovite define the prominent
schistosity. At almost last part of the
run (280.65m) a prominent shear
banding has been observed.
281 283.99 In the middle part of the run the Muscovite Biotite
schistosity is strong defined by Schist
biotite with the quartz feldspathic
schist, composite sets of fractures
present in apatite porphyroclast.
62
Chapter 4:
Ore Dilution and Grade calculation
of radioactive bands
63
Dilution refers to the waste material that is not separated from the ore during the
operation and is mined with ore. This waste material is mixed with ore and sent to the
processing plant.
Dilution is the result of mixing non-ore grade material with ore-grade material during
production, generally leading to an increase in tonnage and a decrease in mean grade
relative to original expectations. Dilution can be defined as the ratio of the tonnage of
waste mined and sent to the mill for processing over the combined the total tonnage of
ore and waste that are milled.
4.1. Planned and Unplanned Dilution
Planned dilution is a prosses where we calculate major high grade ore beds with in
between low-grade beds to reach the cut-off thickness of mining but mean grade of the
planned bed also decreases, so for this prosses we need to consider a standard percentage
of dilution. Percent of dilution vary with different types of ores; in our case it was near
10% and cut-off thickness 3m.
Unplanned dilution cannot be calculated before mining, this are caused mainly by Rock
with a lower mineralization content than the cut-off grade, coming from beyond the
planned stope limits.
4.2. Factors of Dilution
Mine dilution occurs due to the mining method selected and from overbreak during the
mining process. There are multiple considerations in terms of dilution. Mining methods
such as block caving, sublevel stoping and room-and-pillar have mining methods which
are more predictable, where dilution can be modelled using empirically generated
equations. The major factors which have a direct effect on dilution are as follows:
i) Mine Depth – Methods with greater selectivity exhibit lower dilution.
ii) Rock Competency – More competent rock will be less susceptible to sloughing
and over breaking.
iii) Ore Type – Defines the selective and effective dilution parameters.
iv) Ground Support – Support can be used to maintain ore and waste surfaces,
limiting the amount of dilution.
Self-supported openings are more selective and have lower dilutions than block caving
with typical dilution ranges from 5% to 15%. Additional factors which influence
dilution to a lesser extent are as follows:
i) Rock Mechanics – Mechanical parameters and technical ability lead to increased
dilution to account for.
64
ii) Ore Geometry – Layout of the ore in skewed orientation leads to increases in
unplanned dilution.
iii) Hanging-wall Dip – The likelihood of wall slabbing and release of wedges will
depend on wall dip relative to the orientation of lamination and joints.
iv) Geotechnical – Parameters are increased lead to an increase in dilution values.
v) Stope Span – Larger stope spans are less stable, increasing the risk of wall failure
and unplanned dilution.
4.3.1 Table 4- Ore dilution calculation of Kanyaluka -06 borehole

Dilution for O1 grade bands:
BAND WITH O1 GRADE

From (m) To (m) Thickness (m) Avg Grade (%) Dilution (%)
281.85 282.55 0.7 0.011 14.29
286.25 291.55 5.3 0.020 0.00
304.35 305.25 0.9 0.014 11.11
305.55 318.15 12.60 0.033 0.00
318.75 331.95 13.2 0.036 0.00
332.45 332.65 0.2 0.011 0.00
334.45 334.65 0.2 0.013 0.00
339.65 340.15 0.5 0.012 0.00 • Ore dilution calculation for O1 grade is not necessary
358.95 359.05 0.1 0.010 0.00
359.55 360.95 1.4 0.027 0.00 as cut-off grade for mining is O2 it is done here just
361.25 364.85 3.6 0.034 0.00
365.15 365.65 0.5 0.018 0.00
as an example.
368.65 369.15 0.5 0.022 0.00
372.65 373.15 0.5 0.019 0.00
375.05 375.85 0.8 0.012 0.00
377.85 380.65 2.8 0.016 3.57
381.05 381.95 0.9 0.016 0.00
384.55 385.75 1.2 0.021 0.00
386.55 387.05 0.5 0.011 0.00
387.75 390.95 3.2 0.016 3.13
392.85 392.95 0.1 0.011 0.00
393.25 394.55 1.3 0.017 0.00
396.95 397.15 0.2 0.012 0.00
397.85 398.25 0.4 0.020 0.00 BAND WITH O1 GRADE
399.45 399.95 0.5 0.018 0.00
400.35 401.15 0.8 0.015 0.00
416.25 416.55 0.3 0.014 0.00 304.35 331.95 27.60 0.033 3.62
416.75 418.45 1.7 0.027 0.00
419.45 420.45 1 0.015 10.00 359.55 364.85 5.30 0.0305 7.55
420.95 421.75 0.8 0.020 0.00 377.85 381.95 4.10 0.0150 12.20
421.95 422.15 0.2 0.010 0.00
422.55 423.25 0.7 0.024 14.29 387.75 390.95 3.2 0.016 3.13
423.95 424.95 1 0.034 0.00 416.75 418.45 1.7 0.027 0.00
425.85 426.15 0.3 0.016 0.00
426.45 427.25 0.8 0.020 0.00
429.55 429.95 0.4 0.011 0.00
430.15 430.25 0.1 0.011 0.00
433.85 434.35 0.5 0.019 0.00
446.75 446.85 0.1 0.019 0.00
451.85 451.95 0.1 0.017 0.00
464.65 465.85 1.2 0.022 0.00
474.15 474.55 0.4 0.013 25.00
65
BAND WITH O2 GRADE

288.55 289.15 0.6 0.0297 0.00
289.75 291.35 1.6 0.0282 0.00
305.65 305.85 0.2 0.0275 0.00
306.05 306.15 0.1 0.0210 0.00
306.55 307.45 0.9 0.0253 0.00
307.55 307.65 0.1 0.0200 0.00
307.95 308.25 0.3 0.0203 0.00
308.55 309.85 1.3 0.0273 7.69
310.15 311.45 1.3 0.0375 0.00 BAND WITH O2 GRADE
312.05 312.35 0.3 0.0227 0.00
312.75 313.75 1 0.0239 20.00
305.65 311.45 5.80 0.0439 29.31
314.25 314.55 0.3 0.0250 0.00
314.85 318.15 3.3 0.0618 9.09
314.85 331.45 16.6 0.0408 13.25
318.95 320.75 1.8 0.0400 0.00 361.45 364.15 2.7 0.0402 11.11
320.95 327.75 6.8 0.0426 0.00
328.55 331.45 2.9 0.0313 3.45
359.65 360.55 0.9 0.0338 0.00
361.45 364.15 2.7 0.0402 11.11
365.25 365.45 0.2 0.0235 0.00
368.75 369.15 0.4 0.0230 0.00 BAND WITH O2 GRADE
372.75 372.95 0.2 0.0240 0.00 From (m) To (m) Thickness (m) Avg Grade (%) Dilution (%)
378.35 378.75 0.4 0.0255 0.00 305.65 331.45 25.8 0.0346 22.87
379.75 379.85 0.1 0.0230 0.00
380.15 380.25 0.1 0.0210 0.00
381.55 381.65 0.1 0.0240 0.00 • Final result taken for reserve calculation.
384.75 384.85 0.1 0.0220 0.00
385.25 385.55 0.3 0.0347 0.00
388.35 388.75 0.4 0.0295 0.00
390.55 390.85 0.3 0.0253 0.00
393.35 393.45 0.1 0.0220 0.00
394.15 394.45 0.3 0.0247 0.00
397.95 398.15 0.2 0.0230 0.00
399.55 399.75 0.2 0.0250 0.00
416.95 418.05 1.1 0.0345 18.18
419.8 419.9 0.1 0.0200 0.00
421.0 421.6 0.6 0.0225 0.00
422.9 423.2 0.3 0.0390 0.00
424.1 424.9 0.8 0.0398 0.00
426.6 427.2 0.6 0.0218 16.67
434.0 434.2 0.2 0.0280 0.00
465.4 465.8 0.4 0.0353 0.00
66
• Final result taken for reserve calculation.
67
• Final result taken for reserve calculation.

• No need for dilution as there is only one bed of O2
grade or above.
68
Chapter 5:
Ore Reserve estimation
69
The reserve estimation is the process of determining the amount of available mineral
assets for exploitation. This consists of both qualitative and quantitative analysis of ore
deposit. Quantity is determined by various geophysical methods whereas the quality is
determined by various sampling techniques and lab analysis.
5.1. Types of Ore Reserve:
Based on the level of confidence the ore reserve is mainly of three types. Those are:
→ Proved: Based on sample analysis and rigorous measurements. Here the margin
of error is <20%.
→ Possible: In this type of ore reserve the inference is mostly based on a reasonable
amount of geological projection and some amount of sample analysis.
→ Probable: This is actually the unexplored part of the ore body which is the result
of extension of identified ore body based on geological evidence and projection.
For an ore reserve to be eligible for mining a minimum of 20% of the possible ore
reserve must be proved to be existing there. That is why the methods of reserve
estimation of ore body is important to know the grade and tonnage of the ore body.
There is another classification of ore reserves. This scheme is given by United Nations
Framework Classification (UNFC) for energy and mineral resources. This is a
universally applicable scheme for classifying or evaluating energy and mineral reserves
or resources. The United Nations Economic Commissions of Europe (UNECE). This
UNFC consists of a 3-d system with the following three axes:
G-axis: For Geological Assessment
F-axis: Feasibility Axis
E-axis: Economic Viability Axis
Based on this triaxial plot the ore body is qualified for mining and exploitation.
5.2. Classification of Ore Reserve Estimation Method:
There are several methods of ore reserve estimation which can be divided into two
distinct categories. Those are: Geometric method and Graphical method. Both these
methods contain 4 different methods. Those are described below:
Table 7:
Geometrical Method
Sl. No. Name Description
70
1 Uniform Area of ● Borehole is given a uniform area of
influence influence around it on the plan in the
form of either circle or a square or a
rectangle.
● The size of the area depends upon the
degree of homogeneity and uniformity
of mineralisation in the ore body.
● The uniform area of influence method
is best used where mineralisation is
homogenous or uniform in all
directions and the boreholes have
been drilled on a well-defined grid
pattern.
2 Variable Area of ● Area of influence varies either due to

influence variable distances between different
boreholes.
● Applied to flat ore bodies, when
uniform area allotment is not possible,
due to irregular or random pattern of
drilling, ore concentrations along
certain.
3 Triangular Method Described in details later
4 Polygonal Method ● the area of influence is to construct
polygons around each of the positive
borehole/ intercepts.
● Once the areas of influence have been
allotted to each of the bore hole
intercepts on the plan, the procedure
followed for ore reserve calculation is
same as the other graphical methods.
Graphical Method
Sl. No. Name Description
1 Use of isochore maps ● An isochore map displays lines of
equal thickness in a layer where the
thickness is measured vertically.
Isochore maps in geology are also
71
referred to as True Vertical Thickness
maps.
2 The isopach method ● This method utilizes multiple
borehole influence as against the
earlier cases where single borehole
influence was utilized.
● The isopach plan of the orebody
consists of horizontal slices of ore
separated by horizontal planes passing
through each contour.
● The plan area of each of the slices is
the area contained within the
corresponding contour and is
determined by planimeter or
graphically.
3 Cross sectional method Described in details later

4 Exploratory mining ● Several boreholes are drilled along the
strike and across the strike to have an
ore reserve estimate.
5.2.1. The triangular method: This is a well-known method used for ore reserve
estimation. At first the intersection point of the bed and boreholes are projected
vertically upwards to the surface. Then these projected points are plotted onto the plan
view of the boreholes and they are connected such that they enclose a triangular area.
After that the area of these triangles are measured using Heron’s formula:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = √(𝑠 ∗ (𝑠 − 𝑎) ∗ (𝑠 − 𝑏) ∗ (𝑠 − 𝑐))
Where S is the semi perimeter of the triangle.
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝑆=( )
2
a,b,c are the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
Now, as the triangle is made of the point projected from the subsurface to the surface,
the area enclosed by it, is not the actual area of the triangle. The actual area of the
triangle is measured by the following formula:
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
72
𝜃 is the angle of the layer in that borehole which has the most influence in that
particular triangle.
After that the average grade and average thickness of that triangular blocks are
calculated from the thickness and grade given for each vertex of the triangle using the
following formulas:
(𝑔1 ∗𝑡1 ∗(𝑠−𝑎))+(𝑔2 ∗𝑡2 ∗(𝑠−𝑏))+(𝑔3 ∗𝑡3 ∗(𝑠−𝑐))
𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒(𝑔) = { }
((𝑡1 ∗(𝑠−𝑎))+(𝑡2 ∗(𝑠−𝑏))+(𝑡3 ∗(𝑠−𝑐)))
((𝑡1 ∗ (𝑠 − 𝑎)) + (𝑡2 ∗ (𝑠 − 𝑏)) + (𝑡3 ∗ (𝑠 − 𝑐)))

𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝑡) = { }
𝑠
Now, the volume of the triangular body is calculated by the formula:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉) = (𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑔. 𝑡ℎ𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)
The mass of that triangular body will be:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑚) = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
The tonnage of that triangular body is:
𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 ∗ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Thus, the tonnage of the entire ore body will be the summation of the tonnages of all
the triangular blocks.
5.2.2. Cross-section Method: This method is done for a dipping ore body. The
lithological data is collected from several borehole and later that data were co-related
with each other to determine the subsurface lithology. The borehole is drilled across
the strike and against dip of the rock so that the borehole hits the rocks
perpendicularly. The main advantage of preparation of transverse section is-
(1) It gives clear picture about run of borehole drilled underground.
(2) Depth of intersecting of the ore body and borehole can be determined.
(3) Dip of the ore body and behaviour of ore body from one borehole to another
borehole can be identified.
(4) Borehole deviation can be clearly observed and measured.
73
(5) We can directly calculate the ore reserve estimation from borehole to borehole
using selective scale.
5.2.3. Transverse section preparation: There were certain steps followed to prepare
the transverse section. Those are described below:
The string of the borehole is drawn using the data about deviation of the borehole
obtained from the camera data. Lithology data from each borehole is plotted in the
respective borehole. The lithology data is co-related with each other to make a
subsurface lithology profile. Then the cross-sectional area of the ore body is
determined using the area of these triangles are measured using Heron’s formula:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑎) = √(𝑠 ∗ (𝑠 − 𝑎) ∗ (𝑠 − 𝑏) ∗ (𝑠 − 𝑐))
Where S is the semi perimeter of the triangle.
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝑆=( )
2
a,b,c are the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
Then the grade of each cross-section is determined and among all the borehole
sections two successive borehole sections are taken to determine the average grade
using this formula:
(𝑔1 ∗ 𝑎1 ) + (𝑔2 ∗ 𝑎2 )
𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒(𝑔) = { }
(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )
The volume(V) is also calculated by the following formula:
𝑎1 + 𝑎2
𝑉 =𝐷∗( )
2
D is the difference between each successive borehole cross sections. 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are
cross-sectional areas of successive boreholes.
The mass of the ore body of two cross-sections will be:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑚) = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
The tonnage of the ore body of two cross-sections is:
𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 ∗ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Thus, the tonnage of the entire ore body will be the summation of the tonnages of all
the cross-sections.
74
5.3. Ore reserve estimation exercise based on data given for Kanyaluka
boreholes:
Series BH From To Grade Apparent True Thickness

No Thickness
1 K-07 102.65 107.05 0.039 4.4 4.3
2 K-05 305.65 331.45 0.035 25.8 22.6
3 K-01 463.15 470.85 0.028 7.7 7.5
1 K-08 102.65 107.05 0.039 4.4 4.3
2 K-06 305.65 331.45 0.035 25.8 22.6
3 K-03 488.15 497.55 0.044 9.4 9.1
1 K-09 102.65 107.05 0.039 4.4 4.3
2 K-02 305.65 331.45 0.035 25.8 22.6
3 K-04 421.35 440.55 0.032 19.2 19.2
75
5.3.1. Plan view of the boreholes:
76
5.3.2. Transverse section of boreholes K-3, K-6, K-8:
77
5.3.3. Vertical Longitudinal Section (VLS) of boreholes K-1, K-3, K-4:
78
5.3.4. Table 5- Ore reserve estimation based on triangular method:
79
4.3.5. Table 6- Ore reserve estimation based on sectional method:
4.3.6. Table 8- Ore reserve estimation based on triangular method
80
Chapter 6:
Narwapahar Uranium Mine Visit
81
Narwapahar Uranium Mine is operated by Uranium Corporation of India Ltd
Jaduguda (UCIL). It is located in East Singhbhum District of Jharkhand. This area forms
part of Survey of India topo-sheet No. 73 J/6. Besides Narwapahar Mine, UCIL also
operates Jaduguda, Bhatin, Bagjata, Turamdih, Banduhurang and Mohuldih Mines and
Uranium Ore Processing Plants at Jaduguda and Turamdih in the region. Narwapahar
Mine Lease is spread over 456.62 ha land under villages Hartopa, Murgaghutu,
Patharchakri and Rajdah. The mine lease area also includes 25.56 ha of Forest Land.
Mining lease for Narwapahar Mine was accorded by the Department of Mines and
Geology, Government of Jharkhand.
6.1. General Geology & Exploration:
In South-east Singhbhum, the Iron ore series of rocks consisting of sand – stone
conglomerates, limestones, shales, phyllites, mica – schist, banded- hematitequartzite’s,
lavas and agglomerates, have been folded and over thrust. Localisation of economic
minerals of copper and Uranium are found along this overthrust and shear zone known
as the Singhbhum Shear zone, also known as the Singhbhum thrust belt, or the
Singhbhum Copper belts. The thrust belt proper starts from Duarpuram (22° 46’ N; 85°
34’ E) NE of Chakardharpur, and continues through Kharswan, Sini, Turamdih,
Narwapahar, Bhatin, Jaduguda, Rakhamines, Roam, Siddeswer, Kendadih, Surda,
Mosabani and Badia. Further south, it dies out on the surface near Singhpura. This zone
of shearing along which copper, Uranium and apatite are found, is like an arc in
disposition and is about 100 miles long.
The rock types exposed in this region are said to belong to the Iron Ore Series and
consist of the following stages and rock types, in order of their relative ages:
i. Dalma lavas phyllites and agglomerates.
ii. Dhanjori stage, consisting of conglomerates and quartzites.
iii. Iron ore stage, consisting of banded-hematite-quartzites, phyllites with tuffs,
lavas, limestones, conglomerates and quartzites.
iv. Chaibasa stage consisting of sandstone- conglomerates, limestones, shales,
phyllites and mica – schists.
The rocks of the iron ore series have been strongly folded and highly metamorphosed.
Every grade of metamorphism is represented by the rocks of this area. The principal
tectonic movements were from north to south and the beds were folded into welldefined
anticlines and synclines. There are also isoclinal folds, within broader folds, with over-
folding towards the south. South of the main fold, tectonic movements were less intense
and the changes in the rock types were not so pronounced as to the north of it. The
constant tectonic movement towards the south, culminated in a major zone of overthrust.
The rocks to the north of this thrust were completely metamorphosed and thrust bodily
82
against the less metamorphosed rocks to the south of the zone. The zone of overthrusting
was completely sheared. This is the zone of sheared rocks along which copper and
uranium mineralisations have taken place and is referred to as the Singhbhum thrust
Belt or Singhbhum copper belt. The mineralisations thrust zone in Narwapahar is
believed to be between Chaibasa stage of rocks (Mica schist and phyllites) and phyllites
of Iron Ore stage. There is very little lithological difference between the rocks of the
two stages in this area. This lithological similarity of the rocks makes their division into
the different stages difficult. Along with mineralisations the rocks have been chloritized
and biotitised and this zone of biotitised and chloritized rocks in Narwapahar is very
wide. This indicated that the zone of shearing is comparatively wider in Narwapahar
than further east along the shear zone. The rock types in Narwapahar are essentially
chlorite and Biotite Schists but in most places chlorite predominates. There is sericite,
apatite and magnetite in addition to uranite and pitchblende in the mineralized zone. The
foliation strike of the rocks is generally NW-SE with the following dip to the N.E. The
Narwapahar hill proper is made of Dhanjori quartzite and zone of thrusting is along the
northern foot hill represented by chlorite and Biotite Schists. The main regional
structural feature is the major over-fold, the axial plane of which is parallel to the
foliation strike of the rocks. The axial plane shears along which the mineralisation has
taken place are also parallel to the foliation strike of the rocks. Apart from this there are
certain cross – folds, whose axial planes are almost at right angles to the regional strike
of the rocks. These superposed folds or cross-folds are probably subsequent to the
mineralisations. A few transverse and strike faults have also been met with in the area.
Mineralisations in the thrust belt have been broadly, in two phases. An earlier phase, a
right temperature oxide phase, consists of apatite, magnetite, ilmenite and uranite. The
later phase, a lower-temperature sulphide- phase, consists of sulphide minerals proper.
Uranium in the form of uranite and pitchblende is associated with the higher temperature
oxide – phase. The mineralizing fluids have been localized by the axial plane shears and
thickened up by the cross folds and confined to the zone of shearing. Usually along the
thrust belt uranite showings are to the hang-wall side of the copper showing.
6.2. Mineral Reserve:
The original ore reserves were calculated by AMD and UCIL on the basis of the
information derived from the 1960’s drilling programme. Subsequent adjustments have
been made taking into account the enhanced information, as regards grade and
persistence, relating to the later underground development. The following criteria are
used for defining ore grade material:
1. A cut-off grade of average 0.03% U3O8, including low grade zones up to 0.02 %
eU3O8 grade in selected areas.
2. A minimum thickness of 1.5 m true width.
83
3. Material above the 100 mRL was considered to be thoroughly oxidized and
therefore excluded from the calculation.
4. Indicated ore was defined as that material encompassed wholly by drill hole
intersections. Inferred reserves were confined to a 30 m zone, extending along strike
or up/ down dip, partially encompassing the areas of indicated material. The specific
gravity of the ore was taken to be 2.8.
The ore reserve of Narwapahar Mine was calculated departmentally at 0.03 % eU3O8
cut off (including low grade zones up to 0.02 % eU3O8 grade in selected areas) to
estimate the residual life of mine.
Figure 5.1: Levels in Narwapahar mine

6.3. Mining Method:
At Narwapahar Horizontal Cut and Fill (HCF) method of mining is practiced. HCF is a
method to excavate one slice of ore and filling back the same by waste rock, mill tailings
etc. This fill forms the platform for men and machinery to work on to excavate the next
slice. The slices are taken from lower level to the upper level leaving requisite sill pillar
to for the upper level. The same method is also proposed to be continued during the rest
of life of the mine.
6.3.1. Underground Layout & Sequence of Operation:
84
The mine is accessed by 70 and a vertical shaft. Horizontal cut & fill method is being
adopted for exploitation of ore and same is proposed to be continued in near future.
Presently 12 nos. of stopes are in operation, out of these 6 stopes is under production, 3
stopes are under stowing and 3 stopes are under preparation for stowing. Rock bolt
system is being practiced to support the rock wherever necessary. The spacing of the
rock bolts are determined on case-to-case basis based on the experience acquired on the
rock strength during the operation of the mine. The sequence of operation followed at
Narwapahar for the horizontal cut and fill method are as follows:
• Since, the ore body at Narwapahar is lenticular and is of irregular shape in horizontal
as well as vertical directions, it is necessary to define stope extremities establish the
exact ore geometry before regular slices can be taken.
• The ore drive, approximately 5.0 m X 3.2 m is developed along the footwall contact
from one end of the proposed stope block to other end along the strike. Often each stope
is a distinct ore lens and the above development of ore drive establishes the length and
behaviour of the ore body at the level. Ore drives are developed in similar manner at the
upper and the lower levels.
• The ore drives as developed above are widened to expose the hang wall subject to a
maximum width of 10.5 m. Above this width regular 4 m X 4 m pillars are left in the
dip direction systematically. This establishes the exact width of the ore body in the
proposed stope block.
• The drift along the strike and in footwall rock approximately 20 m to 40 m away from
footwall contact of the ore body is developed. This follows the development of the ore
drive maintaining a lag of about 50 m. This is done to provide permanent access to the
level and serves as the hauling roadway as the ore drives get filled on commencement
of stoping operations.
• At both extremities of the proposed stoping block, raises are put up to connect the
lower level to the upper level.
• A ramp is developed in ore/footwall rock either from upper level to lower level or
from lower level to upper level or a combination of the two to provide access for the
trackless equipment’s like Jumbos & LHDs to the stope.
• The back of the ore drive is stripped up to a height of 5 m to provide access to Physics
and Geology personnel to establish the vertical geometry of the ore body. The above
completes the development and stoping commences by cyclic slicing and filling. This
progresses from the lower level to the upper level.
85
Figure 5.2: Representative underground layout of mine
Presently 12 nos. of stopes are in operation, out of these 6 stopes is under production, 3
stopes are under stowing and 3 stopes are under preparation for stowing. Out of present
1500 t/d ore, 1200 t/d is produced from 6 nos. of stopes and 300 tpd ore is from
development faces. About 400 t/d of waste rock is generated from development works.
It is proposed to develop more stopes to increase the production. Total 16 stopes shall
be required. 8 stopes shall be under production and 4 stopes each under stowing and
other preparatory jobs. The stoping activities will produce 1500 tpd and rest 500 tones
shall be produced from development faces.
86
Chapter 7: Discussion
87
7.1. Learning Outcome of the training:
The 14 day long industrial training which we undertook at AMD, Jamshedpur was a
valuable experience for us. By doing extensive geological field work, borehole logging
and several numerical methods of ore reserve estimation, the following learning
outcomes realized by us were:
➢ The use of litho-facies and litho-contact tracing to map regionally the lithology
of an area.
➢ Determining the deformational history of a given area by structural mapping with
the help of structural data.
➢ Extraction of subsurface lithostructural data by borehole logging and correlating
them with the existing surface data
➢ Determining the areas of high surface radioactivity and doing a borehole
planning accordingly to determine the exact orientation of the radioactive unit.
➢ Several processes of Ore-reserve estimation i.e., Triangular method, Cross-
sectional Method were taught and done in this training.
➢ Concept of borehole drift and deviation calculation and the methods of
calculating them
----------X----------
88

AMD Training Report

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AMD Training Report

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Training on Litho-structural mapping, methods

of Uranium exploration & Reserve estimation in

Conducted by Atomic Mineral Directorate for Exploration and

Industrial training report submitted for partial fulfilment of Master

Team members in fieldwork:

I, Torsa Rahman, pursuing M.Sc in Applied Geology from Presidency University,

1.2. Location and Accessibility:

1.3. General field area:

1.4. Regional Geology:

Newer Dolerite (different age)

1.5. Chemical composition of various Uranium Ore:

Primary Uranium Minerals

Secondary Uranium Minerals

1.6. Major types of Uranium Deposits:

Date Location Easting Northing

2.3. Litho-structural Description:

Figure 2.1: Tourmaline bearing sericite-

Figure 2.2: Quartzite in rock exposure

Figure 2.3: Apatite

5. Muscovite-biotite Schist: This is a dark

Figure 2.4: Muscovite-biotite

Figure 2.5: Kyanite bearing quartzite

7. Quartz-garnet-tourmaline bearing Muscovite-biotite Schist: This is a dark

2.3.2. Primary Structure:

Figure 2.8: Sigma structure

Figure 2.9: Riedel shear

Figure 2.11: Joint planes

2.4. Litho-structural mapping of Patharghara and Khadandungri:

3.1. Different Types and techniques of drilling:

3.2. Borehole deviation:

3.3. Apparatus for Deviation Survey:

Table 1. Borehole deviation calculation exercise:

3.5. Core logging and techniques:

Figure 3.3: Scintillation Counter in use

From(m) To(m) Angle of lithology Description Remarks

23.5 26.5 125 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet- Biotite -

26.5 29.5 120 Biotite - Muscovite Schist with Garnet- Chlorite-

29.5 32.5 118 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Muscovite-

32.5 35.5 115 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Muscovite-

35.5 38.5 115 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Muscovite-

38.5 41.5 116 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Biotite-

41.5 44.5 115 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Biotite-

44.5 47.5 118 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet- Muscovite-

47.5 50.5 116 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Chlorite-Garnet-

50.5 53.5 117 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

53.5 56.5 115 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

56.5 59.5 115 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

59.5 62.5 120 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Chlorite-Garnet-

62.5 65.5 116 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Chlorite-Garnet-

65.5 68.5 121 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Chlorite-Garnet-

68.5 71.5 116 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Chlorite-Garnet-

71.5 74.5 120 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

74.5 77.5 116 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

77.5 80.5 120 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

80.5 83.5 118 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

83.5 86.5 116 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

86.5 89.5 117 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

89.5 92.5 120 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

92.5 95.5 115 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

95.5 98.5 116 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

98.5 101.5 120 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

101.5 104.5 115 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

104.5 107.5 120 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-

107.5 110.5 120 Garnet bearing muscovite biotite Garnet-Chlorite-