PLT COLLEGE, INC.

Zulueta St. Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

COLLEGE OF ARTS, SCIENCES, AND EDUCATION
VIRTUE ETHICS

Virtue ethics is a moral structure wherein hypotheses underline the purpose and significance of one's character and
virtue so as to evaluate the integrity of their actions. It focuses on the improvement of an individual's general
righteous character or greatness. (Kraut, R, 2018) According to Aristotle, a virtuous individual is the one who is
routinely checking his conduct and correcting them accurately. For the Greeks, virtue is equal to greatness.

Aristotle

Aristotle or Artistoteles lived in Greece sometime in 384 and 322 BCE. He contemplated reasoning under Plato in
the Academy and built The Lyceum, his own school. He is considered as perhaps the best philosopher in old
Philosophy.

In Aristotle's theory of ethics, he centered on discussing excellence and character or “what makes a human life good
or worth living” working in his book and moral hypothesis which he called Nicomachaean Ethics which he named
after his child Nicomachus. Telos is a Greek expression that signifies "last reason". It additionally implies reason,
objective, end or genuine last capacity of an object. (Hurthouse, 1999)

According to Aristotle everything that a man has a capacity or action, the great and the well is thought to live in the
capacity.

From the word telos come the principle of teleology which is the ethical theory that considers reason to be the "end"
and one's obligation and good commitment depend on what is the acceptable or attractive result. Teleology is
additionally known to be a consequentialist theory. Aristotle was not the person who created teleology but rather his
form is the most acclaimed record of this ethical theory.

For instance, Millen needs to purchase another cellphone regardless of whether her cellphone is as yet working. Do
you think her choice to purchase another cellphone is right if we will utilize the standards of teleology?

Telos: The function Argument

Aristotle accepted that all things have purposes, objectives, or ends which must be accomplished to its benefit. He
considered this contention the capacity argument. Aristotle likewise underlines the need to realize one's actual
function to have the option to accomplish goodness or greatness. He called this intellectual virtue.

Telos: The Golden Mean

Aristotle states in Nicomachean Ethics that virtue is a mean. It is a condition of clarification and apprehension from
pain and pleasure. An excellent character is the one that is continually and effectively cleaning up the soul from
closing out or slaving from pain and pleasure.

Here are the similar perspectives on men's constant propensities and their classes under the rule of golden mean.
How about we check this guide to comprehend the ramifications of following Aristotle's the golden mean. In the area
of satisfying others, we consider agreeableness to be an ethical demonstration yet its lacking rendition, being
quarrelsome, and its outrageous adaptation, ingratiation is both seen as grievous by individuals. It is hard to manage
factious individuals while you'll never become more acquainted with the genuine individual behind charmed man.
(Sachs, 2002)

St. Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas was born in Roccasecca, Italy between 1224 and 1226. At the point when he kicked the bucket, he
was consecrated as the benefactor holy person of educators, hence as a rule being designated "The Universal
Teacher." His two notable works of art are Summa Theologiae and Summa Contra Gentiles. The two works of
Aquinas on his comprehension of the Latin philosophy.

In spite of Aquinas in Christianity, he didn't prevent from attempting to reconcile religion and science. He immovably
accepts that confidence and reason can live one next to the other and not restricted to one another. Hence, his
laborers primarily spin in getting Christianity and the regular law under the focal points of reason and oppose
obdurate getting faith. (Chenu, 2019)

There are four types of law that oversee the universe as indicated by Aquinas. These are Eternal Law, Divine Law,
Human Law, and Natural Law. Eternal law is indistinguishable from the brain of God. It is everlasting however
confused by the human brain. Divine law is the law that originated from the disclosure of God to people written in
the Old and New Testaments. Human Law is the law that is formulated by a human explanation as indicated by
geological, social, and historical conditions. Natural law is the law that administers everything in nature and the
establishment of pragmatic thinking human law. In any case, in this exercise, we will just concentrate on natural law.

Virtue Ethics: Natural Law

Aquinas' moral theory rotates in the possibility of the "Natural Law.” For him, the natural law isn't particular from
divine fortune however in fact pieces of it since it causes us to see how God really made the universe and ordered it.
According to him what is good is to be done and evil is to be avoided.

All in all, what is the meaning of natural law? For Aquinas, natural law is our natural comprehension and tendency
to do certain things normally, for example, safeguarding or ensuring one's life, teaching our kids, keeping our
opportunity, working for the benefit of all of the community, looking for God, and avoiding obliviousness. In this way,
we should apply these standards in a judicious way with a steady impression of our desire to prosper as people and
that piece of nature is that we likewise have carnal impulses that we should screen.

Along these lines, how might we become virtuous according to St. Thomas Aquinas? Human nature is normally
disposed of being a rational, free, social, and physical being. We should consistently seek after what is beneficial for
us. On the off chance that something will stop us from prospering as individuals, it isn't right to look for it. To realize
what is acceptable and terrible for us, we should consistently think about our essential needs and comprehend the
natural law.

Natural law likewise has three moral principles which are essential to know to comprehend the fundamental
principles of Aquinas’ virtue ethics. Aquinas contended that there are three general qualities that manage our ethical
information where each and every individual who has accomplished primary education can comprehend. He said
that these qualities are pertinent consistently at all times, places, and circumstances. They are principles that can be
learned through the reflection of one's very own encounters by analyzing them with human explanation, aside from
faith.

Natural Law: Three Universal Values

Here are the three universal moral principles as indicated by Aquinas.

 1. First is, all-inclusive standards are consistent with each individual who has arrived at the time of reason as a
general rule. It's the guideline of personality and non-logical inconsistency. The model for the main good
standard is you should consistently do great and keep away from evil.
2. Second is, all-inclusive rules that with certain reflections can be reached from the main standards. Its model
is, we ought to reimburse the beneficial things done to us. On account of our parents, we can't reimburse
their penances really; consequently, we should regard and love them consistently.
3. In conclusion, widespread rules that are not handily seen by individuals so a savvy educator must assistance
clarify it. Furthermore, the best model for this is we ought to be beneficent to those out of luck.

Presently we should move to another point given by Thomas Aquinas in his moral hypothesis. In this inquiry, he was
asking how we can achieve happiness in which he addressed that we can accomplish joy once we have recognized
and achieved our ultimate objective from different methods. He accepted that we generally set different ultimate
objectives throughout everyday life except we additionally have an extreme end which is bliss, itself.

A definitive ultimate objective is a finish all things considered and won't be utilized as a way to some further closures.
For instance, secondary school students concentrate hard to get passing marks at school. Having passing marks is
critical to get ready for school. Once in school, studies mean to secure as much information as possible to get passing
marks and graduate on schedule. A decent scholastic foundation will at that point influence in getting a decent line
of work. A great job implies steady and good pay. Riches carry a feeling of monetary opportunity to an individual to
do exercises that will satisfy the person in question.

In the example, we can see that there is part of objectives referenced yet every one of these objectives were as yet
not the finish of the activity, rather, they were then used to help accomplish another objective until one arrived at
the last and extreme ultimate objective which is to be happy.

All in all, is it conceivable to have numerous goals? The appropriate response is no. For Aquinas, there is just extreme
ultimate objective which is happiness in light of the fact that a definitive ultimate objective is something we look for
the wellbeing of its own and is altogether fulfilling the entirety of one's wants.

In his work, Summa Theologiae, Thomas Aquinas characterized righteousness as a "propensity" that causes an
individual to play out his capacity, activity, or development appropriately. He introduced numerous sorts of ethics in
his book that characterize human goodness; notwithstanding, he recognized four explicit temperances that arranges
us to carry on with ethically great lives. He called this the Cardinal Virtues. These are prudence, temperance,
courage, and justice.

The first virtue under Cardinal Virtues is prudence. Reasonability is the righteousness of scholarly fitness or capacity
to do certain things mentally and sanely. For instance, Aria needs to go to the sleep gathering of her cousin yet she
has a test the following day. She begins to figure out how she will have the option to go to the sleeping party but then
breeze through her test the following day. She thought of cheating yet it isn't right. She likewise thought of reading
for not many hours and heading off to the sleeping party with her books and notes. She picked the subsequent choice
and arranged her timetable in like manner.

The second virtue is temperance. Restraint is the temperance of refining our methods of making the most of our
real wants. It guides us to follow a control like balance, accommodation, quietude, forbearance, and celibacy. For
instance, swearing off drinking liquor, eating exorbitantly, engaging in sexual relations, and living extravagantly is
temperate for Aquinas. Being modest, tame, and mercy are additionally viewed as ethical on the grounds that these
show control of one's passionate responses.

Courage is the virtue of limiting feelings of trepidation while figuring out how to bear preposterous hunger for wild
activities. Fearlessness realizes when to battle and when to fly. In the event that you have fearlessness, you likewise
have continuance, certainty, heavenliness, persistence, and diligence. For instance, facing a challenge to go after that
position you are sitting tight for quite a long time is a type of mental fortitude yet skydiving without legitimate
hardware for the adrenaline surge is a type of foolishness.
The last cardinal excellence is, justice that different from the three, is centered on going people to productive
members of society. Equity is the ethicalness that administers our connection with others and the state. This
righteousness administers our relationship with others not at all like different excellences referenced. The reason for
this prudence is to cause individuals to turn out to be productive members of society. The two kinds of equity are
commutative and distributive. Commutative is justice between common individual residents. While distributive is
equity as the aggregate activities of the individuals from the state.

Kant and Rights Theorists: Goodwill and Categorical Imperative

Immanuel Kant is a German Philosopher (1724-1804) whose way of thinking on the goodwill and categorical
imperative is established in utilizing an individual's capacity to reason. We have four learning results to accomplish
before the finish of the theme, Kant, and Rights Theorists. We will accomplish these learning results through talks
and class exercises. We will use contextual analyses, book articles, and different references for this point. We will
have a test and a case examination as an appraisal.

Kant's way of thinking addresses the inquiries: what would i be able to know? The heavenly confidence which isolates
what we can experience versus what we can't comprehend; we can just know about things we can understand; what
would it be a good idea for me to do? Which intends to act sanely in agreement to an all-inclusive good law; what
may I trust? That spirits are godlike, there is God and that world is planned as per standards of equity.

Kant accepts that the feeling of profound quality of people doesn't really originate from an incomparable power of
God. So as to decide directly from wrong, we need to utilize reason. As indicated by him, profound quality and
religion ought to be isolated on the grounds that people have various religions, that we will have various answers
and reasons for our ethical quality.

Maxim

A maxim serves as a premise or rule on how and why we act. It is like an unwritten guideline book which humans
attribute to. For instance, on the off chance that we need cash, we buckle down.

These are two sorts of saying. First is the abstract or the theoretical goal. This typically benefits an individual. Second
is the target or the absolute objective. This depends on the reason.

Duty and Goodwill

How we carry out proverbs identify with obligation and generosity? Duty is an objective maxim “irrespective of all
objects desire.” This obligation of man is to follow the unmitigated goal (target adage). The inability to do so implies
that one is silly, represents his/her own pleasure, and abuses reason.

Kant likewise contends that the inspirations of people for their activities go past joy, and that we practice reason
above impulse. According to Sjöstedt-H, (2007) the capacity of the reason isn't delight or bliss, however, to create a
will that is acceptable in itself.

Cooperative attitude is in this manner about after obligations without respect for joy or wants. It is "showed in
representing the purpose of obligation" (Sjöstedt-H, 2007). For instance, you experience an old who is encountering
trouble going across the road where you are in. Regardless of whether you are in a surge, you step in to assist (of
obligation, and not for joy)

Imperatives

What are the goals? A basic is an order. Models are the signages like keep off the grass or don't hinder the driveway.
There are two sorts of objectives: hypothetical and categorical.

Hypothetical imperatives are restrictive orders dependent on your applicable want. Models; In case you have to
float through the test, you have to inspect (If you would prefer not to pass, at that point the order isn't pertinent to
you). In the event that you need to join the class, at that point join! (In case you're not enthused about joining, by
then don't join).

The categorical imperative is an all-inclusive moral guideline that is unqualified, objective, and soundly essential.
For instance, the guidance, "While conforming, offer an approach to people with handicaps." Even in the event that
you need to advance beyond the line to spare time, you may decide not to do as such. Let us talk about the clear-
cut basic in the following slides.

Categorical Imperative

Kant discussed ‘The Categorical Imperative (CI)’ which acknowledges that there is a unique standard of moral
quality. This is an instance of deontological moral speculation (deon is Greek for obligation), which says that how
we judge our exercises as either right or wrong isn't dependent upon the outcomes, anyway on whether our exercises
fulfill our commitment. CI chooses our commitment.

In order to separate the even-minded clarification, Kant agrees that normal administrators (a man using insightfulness
and reason) are required to insist to instrumental guidelines. Thus, the non-instrumental rule of CI is fundamental to
a sound being which "must be viewed as self-sufficient, or free, in the feeling of being the creator of the law that ties
it."

To further understand CI, let us look at some of its formulations.

Formula 1: The Universality principle. According to Kant, a man must act just as indicated by the adage which you
can simultaneously will that it should turn into an all-inclusive law without logical inconsistency.

Example: While at checkout in the grocery store, you noticed that the bagger accidentally placed items in your bag
even if you have not purchased them. Is it morally okay for you to do this?

Analysis: If you approve of the maxim (in the example, your maxim is taking something you have not paid for or
simply stealing), then you are universalizing it, meaning everyone should always do the maxim (stealing) you approve
of.

Formula 2: The formula of Humanity: According to Kant, “Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in that of the other, always as an end, and never as a mere means.”

Example: Lina runs to Ana’s house. Lina’s husband arrives a few minutes later, looking for his wife. Ana lied and told
him Lina wasn’t inside. Lina, however, decided to slip through the back door and unfortunately bumped through her
husband on her way out. Upon the encounter, the man assaulted his wife.

Analysis: Ana is considered responsible for Lina’s assault because her lie has caused it. If Ana told the truth, the
responsibility of the assault would fall on the husband. Ana violated the moral law about lying, but she did it with the
intent of protecting Lina.

Morality and the Categorical Imperative

How does morality relate to the Categorical Imperative? CI emphasizes basic respect for the humanity of others.
According to Kant, “moral law is a truth of reason, and hence that all rational creatures are bound by the same moral
law” (Jankowiak, n.d.). CI serves as the basis and justification of morality because morality governs us, and we cannot
excuse ourselves from it. Thus, violating CI results in immoral actions.

Other philosophers such as Hobbes, Locke, and Aquinas also believe in the importance of having standards of
rationality as a basis for morality. Hobbes point out, however, that “these standards were either instrumental principle
of rationality for satisfying one’s desires.” Locke and Aquinas, on the other hand, argue that these standards are
“external rational principles that are discoverable by reason” Johnson and Cureton, 2019.
The Moral Worth of Persons

Given the CI, what makes someone a good person? According to Kant, the moral worth is evaluated through people,
and not actions (a person is morally worth vs lacks moral worth).

Motivation – what caused you to do the action determines whether you are good or bad. You are morally worthy
if your actions are motivated by morality. You lack moral worthiness if your actions are motivated by emotion or
desire.

Let us look at this example from Sjöstedt-H (2007), “Imagine that I win the lottery and I’m wondering what to do
with the money. I search for what might be the most amusing to do with it: purchase a yacht, travel in top of the line
far and wide, get that knee activity, and so forth. I conclude that what might be extremely fun is to give the cash to
a good cause and to appreciate that exceptional inclination you get from satisfying individuals, so I part with all my
lottery cash.”

Based on Kant’s assumptions, the person in the example is not morally worthy because the motivation was selfish
and was based on what was the “most fun.” The moral worth of the deed could have been achieved had it been done
out of a sense of duty, regardless of the person found it “fun” or not.

Kant and Rights Theorists: Different Kinds of Rights

1. Human Rights- Human rights permit each person to have a decent life. It guarantees that the positive and
negative essentials to accomplish these are accessible and available. A few affirmations show and foundations
that secure human rights are: Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), European Convention on
Human Rights (1954), International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (1966), International Bill of Rights,
and open specialists or the legislature that the individual is exposed to
2. Moral Rights- Moral rights are rights that are granted to any human simply because they are human.
Everyone has unalienable access to moral rights. The existence and validity of a moral right do not depend
on the law. Moral rights represent the natural law. Moral rights are grounded in moral reasons. Moral rights
are not enforceable by law. Example: The Right to privacy. On the off chance that I reserve an option to
protect, at that point you (and others) are committed not to attack my security. A situational example is when
you paid the hospital bill for a colleague without her consent so that he may be released from the premises
and so that he can come back to work. If your colleague does not pay you back, you cannot go to court since
you voluntarily offered help. As mentioned, moral rights are not enforceable by law.
3. Legal Rights- Legal rights are granted to people under a legal system (authority, government). Legal rights
are mandated by the laws of the country the individual is subjected to. Legal rights represent positive law.
Legal rights derive from the laws of society. They can be found in legal codes. Legal rights are enforceable
by law which recognizes and protects it. Example: Right to education. In the Philippines, children have the
legal right to education. Situational example. Using our previous example, if your colleague specifically asked
you for help through a loan so that he may settle his hospital bill, if he does not pay you back, then you can
go to court.

FINAL ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Answer or explain the following items below.
1. What are the importance of Human Rights? Cite an example.
2. What are the difference between Moral Rights and Legal Rights? Cite an example.

FINAL ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Make a photo collage of people exercising their LEGAL RIGHTS here in the Philippines.

SHORT BOND PAPER!!

TO BE SUBMITTED ON THE DAY OF THE FINAL EXAM.