Characterization of Coal from five major Coal

fields of Pakistan including Thar, Chamalang,

Harnai, Dukki, Hangu and its effects on their
application

By: Abdul Rehman (Roll No. 17)

Ali Raza (Roll No. 21)

Session: 2017-2019

Supervisor: Dr. Hassan Zeb

Supervisor: Dr. Rizwan Haider

Centre for Coal Technology

Faculty of Engineering & Technology
University of the Punjab, Lahore
November, 2019
 Characterization of Coal from five major Coal
fields of Pakistan including Thar, Chamalang,
Harnai, Dukki, Hangu and its effects on their
application
Submitted to the Centre for Coal Technology, University of
the Punjab, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of M.Sc. Coal Technology

By: Abdul Rehman (Roll No.17)

Ali Raza (Roll No.21)
Session: 2017-2019
Supervisor: Dr. Hassan Zeb
Supervisor: Dr. Rizwan Haider
Centre for Coal Technology
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
University of the Punjab, Lahore
November, 2019
 Dedications
We dedicate this thesis to our beloved family.

Thank you for everything that you do and have done for us to make life more enjoyable and
easier. May Allah bless you all with His countless blessings. Ameen.

I
 Declaration
Title: Characterization of coal from five major coalfields of Pakistan including Thar,
Chamalang, Harnai, Dukki, Hangu and its effects on their application.

Centre for Coal Technology, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, University of the Punjab,
Lahore, Pakistan.

We, Ali Raza and Abdul Rehman, hereby state that our thesis “ Characterization of coal from
five major coalfields of Pakistan including Thar, Chamalang, Harnai, Dukki, Hungu and its
effects on their application” is based on our own work. The similarity index of this thesis has
been checked with Turnitin software, which has been found to be less than 19%. It is further
stated that this thesis has not been submitted previously by us for any degree from the
University of the Punjab or elsewhere. If our statement is found to be incorrect at any time
even after our graduation, the university has the right to cancel our degree.

Signature: ____________
Author’s Name: Abdul Rehman

Signature: ____________
Author’s Name: Ali Raza
Date: 30-09-2019

II
 Certificate of Approval
We, hereby; certify that the research work presented in this thesis, entitled “ Characterization
of coal from five major coalfields of Pakistan including Thar, Chamalang, Harnai, Dukki,
Hangu and its effects on their application” was conducted by Mr. Abdul Rehman and Mr. Ali
Raza under our supervision. It is further certified that we have read all the contents of this
thesis and have found them authentic, original and free from grammatical errors.

Supervisor: Dr. Hassan Zeb

Date and Sign: __________

Supervisor: Dr. Rizwan Haider

Date and Sign: ______________

III
 Abstract

The present study is aimed at investigating coal ash elements and their slagging and fouling
behavior. Furthermore, the grind ability of raw coal and its relation with moisture, volatile
matter and ash was determined. In this regard, five samples from major coal reserves were
collected and assessed through HGI, Proximate analysis, CS analysis, GCV, XRF analysis,
and ash fusion test. Samples were air-dried before conducting any analysis on them.
It was observed that all of these coals have less grind ability cost as their grind ability index
was high showing their ease in grinding. GCV showed that major coal reserves have enough
potential for burning purposes. CS analysis indicates high sulfur contents except for Thar
coal. High sulfur content can be reduced by blending high sulfur coal with low sulfur coal.
Slagging and fouling indexes of these coals were also high so their ash can be used for bricks
formation and as a binding agent in the steel industry in place of cement. It presents their
effective utilization rather than disposing of the ash. The XRF results also supported their use
as a binding agent.

Keeping in view the experimental results, it has been concluded that major reserves in
Pakistan have high sulfur and ash content so these coals can be best utilized by blending them
with other coals of low sulfur and ash content. However, their high-ash content makes them
effective for utilization as binders.

IV
 Acknowledgment

We would like to thank Almighty, the beneficent, the merciful, for giving us the opportunity
and enabling us to complete our research work.

We extend our deep gratitude for the admirable supervision of Dr. Hassan Zeb and Dr.
Rizwan Haider. Their knowledge, motivation, and commitment enabled us to complete this
work to that much extent. Their valuable suggestions contributed enormously to the success
of this work.

We extend our special thanks to Prof. Dr. Mahmood Saleem (Director of the Centre) for
providing technical resources in the laboratories and administrative support.

We are also very grateful to laboratory staff Mr. Nadeem, Mr. Saif, Mr. Rizwan, Mr. Tanveer
and Mr. Islam for uninterrupted support during our experiments and characterizations.

We wish to express our heartfelt gratitude to our families for their encouragement, continuous
moral support and financial help that enabled us to complete our work successfully. Without
their support, we would have not been able to complete this thesis.

Author’s Name: Abdul Rehman

Ali Raza

V
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Coal Reserves in Pakistan ................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Pakistan Energy Scenario ................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Coal .................................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Coal Formation ................................................................................................................. 3
1.5 Theories of a coal formation ............................................................................................ 3
1.5.1 In- situ Theory ........................................................................................................... 3
1.5.2 Drift Theory ............................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Rank of coal ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Coal utilization ................................................................................................................. 4
1.8 Environment aspect of coal .............................................................................................. 6
1.9 Sulfur in coal .................................................................................................................... 6
1.10 Forms of Sulfur .............................................................................................................. 8
1.10.1 Inorganic Sulfur ....................................................................................................... 8
1.10.2 Organic Sulfur ......................................................................................................... 8
1.10.3 Elemental Sulfur ...................................................................................................... 9
1.11 Fly Ash ........................................................................................................................... 9
1.12 Bottom Ash .................................................................................................................... 9
1.13 Boiler Slag ...................................................................................................................... 9
1.14 Techniques ..................................................................................................................... 9
1.15 Hardgrove Grindability Index ........................................................................................ 9
1.15.1 International Standardization of HGI ...................................................................... 9
1.15.2 Specifications of HGI ............................................................................................ 10
1.16 X-Ray Fluorescence ..................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 2 Literature Review .................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 3 Material and Methods.............................................................................................. 15
3.1 Sample Preparation ........................................................................................................ 15
3.2 Proximate Analysis of the Coal Samples ....................................................................... 15
3.2.1 Moisture Content ..................................................................................................... 15
3.2.2 Volatile Matter ........................................................................................................ 16
3.2.3 Ash Content ............................................................................................................. 17
3.2.4 Fixed Carbon ........................................................................................................... 17
VI
 3.3 Determination of Gross Calorific Value of Coal Sample .............................................. 17
3.5 Determination of Sulfur and Carbon Content ................................................................ 19
3.6 Preparation Samples for HGI ......................................................................................... 20
3.7 Preparation of Ash .......................................................................................................... 20
3.8 X-Ray Fluorescence ....................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 4 Results and Discussion ............................................................................................ 22
4.1 Hardgrove grindability indexes for different Pakistani coal .......................................... 22
4.2 Effect on coal sample Hardgrove grind ability index and moisture ............................... 22
4.3 Hardgrove grind ability index and volatile matter ......................................................... 23
4.4 Chemical analysis of coal sample .................................................................................. 23
4.5 Ash analysis.................................................................................................................... 25
4.6 Ash Fusion Temperature ................................................................................................ 25
4.7 Slagging index RS........................................................................................................... 27
4.8 Fouling index FU ............................................................................................................ 28
4.9 Viscosity index SR .......................................................................................................... 28
4.10 Application of fly ash ................................................................................................... 29
4.11 Problem related to Ash ................................................................................................. 29
Chapter 5 Conclusion, Summary ............................................................................................. 31
5.1 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 31
5.2 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 31
References ................................................................................................................................ 34

VII
 List of Figure
Figure 1.1 Pakistan energy scenario .......................................................................................... 2
Figure 1.2 Pakistan coal consumption ....................................................................................... 3
Figure1.3 Coal ranks .................................................................................................................. 4
Figure1.4 Utilization of coal ...................................................................................................... 5
Figure1.5 World energy generation based on new policies scenario [7]. ................................. 5

Figure 3. 1Laboratory Drying Oven ........................................................................................ 16

Figure 3. 2 Laboratory Muffle Furnace for Volatile MatterDetermination ............................. 16
Figure 3. 3 Laboratory Muffle Furnace for Ash Determination .............................................. 17
Figure 3. 4 Parr Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter for Heating Value Determination ...................... 19
Figure 3. 5 Carbon-Sulfur analyzer ......................................................................................... 19
Figure 3. 6 Hardgrove grindability index machine .................................................................. 20

Figure 4.1 Proximate analysis of different coals ..................................................................... 24

VIII
 List of Table
Table 1.1 Pakistan coal reserves ................................................................................................ 1
Table 1.2 Sulfur values in various countries [9]. ....................................................................... 6
Table1.3 Sulfur in coal............................................................................................................... 7

Table 4.1 Hardgrove grindability index of different coals ...................................................... 22

Table 4.2 Hardgrove grindability index and moisture content ................................................ 23
Table 4. 3 Hardgrove grindability index and volatile matter content ...................................... 23
Table 4.4 Proximate analysis of air-dried different coal ......................................................... 24
Table 4.5 Ash analysis components ......................................................................................... 25
Table 4.6 Major component of AFT ........................................................................................ 26
Table 4.7 Acidic and Basic ratio .............................................................................................. 26
Table 4.8 Slagging index RS, Fouling index FU and Viscosity index SR in different coal ...... 27
Table 4.9 Ash composition of the different rank of coal ......................................................... 29

IX
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Coal Reserves in Pakistan
Coal is present in all over the world and is being used in a number of ways. Pakistan ranks
fourth with 185 billion tonnes coal reserves. Majority of coal rserves in Pakistan are
concentrated in only one province, i.e., Sindh. Punjab has total coal reserves of approximately
235 million tones, which is being used in brick kils industry. Sindh has 185 million tonnes of
coal reserves. Baluchistan has total coal reserves of 217 million tonnes and KPK has coal
reserves around 90 million tonnes [1]. A summary of total coal reserves in Pakistan is shown
in Table 1.1. Pakistani coal has high sulfur and ash contents, which requires extensive
cleaning before it is used in power generation. The moisture content is high in Thar coal,
Sindh. Majority of Pakistani coals are of lignite and subbituminous nature.

Table 1.1 Pakistan coal reserves

Province Measured Indicated Inferred Hypothetical Total

Punjab 55 24 11 145 235
Sindh 7664 19.370 44290 114,132 184,456
Baluchistan 54 13 134 16 217
Khyber 1.5 4.5 84 - 90
Pakhtunkhwa
Azad Kashmir 1 1 7 - 9

According to the energy year’s book total coal production in Pakistan as of 30 June 2017-18
was 4.29 million tons. In Pakistan, the main provinces for maximum coal production are
Baluchistan, Sindh, and Punjab. Local coal is utilized in brick Kilns and now in power
production (Thar). The coal imports from another country into Pakistan are 13.7 million tons
and they are using in different industries [1]. According to the Pakistan Energy Yearbook for
2018, the sectoral share of total coal consumption was as follows; 53.6% in cement
industries, 24.7 % in power generation and 21.9% in brick kilns.

1.2 Pakistan Energy Scenario

In 2018, the primary energy consumption in Pakistaenergy scenario in Pakistani coal primary
energy consumption is 85.03 million ton of oil equvelent all over the world. Primary energy

1
consumption including any source of energy that is coal, oil, natural gas, biofuel and nuclear
energy [2]. The Pakistani coal production rate approximately 3.85 million ton of oil equvelent
and produce energy from the coal [3]. Sindh coal-fired power plant which used the lignite
Thar coal. In Pakistan, the shares of coal increased from 6.5 % to 7.5% from 2008 to 2009.
Coal production in Pakistan is about 11.59 million ton of oil equvelent [4].

Coal
consumption
11.59M

Pakistani coal for

2018

primary Energy Coal Production

consumpton 3.858 M
85.03 M

Figure 1.1 Pakistan energy scenario

In 2018 the Pakistani coal consumption in different sectors like in different industries,
making coke formation, bricks Killen and power plants. The Maximum coal of Pakistan is
used in bricks Killen is 53.3 % and 71 % coal used in for making coke in steel industries. In
cement industries, 19.6 % coal used as clinker formation and these clinkers are used in
cement. In power generation, coals used 25 % for combustion in boilers.

2
 Coal used for Bricks Coal used for cement
killen 21.9 % industries 53.6 %

pakistani Coal
consumption by
sector ( 2018)

Coal used for power coal used for Coke in

generation 25 % steel mills 71 %

Figure 1.2 Pakistan coal consumption

1.3 Coal
Coal is an extremely complex heterogeneous solid material of plant origin. It is developed
under elevated temperature and pressure of earth crust after a long period of geological time.

1.4 Coal Formation

The coal was formed about 300 million years ago from plants, muds, bogs. The first stage of
coal is peat. In peat, moisture content is too much and gradually as the depths increase
moisture content decreases with increase in temperature and rank increases [5].

1.5 Theories of a coal formation

There are two types of theories for the mode of formation of coal from the plant.

 Drift theory
 In-Situ theory

1.5.1 In- situ Theory

According to this theory, the formation of coal seam occurred in the same area. Peat beds
were collected under high pressure and temperature. Geochemical changes and bacterial
decay were the main parameters for coal formation. These coals observed autochthonous
theory and they contained mineral matter present in coal.

3
1.5.2 Drift Theory
In this theory plants, trees, vegetables were drifted and settled somewhere else as compared
to their origin. Once the plant matter deposited, it transformed into the coal. This theory
accommodates the movement of plant matter through water and wind storms [6].

1.6 Rank of coal

Coal is classified into different ranks on the basis of carbon content present in coal. Coal has
five different categories or ranks from lignite to anthracite (Figure 1.3). The moisture content
of coal decreases as the rank of coal increases. The volatile matter content becomes inversely
proportional and the fixed carbon and heating value has direct relation. Top to the bottom
pressure and temperature increase the rank of coal will also good. Anthracite coals are harder
coal as compared to the upper rank of coal because they formed under a depth in the presence
of high temperature and pressure.

lignite

sub-
Bituminous
Bituminous
Semi Anthracite
Anthracite

Figure1.3 Coal ranks

1.7 Coal utilization

There are three major paths to use coal utilization, i.e., combustion, carbonization and
conversion. However, an effective coal mining practice is important before each type of
utilization route.

4
 combustio
n

Coal

Carbonizati
conversion
on

Figure1.4 Utilization of coal

The coal combustion process takes place in the presence of air and at high temperatures to
produce the thermal heat which is used in power plants in different industries.

Carbonization is a process in which fuel is heated without air to leave solid porous carbon.
Coke is produced commercially by carbonization of coal, either at high or low temperatures.
The main purpose of the carbonization of coal is to produce coke, and any chemicals
produced are of secondary importance.

Coal conversion is a process to convert the solid fuel into the liquid and gaseous form in the
presence of elevated temperature and pressure. The gasification plants produce liquid and
gaseous fuels from coal.

Figure1.5 World energy generation based on new policies scenario [7].

5
1.8 Environment aspect of coal
When coal is mined out and combusted, it causes environmental deterioration. Firstly when
they coal is mined out from the surface, it leads to destruction of the local vegetation, damage
to wildlife, disturbance of underground water aquifers, etc., Construction of shafts and the
transportation of spoils from mining poses environmental issues, dust pollution, underground
fire hazards, roof fall, fire originate from external source, combustion, and explosion.

Likewise, when coal is burnt, it produces gaseous emissions (NOx, SOx, CO, CO2, methane,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, particulate matter, and other trace elements). These pollutants react with
moisture and produce acid rain [8].

1.9 Sulfur in coal

The total coal reserves scattered worldwide are around 1.1 trillion tonnes. They exist as
sizable deposits in two dozen developed countries but many countries of the world also have
coal deposits but not significantly large enough. Each coal deposit has varying sulfur contents
in its organic and inorganic forms. It may be as low as 0.2 % and as high as 12 %. The
following table indicates sulfur values in the some of the regions.countries of the world.

Table 1.2 Sulfur values in various countries [9].

Countries Sulfur content in percentage

Belgium 0.5-4.5
France 0.5-1.4
Great Britain 1.0-3.6
Germany 1.3-1.5
The Netherland 1.0-3.0
US (eastern) 0.2-7.0
US ( western) 0.2-1.0
India ( Assam province) 6.0-8.0

Coal is widely used in boilers of power plants in kilns for cement production as well as in
gasifiers and furnaces for many industrial applications.

6
For utilization of coal, its grade in terms of total combustibles, mineral matter, sulfur content
and heating value are mostly considered. On the basis of sulfur content, the coal may be
graded given below.

Table1.3 Sulfur in coal

Coal Grade Sulfur quantity

High grade coal 0.2% to 0.5 % S
Moderately high grade coal 0.5% to 1.5 % S
Medium grade coal 1 % to 2 % S
Low grade coal 2 % to 4 % S
Poor grade coal 4 % to 6 % S or even more

High grade and moderately high-grade coal are depleting very fast and medium grade coal is
mostly used in the industrial sector. The worldwide environment regulations are getting strict
day by day and the industrialists are being dictated to reduce the sulfur emission in the form
of SOx to avoid the acid rain which is harmful to vegetation, lakes, buildings and human
health.

In Pakistan sub-bituminous coal deposits contain 2 to 4 % sulfur in Duki, Sharigh,

Chamalong from Baluchistan province Ghari Habibullah (KPK) and Kotli (AJK) which are
blended with imported good grade coals from South Africa, Indonesia and Afghanistan which
are for cement production.

Organic sulfur compounds vary from coal to coal, blending to different locations. Organic
sulfur compounds generally vary from 0.2 to 1.0 % But inorganic sulfur compounds are
significant in coals and contain sulfur from 0.5 to 12 % mostly in forms of pyrite other
inorganic sulfur compounds are CaSO4 (anhydrite), gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and soluble
sulfates like MgSO4, FeSO4, CaSO4, NaSO4, etc. But they are present form 0.1 to 0.5 % in
coals. When sulfur compounds in coal burns they decompose into SO2. There are methods to
remove the sulfur present in coal, which are;

1. Physical cleaning of coal

2. Chemical cleaning of coal
3. Bacterial cleaning of coal
4. Blending of high sulfur coal with low sulfur coal

7
 5. Use of scrubber
6. Flue gas desulfurization
7. Fluidized bed combustion
8. Gasification and liquefaction of coal and subsequent removal of sulfur compound

1.10 Forms of Sulfur

Three types of sulfur present in coal. Sulfur is the major component present in coal.

1. Organic sulfur
2. Inorganic sulfur
3. Elemental sulfur

1.10.1 Inorganic Sulfur

Inorganic sulfur compounds include the pyrite and marcasite in mineral matter. The presence
of sulfur compounds in coal depends upon whether a coal deposit remained closer to seawater
or was near to freshwater during coal formation. If the peat initially was closer to the marine
environment, MgSO4 from seawater would have entered the peat and caused the formation of
pyrite and marcasite during the biochemical process.

H2S also reacts with an organic matter with organic sulfur compounds. If coal formation has
endured close to freshwater, then there is no formation of pyritic sulfur compounds
significantly. Along with the formation of pyrite and marcasite, a number of FeS is also
formed.

As compared to marcasite, pyrite is abundantly formed and deposits in coal. Pyrite grains in
coal vary from 0.1 µm to 1000 µm. grains up to 500 µm can be removed by physical cleaning
techniques. But finer grains may be removed by chemical and biological techniques.

1.10.2 Organic Sulfur

Sulfur items of organic sulfur compounds are bonded to carbon atoms of coal and it is not
possible to remove organic sulfur by physical coal cleaning techniques. It can be removed by
chemical processes which are very expensive. There are four types of organic sulfur present
in coal.

1. Thiols
2. Monosulfides
3. Disulfides

8
 4. Thiophenes

1.10.3 Elemental Sulfur

Freshly mined coal does not contain elemental sulfur. If coal is lying in stockpile then the
elemental sulfur forms on the surface of pyrite and marcasite and makes the surface of pyrite
hydrophobic, due to the change of surface chemistry, it is easy to separate pyrite by flotation.

When coal burns in the coal-fired power plant. Three types of ash include coal used in
thermal power plants.

1. Fly ash
2. Bottom ash
3. Boiler slag

1.11 Fly Ash

Fly ash is a very fine particle of ash after the combustion of coal. These particles evolved in a
chimney through the flue gases. The main components present in fly ash CaO, MgO. SO3,
K2O, Na2O, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3.

1.12 Bottom Ash

Bottom ash is present in the base of the boiler or Killen. Bottom ash particles are courser
angular and too large particles that carry into the smoke through a chimney.

1.13 Boiler Slag

Boiler slag is molten or fused ash. These types of ash stick in the walls of the boiler or Killen.

1.14 Techniques
Then major techniques which are using in research work Hardgrove grindability index, and x-
ray fluorescence.

1.15 Hardgrove Grindability Index

The procedure of HGI is an empirical formula drive to determine the grind size of coal which
is used in combustion chambers. These techniques are also used to indicate the grind size of
coal.

1.15.1 International Standardization of HGI

The hard grove index has different standards in different countries. The different standards
have results significant are different for a specific country.

9
1.15.2 Specifications of HGI
The empirical formula of HGI determines the hard grove index by this formula. We can not
determine the physical property of coal. If the hard grove index is low. It is very hard to grind
difficult and the hard grove index is high then the coal is grind easily.

Grindability of coal is a parameter to learn that the hardness of coal from the different ranks
of coal. If coal is hard then they damaged to the walls of the boiler and gasifier and they are
not proper to combustion. Hardgrove grindability indexes determine the major role of
moisture volatile matter and ash. If the moisture content increase then the hard grove index is
high and coal grinds easily.

1.16 X-Ray Fluorescence

X-Ray fluorescence is an analyzer that determines the major and minor elements present in
ash and coal. Coal ash is two types. Which ones fly ash and the other is bottom ash. In Ash
composition alumina, silica, iron oxide is a major role in ash content. Most X-Ray
fluorescence spectrometer is not determining those elements which have determine the
atomic number is less than 11. Determination of major and minor elements with the help of
X-Ray fluorescence depends upon the concentration, particle size, surface roughness, and
another correlated parameter. A major portion of ash contains the cooling molten of fused
material in coal and the minor portion of ash consists of magnetic particles and trace elements
such as Cobalt, Nickel, and Vanadium.

10
Chapter 2
Literature Review
According to the studies of Kuhn, Harfst et al. (1975) XRF could not determine the
elemental composition of coal, but the trace element can find out through this method.
Different temperature ash (low temp >150C and high ash <450 C) were examined to
find out major and minor elements through the process of [10]. Al and prepared by the
method of Ruch et al, and analyzed through BCURA. Ash values of BCURA
resembled the values [11]. Effect of particle size was also seen which resulted that as
lower it would be, as precise would be the results. Maximum results were shown at -
200 # coal samples [12].

Chand, P., et al. (2009) analyzed that, in thermal plants when pulverized coal is
combusted to create heat, the residue contains 80 percent fly ash and 20 percent
bottom ash. The ash is diverted through the chimney and collected at economizer, air
pre-radiator and electrostatic precipitator (ESP) hoppers. Fly ash samples were
analyzed by using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF). In the present investigation
significant components present in the ash samples were Si, Al and Fe and the other
minor constituents were Ti, P, S, Mg, Cl, K, Ca, Zn and Sr. The basic examination of
these examples will be instructive to utilize the fly ash for different applications, for
example, ceramic production, cement manufacturing and as a secondary source in
recovery of valuable elements [13].

Vecci and Moore worked on the basis of the performed test of grind ability of brown
and lignite coal with different water contents. water contents in the tested sample have
been shown to play an important role in determining the HGI value. It is possible to
expect that the knowledge of dependence of HGI value on the content of water in a
concrete type of coal can countribute to the optimization of the degree of drying in
operator grinders in order to achieve the optimum grind ability [14].

Fitton noticed that the grind ability of British coal confirmed a wide relation of HGI
values between the quality group of coal, Volatile combustible matter contents,
carbon, and hydrogen. He observed that the increase of contents of volatile

11
combustible matter improves the grind ability up to the contents of the volatile
combustible matter of approximately 30 %, beyond which the grind ability
deteriorates. Similarly, the HGI value increases with the growth of carbon contents
[15].

Anudhyan Mishra considered the assessment of nature of some Indian coal tests
gathered from 15 distinct mines of talcher coalfields, Talabaria coalfields, Ib valley
coalfields, and chirimiri. Different coal properties were contemplated and their tests
were done, which gave us some data about the amount of coals. It has been seen from
the investigation that the coal test gathered for the examination contains low to
medium amount of dampness (2.4 to 13.15). The grind ability index (57.28 to 48.69 )
of the dominant part of the coal tests being low indicating that those are exceptionally
hard to crush as well [16].

Bettinelli, M. and P. Taina observed that the High quality information for important
components (Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Ti, Na, and K) and trace element (Ba, Mn, Cr, V, Cu,
Zn, Sr, Ni, Co, As and Rb) can be quickly obtained by computerized x-ray
fluorescence investigation of pressed coal fly ash pellets. The sample preparation
technique doesn't require supervision and the examination of a fly ash pellet for 24
elements require around 45 min of machine time. The basic idea is to utilize a large
number of reference samples with very different compositions (some universal coal
fly ash standard and fly ash sample examined by inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectrometry) for calculation of the Calibration line. The significant
component precisions are better than 1% of the amount determined and the trace
elements precisions are commonly better than 10%. Limits of determination for some
trace elements are in 5 – 10µg g-1 [17].

Agus, F. and P. Waters described the Power plants burning coal usually require values
of HGI greater than 60, coal with a value of HGI less than 50 is considered heavily
grindable in north America. Australian coal was in term of HGI grind ability divided
into 6 groups. The coal types with grind ability value below 40 HGI are classified as
very hard, coal with HGI value from 40 to 60 are classified as hard, the coal with HGI
value from 60 to 80 as, mediuam hard, from 80 to 100 HGI as soft and HGI from 100

12
to 120 as very soft and coal with grind ability values HGI above 120 is classified as
extremely soft, this group, however, includes only some brown types of coal [18].

Wang, B., et al. (2005) investigated the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry is a
well- known, well established and broadly applied procedure in the determination of
many major elemental compositions of earth materials. XRF presents the capacity to
investigate solid samples non-destructively through X-radiation. The efficiency
furthermore, clarity of its emission spectrum, its incredible accuracy and precision
make this method a geochemical technique for decision in mineralogy and
investigation of the chemical composition of earth materials. There are confinements
with respect to the age and calibration of instruments, costs of setting up, matrix effect
to be considered and the stringent sets of standards; in any case, XRF research facility
investigations of earth elemental composition. With further improvements in XRF
technology, it is normal that this system will be of proceeded with significance/utility
in the geological and geomorphological investigation [19].

S.Chehrehchelgani et, al., discovered that high position coal can achieve higher HGI
values, by virtue of higher moisture in coal and higher volatile combustible matter
content in coal realizes lower HGI values. The lower HGI values on the grounds that
higher the hydrogen content in coal and most elevated in sulfur realize higher HGI
values as a result of higher in semi fusinite and resinite substance in coal. A higher
HGI increment in micrinite results. The same macerals were significants [20].

Kahraman, H., et al. (1998) Studied that the standard ash fusion test is criticized
broadly because of its subjective nature. Interlaboratory activities showed that
administrators could differ up to 400°C in the initial deformation temperature,
analyzed in the standard ash fusion test. The improved ash fusion test demonstrated to
be a valuable standard to determine the ash fusion test. Great connections were found
between the ash chemistry and significant temperatures in the new ash fusion test for
this data set. A coal washing activity demonstrated that ash fusion temperatures in the
new test improved fundamentally. Further, utilize mixing was found to adjust the ash
fusion temperature. Significant development temperatures from the improved ash
fusion test were seen to be additive in ply blending [21].

13
Bolortuya, D., et al. (2013) described the probability of determining the chemical
elements in coal ash samples using X-ray fluorescence investigation and discovered
a relation between the coal calorific value and its ash content with the coal moisture
accounting. The amount of coal ash can be determined by the content of the basic
chemical components, for example, Si, Sr, Fe, and Ca. It was concluded that the
calorific value of coal can be evaluated from the ash content in coal without the
calorimetric measurements. These correlation coefficients were determined for coal
from a few coalfields in Mongolia. The results were in good agreement with the
results of chemical investigation [22].

Wen j. song LiH. Tang and et, al., considered that the significant parameter for
burning in boilers or gasifier. Experiments have been conducted on the common test
for ash dissolving. Factstage programming has been used to evaluate the liquid
temperature and working temperature of coal ash samples. According to results, ash
fusion temperatures of coal samples decreased in start due to the expanding
component of CaO, MgO and various minerals. As ash fusion temperature shows
variety with a mixture composed of minerals that firmly identified with the fluid
temperature [23].

E. Jorjani, et al. reported the effect of petrographic characteristics of the Kentucky

coal samples from calorific value 23.65 – 34.68 MJ/Kg (10,170 – 14,910 (BTU/Ib) on
HGI. Their results show that the higher Al2O3 and TiO2 contents in coal can result in
Lower HGI and higher Fe2O3 contents in coal results higher HGI [24].

14
Chapter 3
Material and Methods
3.1 Sample Preparation
For the preparation of representative sample for subsequent analysis, sample preparation was
carried out using the standard method ASTM D-2013 for sampling (D-2234) with the help of
roll crusher.The desired size of the sample was achieved through crushing. The crushed
sample was then subjected to grinding and the size of the sample was maintained at 250m
using ASTM sieve no. 60. The sample, which was used in this study, originated from Thar,
Chamanlang, Harnai, Hangu and Dukki coalfield of Pakistan.
3.2 Proximate Analysis of the Coal Samples
Proximate analysis of the coal samples, generally, gives us information about the following
components;
 Moisture
 Volatile Matter
 Ash
 Fixed Carbon
3.2.1 Moisture Content
The moisture content was determined using ASTM standard test method (D-3173). The
ground coal in (1g) was taken in a Petri dish, which was already weighed and then the Petri
dish was placed in an oven at 110C for one hour. After one hour, the Petri dish was placed in
a desiccator for having it cooled down to ambient room temperature. The Petri dish was
weighed for determining the decrease in weight in order to report the weight loss in terms of
the removal of moisture content. The measurements were made in triplicates and, afterwards,
reported as the mean value. The calculations were made as per Equation 3.1
( ) (3.1)

15
Figure 3. 1Laboratory Drying Oven
3.2.2 Volatile Matter
The one gram (1g) amount of the coal sample was taken in crucible, which was already
weighed and covered with a lid. The crucible was, then carefully, placed for 7 minutes in a
furnace set at temperature of 950C. After this prescribed time, the crucible was taken out of
the furnace and cooled down in a desiccator. The loss in weight was reported as the liberated
volatile matter and calculated using Equation 3.2
( ) (3.2)

The determinations were conducted in triplicates and reported as the mean value. The test for
the determination of volatile matter was performed in accordance with the ASTM D-3175.

Figure 3. 2 Laboratory Muffle Furnace for Volatile MatterDetermination

16
3.2.3 Ash Content
Coal sample, in amount of 1 gram, was taken in a pre-weighed and pre-ignited crucible. The
crucible was maintained in a furnace, set at 850C, for at least 4 hours. After 4 hours and
once the weight loss was constant, crucible was taken out of the furnace and placed in a
desiccator. The contents of the crucible were also checked to contain any unburnt black
carbon particles of coal. In case of the presence of such particles, the crucible was again
placed in the furnace under same conditions to ensure the burning of each particle. The
weight difference was calculated using Equation 3.3

( ) (3.3)

The ash content was determined in accordance with the standards available in ASTM and,
particularly, ASTM D-3174 was followed.

Figure 3. 3 Laboratory Muffle Furnace for Ash Determination

3.2.4 Fixed Carbon

Fixed carbon is always determined by the difference method. The following relationship was
used for calculating the fixed carbon as in Equation 3.4

Fixed Carbon = 100 – (% Moisture + % Volatile Matter + % Ash Content) (3.4)

3.3 Determination of Gross Calorific Value of Coal Sample

Gross calorific value of coal sample was determined using bomb calorimeter. For this, about
1 gram of the air-dried coal sample was taken. The sample was transformed into a pellet with
17
the help of a manual presser. The coal pellet was placed in a crucible. The piece of nichrome
wire was attached to the fuse assembly of the bomb calorimeter and the assembly, along with
the coal pellet inside the crucible, was placed in the bomb vessel. The bomb vessel was filled
with oxygen at the pressure of 25 atm. The vessel of the calorimeter was filled with weighed
quantity of the water i.e., 2.5 liters. The tightly screwed bomb was placed inside the vessel of
the calorimeter. The calorimeter was covered appropriately with the lid and a Beckmann’s
thermometer was adjusted inside the vessel for determining the change in temperature. The
water, inside the calorimeter vessel, was stirred for about 5 minutes with the help of an
electric stirrer. After 5 minutes, the nichrome wire was ignited, which eventually would have
caused the initiation of the combustion of coal inside the crucible. This combustion resulted
to an increase in the temperature of the water, which was read on the scale of Beckmann’s
thermometer. The increase in temperature was recorded till it stopped increasing and
difference in temperature, T, was calculated.

Following formula was used for calculating the gross calorific value using Equation 3.5

( ) 
(3.5)

Where

WE = Water Equivalent

M = Mass of Water

CP = Specific Heat of Water at Room Temperature

T = T2 T1

T2 = Final Temperature (At that point when the increase in temperature stopped)

T1 = Initial Temperature (After stirring of 5 minutes and right before the ignition of
the nichrome wire)

18
Figure 3. 4 Parr Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter for Heating Value Determination

3.5 Determination of Sulfur and Carbon Content

The instrument used for carbon and sulphur determination was LECO SC-144DR (Figure
3.5). This is a software-controlled tool, designed to evaluate carbon and sulfur content in
different organic compounds as well as inorganic substances including coal, oils, coke,
cement and limestone on the principle of infrared detection method. A weighed sample of
0.25g was taken in a combustion boat. A pure oxygen environment was regulated in the
furnace at a temperature range of 1350oC nominal with the flow rate of 3.5 l/min. Specified
sample was then introduced in the furnace to combust. Upon oxidation, carbon and sulfur
entities in coal were converted into CO2 and SO2 respectively. These gases flowed toward
two anhydrone tubes from combustion system to eliminate moisture and then forwarded to
infrared detection cell. The carbon IR cell measured CO2 gas concentration like sulfur IR cell.
The instrument software then switched the values to percentage and showed their peaks on
monitor.

Figure 3. 5 Carbon-Sulfur analyzer

19
3.6 Preparation Samples for HGI
Grindability is a physical determination of a coal sample, which indicate how easily, a coal
sample can be pulverized. It measures the resistance of coal to crushing. A standard method
used for this purpose is Hardgrove grindability test (ASTM-409).

The coal for HGI was first air dried at 40oC for 3 hours. The test machine was a ball and ring
type of mill. A nylon brush was used to clean the bowl and steel balls. 50g of closely sized
coal sample was consigned into the bowl attached with grinding unit. Steel balls were placed
over the sample for crushing. Loader rings were put on the machine. The unit mill grounded
the sample for 60 revolutions. Resulted coal fines were sieved on -200# sieve size and
shacked on sieve shaker for about 5 minutes and the quantity of undersized coal was
recorded. The grindability index were calculated using the following relationship.

HGI = 31.98 + 7.15 (W) (3.6)

Where;

W = amount of coal passed in -200# sieve

Figure 3. 6 Hardgrove grindability index machine

3.7 Preparation of Ash

China dishes were tarred in a muffle furnace. After tarring, dishes were cooled into the
desiccator for 10-15 min. 5g of coal sample was weighed in a petri dish. The china dish with
sample was put into the muffle furnace at 750⁰ C till complete combustion, thus, leaving
behind no unburnt carbon particles. After ashing of tht sample, the dish was placed in the

20
desiccator for 10-15 min. The prepared ash was weighed ash saved for further analysis. The
procedure was repeated until 10g od ash sample was prepared.

Mineral matter present in coal are determined this formula

M = 1.08Ash + 0.55 Sulfur (3.7)

Where;

M = percentage of mineral matter present in coal

A = Ash (present in coal calculate after combustion)

S = Percentage of the Sulfur present in Coal

3.8 X-Ray Fluorescence

X-ray fluorescence of coal ash sample helps in determining the chemical composition of ash
of coal samples. The prepared ash of all coal samples, used in this study, were subjected to
XRF analysis for investigating the composition of ash.

21
Chapter 4

Results and Discussion

4.1 Hardgrove grindability indexes for different Pakistani coal
The results of the Hardgrove grind ability index of five different coals Thar, Chamalang,
Harnai, Hangu, and Dukki are given in Table 4.1 Hardgrove grindability index of different
coals. Thar coal has highest Hardgrove grind ability index and Dukki coal has lowest value
of Hardgrove grindabilit index . From the experimental values, it is obvious that Thar and
Hangu coal has a higher Hardgrove grind ability index than Chamalang, Harnai, and Dukki.
So, Chamalang, Harnai, and Dukki coals are difficult to grind than Thar and Hangu coal.

Table 4.1 Hardgrove grindability index of different coals

Sample Id Hardgrove grindability index

Thar 118.13
Chamanlang 94.13
Harnai 89.03
Hangu 140.59
Dukki 83.05

4.2 Effect on coal sample Hardgrove grind ability index and moisture
The relationship between moisture content and HGI values of local coals as Thar,
Chamalang, Harnai, Hangu, and Dukki has been investigated.It has been shown from the
results that ,the moisture content and HGI value is in inverse relation. As the moisture content
increases ,the HGI values decreases. HGI value decreases so the coal is difficult to grind.
Because as the moisture content increase, coal shows plasticity behavior.

22
Table 4.2 Hardgrove grindability index and moisture content

Sample Id HGI Moisture %

Thar 118.13 19.6
Chamalang 94.13 2.86
Harnai 89.03 11.27
Hangu 140.59 2.98
Dukki 83.05 6.65

4.3 Hardgrove grind ability index and volatile matter

The relationship between volatile matter content and Hardgrove grindability index of local
coals as Thar, Harnai, CHamalang, Hangu, and Dukki coal has been investigated. The
volatile matter content and HGI value is in the direct relation. As the volatile matter content
increases, the values of HGI also increases and the grind ability will become easy. Higher,
low and medium volatile matter has different effects on the HGI. From the expermients it is
obsereved that Thar coal has linear relationnship between volatile matter content and
hardgrove grindability index

Table 4. 3 Hardgrove grindability index and volatile matter content

Sample Id Hardgrove grind ability index Volatile matter %

Thar 118.13 40.53
Chamanlang 94.13 35.06
Harnai 89.03 36.27
Hangu 140.59 19.56
Dukki 83.05 42.39

4.4 Chemical analysis of coal sample

Proximate analysis of five different local Coals was performed in the previous chapter
according to the ASTM standard. Proximate analysis of different coals is given in this table.
The ash content and sulfur content in all samples was high. If we use these samples in coal
fired power plants, than there is a need to clean the coal because by removing the sulfur
content and minerals By cleaning the coal combustion will become proper and has a
minimized effect on the environment. Thar coal has ash content 9.52 % and sulfur content
1.11% which is lowered as compared to others. Now a day these coals are also using for

23
making coke in steel industries and in the bricks Killen. Proximate analysis of indigenous
coal represents the data formed in tabular and graphically in below.
Table 4.4 Proximate analysis of air-dried different coal

Sample id Moisture Volatile Ash Fixed Total Sulfur GCV

% matter % carbon Carbon % Kcal/kg
% % %
Thar 19.6 40.53 9.52 30.99 64.43 1.11 5515.78
Chamalang 2.86 35.06 19.6 42.49 69.8 9.75 5860.27
Harnai 11.27 25.00 15.68 36.78 59.26 8.34 4567.51
Hangu 2.98 19.56 11.76 65.7 83.68 5.99 6888.91
Dukki 6.65 42.39 9.47 41.64 49 7.73 3961.9

Figure 4.1 Proximate analysis of different coals

It is suggested that Thar coal has high moisture content and lower sulfur content but it has
reasonable ash content and heating values. Hangu coal has enough potential as it's heating
value is 6888.91 Kcal/ kg and lower moisture content than others. So it might be considered
as good quality coals as well as it's Hardgrove grind ability index is also high as compared to
Thar, Dukki, Harnai, and Chamalang. Dukki, Chamalang, and Thar coal have a 30 – 40 %
volatile matter range. They might be used in steel making industries as caking coal. Sulfur

24
content is higher in Chamalang and Harnai coals than Thar, Hangu, and Dukki. So it might
need to use sulfur removal technologies then these coals will be use in power plants.

4.5 Ash analysis

On heating the coal ash firstly, it converts into soften form and then fuses .Finally ash melts
on this temperature which is called fusion point of ash. Higher the ash fusion temperature of
coal ash, the quality of coal will be better. If the fusion point increases then Silica, Alumina
and Iron content increase. Silica content increases in Dukki, Harnai, Hangu, and Thar and
Chamalang coal. The remaining components in ash content decrease .

Table 4.5 Ash analysis components

Composition (%) Thar Chamalang Harnai Hangu Dukki

SiO2 11.42 34.59 29.63 50.29 34.98
Al2O3 9.34 18.87 18.05 26.66 19.54
Fe2O3 10.40 11.84 9.60 8.81 10.68
CaO 28.97 25.89 26.82 24.47 26.45
MgO 3.77 1.84 1.96 1.31 1.77
K2O 0.31 1.27 1.15 0.84 1.26
SO3 5.42 1.87 3.08 0.87 2.71
Na2O 1.11 1.12 1.22 0.95 0.72

4.6 Ash Fusion Temperature

This technique is mostly used in boiler or gasifiers. The major components of ash fusion are
SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and CaO. They are divided into two groups. First one is acidic (Al2O3 +
SiO2) and other is basic (CaO + Fe2O3+ K2O+ Na2O). The acidic oxide structure is polymer
to increase the ash fusion temperature , basic oxides decomposed the structure and decrease
the ash fusion temperature. If ash fusion temperature is higher in the ash of coal then it will
cause the slagging and fouling. The most parameter in ash fusibility is the Acidic and Basic
ratio. The ratio SiO2 / Al2O3 and CaO / Fe2O3 from given results.

25
Table 4.6 Major component of AFT

Composition Thar Chamalang Harnai Hangu Dukki

SiO2 11.42 34.59 29.63 50.29 34.98
Al2O3 9.34 18.87 18.05 26.66 19.54
Fe2O3 10.40 11.84 9.60 8.81 10.68
CaO 28.97 25.89 26.82 24.47 26.45

The results show that as CaO / Fe2O3 increases, ash fusion temperature will also become
high, because the Fe2O3 content in ash is changed. The ratio CaO / Fe2O3 is low in coal ash
then from mullite. The increase in the ash fusion temperature also increases the CaO / Fe2O3
ratio at the range of 2.187 to 2.793 [25].

In ash fusion temperature Silica to Alumina ratio is a important factor. In this experimental
work Silica to Alumina ratio is in the range of 1.22 to 1.88. These ratios found in different
coals of Pakistan. The Silica and Alumina ratio increases then ash fusion temperature will
gradually increase and higher will be the melting temperature.

Table 4.7 Acidic and Basic ratio

Sample id SiO2/Al2O3 ratio CaO/Fe2O3 ratio

Thar 1.22 2.785
Chamalang 1.833 2.187
Harnai 1.64 2.793
Hangu 1.88 2.778
Dukki 1.79 2.476

The acidic ratio is higher in the Hangu coal as it is 1.88. The basic ratio is higher in
Chamalong coal as it is 2.18.

Now we have calculated the slagging and fouling index in different types of coal.
B
Base to acidic atio (4.1)
A

( ) (4.2)

B
lagging ndex s ad (4.3)
A

26
 (4.4)

If (slagging index) RS is less than 0.6 low than slagging inclination will become low ,if RS is
in the range of 0.6 to 2 than medium slagging inclination will cause and if the RS is in the
range of 2 to 2.6 than high slagging inclination will cause and if RS is greater than 2.6 then
the slagging index will extremely high.

If (fouling index) FU is less than either equal to 0.6 this is low fouling inclination. If the
fouling index is 0.6 to 40 than fouling inclination will be high and the fouling index is
greater or equal to 40 the fouling inclination will be extremely high.

If the viscosity index is less than and equal to 65 the high slagging inclination will cause, if
the viscosity index is greater than 65 and less than or equal to 72 than slagging inclination
will be medium. If the viscosity index is greater than 72 the slagging inclination will be low.

Table 4.8 Slagging index RS, Fouling index FU and Viscosity index SR in different coal

Sample id Slagging Index RS Fouling Index FU Viscosity index SR

Thar 2.37 high 3.0388 high 21.12 high
Chamalang 7.60 extremely high 1.8642 high 46.64 high
Harnai 7.14 extremely high 2.029 high 43.57 high
Hangu 2.81 extremely high 0.8413 high 59.24 high
Dukki 5.79 extremely high 1.483 high 47.35 high

We calculated the ash analysis on XRF basic to acid ratio, slagging index, fouling index and
viscosity index in Table 4.8 Slagging index RS, Fouling index FU and Viscosity index SR in
different coal

4.7 Slagging index RS

In the Slagging index the base to acid ratio hint to the melting point of the slag. Sulfur present
in the coal determined by air-dried base value. Quantity of iron in the coal converts into the
iron oxides and into the plastic stage. If the slagging index is less than 0.6 this is low slagging
indication and 0.6 – 2.0 medium slagging indication. If the slagging index greater than 2.6
than is an extremely slagging indication. In all the available coals have slagging index
extremely high, but highest in Chamalang because of the sulfur content is Higher. In
Chamalang the slagging index is 7.605 higher as compared to the other coals in
interpretation in the table. So it will cause additional corrosion on the furnace walls and boiler
27
tubes as compared to other coals. Coal is burnt at a very high temperature it produced
slagging in ash. In the ash ,slag melts and fuse in struck of the boiler wall. Thar coal having
a high slagging index will affect the corrosion of the boiler tubes and furnace wall. The other
coal higher slagging index as compared to the Thar coal, than it may cause the deposition of
fly ash on the heat transfer surface exposed to heat radiation. Slagging in the boiler or furnace
walls due to melting of the inorganic minerals (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, K2O, Na2O)
[26]. Slagging causes corrosion of boiler tubes resulting in a reduction in boiler efficiency
and ultimately tube life. Inorganic constituents in the fuel are the main contributor to
slagging.

4.8 Fouling index FU

The fouling index of Thar coal is higher than other coals which is 3.08. Hangu coal has a low
fouling index than Thar, Chamalang, Harnai and Dukki coal, so it will cause the less fouling
in the preheater, economizer, and reheater. In fouling index main parameters, stickiness in
fouling index deposition is due to condensation of vaporized trace elements (typically high in
alkali and earth metals (Ca, Na, K, and Mg) and their sulphidation by SO3 [26]. Na2O and
K2O content In the fouling index has the main role in the basic and acidic ratio. Fouling may
cause the stickiness on the surface of the preheaters. The fouling factor is basic to the acidic
ratio which is hint to determine the melting point of the slag. fouling causes corrosion and
erosion of boiler tubes resulting in a reduction in boiler efficiency and ultimately tube life.
Inorganic constituents in the fuel are the main contributor to fouling.

4.9 Viscosity index SR

Viscosity index is measured in the above equation and the value of all coals given in the
table. The viscosity index of all coal is less than 65 and the slagging inclination will be high.
The viscosity index range is 21.12 to 59.24 in this coal sample.

In ash composition (Al2O3, SiO2, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O and SO3) are present in the
ash of coal. These content are varying accordingly to the ranks of coal. Firstly we described
the fly ash. Fly ash content mostly depends upon the ranks of coal. Major coal is lignite sub-
bituminous and bituminous. The composition of ash has a different percentage in different
ranks of coal. The Composition of the different ranks of coal is given in the table.

28
Table 4.9 Ash composition of the different rank of coal

Ash composition Bituminous coal Sub-bituminous coal Lignite coal

Al2O3 5-35 20-30 20-25
SiO2 20-60 40-60 15-45
Fe2O3 10-40 4-10 4-15
CaO 1-12 5-30 15-40

Fly ash is mostly collected in electro precipitators. Fly ash produced the burning of the fine
size of pulverized coal in coal-fired boiler gasifiers. Coal fly ashes are generated at 1200⁰ C -
1700⁰ C from the various organic and inorganic components in coal feed [27].

Fly ash is divided into two classes which one is class C and other is class F. In different coal
ash compositions which has CaO content is less than 20 % that is called class F fly ash and
the other is lime is greater than 20 % which is class C. So all the coal is range in class C. In
this class, coal is burning harder and the nature of fly ash is pozzolanic in nature. According
to ASTM C 618 the sum of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 are equal to the 70 or 50 then the final
result class of fly ash. If the sum is larger than 70 % then ash is classified in class F and the
sum lies in the range of 50 to 70 than ash is classified is class C. The indigenous five
Pakistani coals are class C except for the Hangu coal because the sum is 85.76. CFA is class
C derived from lignite to sub-bituminous and class F derived from the bituminous to
anthracite. Class C fly ash will harden and gain strength over time [27] .

4.10 Application of fly ash

1. Fly ash can be used in the synthesis of zeolite.
2. Fly ash can be used in concrete products and grout for filling gaps.
3. Fly ash used in the manufactured in Portland cement.
4. Fly ash can be used in ingredients in soil modification and stabilization.
5. Fly ash used in mineral filler in asphalt.
6. Used as a component in road bases, sub-bases, and pavement.
7. Fly ash used as a component in geopolymers.
8. Fly ash used for an embankment for construction.

4.11 Problem related to Ash

The toxic elements present in ash effect the human Heath. If the ash conteny is higher than
the coal is harder and stronger. wet coal ash pond is more dangerous to the smoking pack of

29
cigarettes. According to EPA report childrens are most affected in wet coal ash. The toxic
elements present in coal are arsenic, mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium, and selenium.

Arsenic contained in coal ash and may causes to leach into the groundwater and affects the
drinking water. If the arsenic quantity is low in coal ash then it caused nausea and vomiting
and decreases the red blood cells and cardiovascular damaged to blood vessels. If the arsenic
present in the coal ash is in the higher quantity , than it cause the sudden death. Lead is a
neurotoxic component that is highly damaged to the nervous system.

30
Chapter 5

Conclusion, Summary
5.1 Conclusion
1. The changes in HGI of different coals were investigated with respect to the moisture
and volatile matter content. The increase in the moisture content of coal decreases the
HGI which makes the coal difficult to grind. However, with the increase in volatile
matter content, HGI also increases implying a direct relationship among HGI and
volatile matter.
2. By XRF we can determine the elemental composition in the ash samples. Ash present
in coals can be divided into two groups, one is acidic and the other is basic. Acidic
oxides are Al2O3, SiO2, and basic oxides are Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O. Major
fractions in coal consist of Al2O3, SiO2, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, Na2O, and K2O. The
primary role of ash is determined by Silica to Alumina ratio SiO2 / Al2O3 and
Calcium oxide to Iron oxide CaO / Fe2O3 ratio. If the Silica to Alumina ratio
increases, the ash fusion temperature will be increased and the other ratio CaO / Fe2O3
is low in coal and mullite which increases the ash fusion temperature. MgO present in
coal ash may decrease the ash fusion temperature, and improve the flow of ash
behavior.

5.2 Summary
In this study, five samples of local coal were characterized using proximate analysis, HGI
values, XRF measurements, and slagging and fouling indexes. One of the major problems of
Pakistani coals is their high ash content which causes the slagging and fouling in the boilers
and reheaters. So that fouling index, slagging index, and viscosity index have been
determined by analyzing ash composition through XRF and by observing their fluidic nature
using ash fusion analysis. It was observed that higher the moisture content lower the HGI so
the coal is difficult to grind. Thar coal has a higher content of moisture and lower values of
HGI so it will be difficult to grind. From the XRF values, it was determined that the slagging
index is high for Chamalong coal samples which make them stick to the wall of boilers and
furnaces during high-temperature operations and hence lower the transfer of heat. Similarly,

31
Thar coal has a higher value of the fouling index so it will cause the problem in the
economizer, reheater, and preheater.

32
 Nomenclature
We; water equivalent

M; the mass of water

Cp; specific heat

∆T; difference temperature

B/A; base to acid ratio

RS; slagging index

Fu; fouling index

SR; viscosity index

IDT; initial deformation temperature

ST; spherical temperature

HT; Hemispherical temperature

FT; fluid temperature

BCRUA; British Coal Utilization Research Association

EPA; Environmental Protection Agency

33
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