Research Methods for

Engineering Projects

The Nature of Research

for Engineering Projects
Unit 1 Lesson Summary

Customer Segments

Customer Value

Levels of Data

The Research Wheel

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Part 1

Research Process Structure

Customer Segments
Global engineering and manufacturing firms have many
potential customers and end users with differing require-
ments and viewpoints to consider. With this in mind, we Innovation Adoption Curve
look at how we can split up a market into groups, known
as Customer Segments. We distinguish between firms
selling to consumer markets (known as B2C) whose
customers are individuals or households versus firms Proportion
of Adopters
selling to other businesses (known as B2B) whose
customers are organisations, such as companies that
may themselves be selling to industrial or consumer 2.5% 13.5% 34% 34% 16%
Innovators Early Early Late Laggards
markets. Adopters Majority Majority

Time

Market segmentation refers to dividing the potential

market into similar (or homogenous) customer groups
with similar needs and characteristics. For example,
families may have similar needs when it comes to buying
cars or booking their holidays. Consumer markets may
be segmented based on their demographics, such as a
person’s age, sex, occupation, income, neighbourhood,
and/or family status, or some combination of these.
Conversely, firms selling to other businesses whose
customers are companies (rather than individuals) may
segment their market depending on the type of business,
the industry sector, and the size of the company.
To illustrate this concept, we introduce the ‘Innovation
Adoption Curve’, which shows the take-up pattern over
time for a new product or system by people keen to try
novel products, known as ‘Innovators’, who are followed
by ‘Early Adopters’. The more receptive general popula-
tion is known as the ‘Early Majority’, after which we have
the ‘Late Majority’. Those not inclined to take up the
technology are known as ‘Laggards’.

Alternatively, for consumer markets, it may be more Innovation Adoption Curve

appropriate to consider a person’s behavioural aspects
or lifestyle choices. As engineering managers, we are
often concerned with Technology Acceptance, which Lead Users

refers to how accepting end users are likely to be of a

new technology.

2.5% 13.5% 34% 34% 16%

Innovators Early Early Late Laggards
Adopters Majority Majority

Time

A manufacturing firm may wish to trial new products or

systems with ‘Lead Users’ to gain feedback before
general market release. This can enable developers to
make changes to improve usability before a wider
rollout.
Customer viewpoints are best assessed and presented
for each key market segment for an engineering or
manufacturing firm. Therefore, establishing the basis for
segmentation is required as early as possible in the
research process. Once the key market segments are
identified, the researcher can focus their analysis on
Car Journeys
these target groups and their needs and compare these
to product (or system) features. Radar (or spider) charts
are a good way to visualise multivariate data, since any Urban Commute
Mean of 30 minutes
shortfalls in the firm’s product (or service) offering can be
Frequency
easily identified as part of a customer, operational, or end Length of commute
mean (m)

user value analysis.

Rural Commute
Mean of 45 minutes

We may examine the responses from customer surveys

by comparing the results across different segments, mean (m)

including the sample mean – its average.

On plotting the results for the two segments, a pattern

can be seen where the urban commuters have an
Sample Mean Formula
average journey time of 30 minutes compared to 45
minutes for rural commuters.

∑
1 The curve for the rural commuters is more widely spread,
Sample mean (m) = xi showing that there is more variation in journey times,
n
i=1 whereas urban commuters have journey times that are
much closer to the average (the mean). This spread can
Where, be represented by the Standard Deviation (SD), which is
x is the value of a particular data point (or case)
m is the data set mean (average) a measure of the distance of the data points from the
n is the number of cases mean.

For example, we may look at car journey patterns for Deviation of a data point (x)
urban commuters versus rural commuters in the county
of Oxfordshire, where there are few towns or cities. With
a sufficient survey sample size, the data should have a
normal distribution, such that it approximates a
bell-shaped curve.
x
Deviation = (x-m)2
Frequency

mean (m)

The SD is calculated using the square of each data point’s

distance (from the mean), known as the ‘deviation’, for
which the average for the data sample is calculated. The
square root of that value is the SD.
 Standard Deviation Formula

Summary
n

∑
A market may be split into Customer Segments,
Standard Deviation (σ) = (xi -m)2
which are groups of customers with similar
n
i=1 characteristics and purchasing behaviours.
Engineering or manufacturing firms serving the
Where,
x is the value of a particular data point (or case) consumer market will have individuals and households
m is the data set mean (average) as their customer base. Engineering or manufacturing
n is the number of cases
firms operating in industrial markets will have
organisations as their customers. As engineering
managers, we should consider these different users when
Knowing this, we can establish the likelihood (the proba- designing and promoting products or services. We can
bility) of an individual occurrence by using the Z score, use surveys to obtain information on what matters to
customers and then analyse this against the company’s
goods and services. Charts are a good way to present
information such as radar (or spider) charts, where the
Z-score Formula differences are clearly highlighted.

x -m
z=
σ 5 Key Points
Where, 1. An engineering or manufacturing firm may sub-divide
its market into groups of customers with similar
x is the data point of interest
needs and characteristics – known as ‘Segments’.
σ is the sample Standard Deviation
m is the data set mean (average)

which gives the number of SDs above the mean. 2. To understand our customers, we need to first
establish who they are. For industrial markets, we
may segment them depending on the type of organi-
sation, the sector it operates in, and its size.

3. To understand consumer markets, we may use

demographics as a basis for identifying customer
segments. Alternatively, we may use a behavioural
basis such as their Innovation Adoption category.

4. Aopinions,
firm may use a survey to obtain customer views,
and feedback. The survey data is usually
examined for each key customer segment, which
could be presented visually, using bar charts, for
example.

5. Customer requirements for product features and

attributes may be analysed against the company’s
current product (or system), for which radar (or
spider) charts are a good way to visualise multivariate
data.
Customer Value
As engineering managers, we should appreciate that
when developing engineering products or services, the
emphasis should be on what the firm provides its
customers, such as the benefits they obtain from its use.
shown as a hierarchy, including luggage space. This
feature will most likely be viewed differently by other
customer groups, who may not consider this an impor-
tant requirement. We may collect customer views
(perhaps through a survey) and examine the data to see
whether there is a pattern or correlation (as it is referred

Customer Value to in research methods).

CUSTOMER:

versus
‘Perceived’ Price (cost) to
�Correlation analysis examples
Benefits the customer

+ £ Positive relationship Negative relationship

Customers assess the monetary amount of the

benefit of owning the item against the purchase
price (that they pay for the item)

Customers weigh up these benefits against the costs that

they incur. In other words, this difference determines
customer value. We need to approach this on a market
segment basis, as the features that are of importance to
one market group (or segment) may not apply to anoth-
er customer group.
This correlation analysis may indicate a positive relation-
ship (such as larger luggage space is expected for a
more expensive car) or a negative relationship (for the
reverse in customer expectations).

Marketing theory has historically emphasised the impor-

Customer Value Example tance of recognising customers’ needs and wants in
Goal Criteria Sub-Criteria order to understand their purchasing behaviour. How-
Purchase price 0.4
ever, as technology advances, a user’s recent or past
Cost 0.5 Fuel/power costs 0.25 experience may also be a driver that influences their
Maintenance costs 0.2 future purchasing decisions.
Safety 0.24
Resale value 0.15

Style 0.06

Family Car Passengers 0.65

Capacity 0.2
Luggage 0.35

Consider, for example, the purchase of a family car. The

product features that are of value to a family can be
 Customer

customer’s perspective – this is known as a ‘Customer

Journey Map’. However, we should recognise that in
practice a user may take a different path.
wants concerns

needs Customer Journey Map

Designer Planned Path

As engineering managers, we should recognise that a
person may seek to purchase a newer device for its
improved features, or conversely, a negative experience
may deter them from buying further devices should they
User Path
have developed concerns or technology fears. We now
look at the buying process – specifically factors that
influence purchase decisions from the perspective of
customer value.
The systems we develop should be able to support these
variations in their usage.
As consumers, we may purchase a car for £10,000 to
commute to work – its value to us is the convenience it
We introduce a ‘Value Proposition Canvas’ as a means of
provides and the benefits we gain from its use. Our
capturing customer perspectives and insights.
choice of car is likely to be affected by the product
features that are available as well as our previous experi-
ences of owning and driving a car. This is likely to vary
amongst drivers who have different travel patterns and The Value Proposition Canvas
driving conditions. When assessing Customer Value as
an engineering manager, we should therefore consider Product/Service Customer
what products and systems may provide to an end user
benefits experience
in a given situation (or context).

wants concerns

features

needs

Customer Journey Map

The right side of the canvas captures the customer’s

Designer Planned Path
viewpoint and their needs and wants, as well as areas of
concern – or fears. The left side of the canvas is where we
identify users’ anticipated experience, along with the
features the proposed development will provide and the
benefits for the end user. Using a flowchart or other
visuals to identify proposed solutions and customer
experiences allows developers to determine which
A flow chart can help us to plan and develop new
design concepts provide a better user experience. This
processes where we can visualise the flow from a
increasingly matters, as users expect much more than a
viable product or service – they look for an engaging and
enjoyable experience.

This visualisation of Customer Value is a valuable tool

that supports User-Centred Design as well as collabora-
tive working amongst team members. Use of these types
of visual tools and collaborative teams is more likely to
lead to successful innovation, as the focus is firmly on the
customer (or end user) and developing products or
systems that may be of interest to them and will provide
customer value. An engineering or manufacturing firm
and its designers and developers are better able to
create a distinctive value proposition by using tools such
as Customer Journey Maps and a Value Proposition
Canvas. With a target customer (group) in mind, these
tools provide a means of visualising products and servic-
es from their perspective and identifying the system (or
solution) features and benefits that will provide value.

5 Key Points
1. We distinguish between a product’s features (which
are the capabilities of the product) and the benefits
that customers gain from its purchase and use.

2. We recognise that customer value differs for custom-

ers depending on their given situation or context.

Summary
High-technology firms such as manufacturing companies
often focus on identifying product or system features
and benefits from a customer’s perspective before
committing resources to developing new products or
systems. A Value Proposition Canvas is a tool that aids
3. Avisualise
Customer Journey Map is a tool where we can
the flow from a customer’s perspective by
creating a flow chart of the likely activities and their
sequence.
4. Acustomers’
Value Proposition Canvas is a way to visualise your
perspective by identifying their needs and
concerns when designing products and services.

with capturing and sharing who our customers are

(shown on the right side) and the product (or system)
aspects (shown on the left side). This, as well as the 5. Tools that enable designers and developers to
visualise an intended product or service from the
Customer Journey Map, can help meet user customer’s perspective support User-Centred Design
as well as collaborative working.
expectations, as nowadays they expect much more than
a viable product or service – they look for an engaging
and enjoyable experience.
Levels of
data

In quantitative research the researcher needs to

formulate hypotheses to be tested. When formulating
hypotheses, the researcher indicates the variables that
are going to be measured and the links between them.

The variables mentioned in the hypotheses can take

different levels. Variables can be considered to be
nominal, ordinal, or scale. It is extremely important to
identify what types of variables the researcher is
measuring or working with, as this will have an impact
on the statistical tests to be run on the data. Not
identifying variables correctly may lead the researcher
to choose the wrong statistical tests to be run on the
data.

Ordinal variables can be ordered from the lowest

possible values to the highest possible values but within
a specific limited range. For example, Likert type
items/statements/questions such as levels of agreement
or levels of satisfaction are considered to be ordinal
variables.

Nominal variables cannot be ordered from the lowest

possible values to the highest possible values. For
example, gender, ethnicity and nationality all represent
nominal variables.
 It is extremely
important to
identify what types
of variables the
researcher is
measuring or
working with, as
this will have an
Scale variables can be ordered from the lowest possible impact on the
values to the highest possible values without having a
specific limited range.
statistical tests to
Summary be run on the data.
When formulating hypotheses, the researcher also
indicates the variables to be measured in order to be
able to test these hypotheses out. These variables can
be in categories as nominal, ordinal, or scale variables.
Identifying whether the variables measured
nominal, ordinal, or scale is essential as this will
are
5 Key Points
determine the types of statistical tests to be run on the
data. 1. In quantitative research,
hypotheses and variables.
we work with

2. Variables can take the forms of nominal,

ordinal, or scale variables.

3. The nature of variables will have an impact on

the nature of statistical tests used in order to
analyse the collected data.

4. Nominal variables cannot be ordered.

5. Ordinal and scale variables can be ordered.

The Research Wheel
Consider as an example the setting of a price for a prod-
uct or service where the demand reduces as the price
rises – a pattern known as the Demand Curve. Custom-
The Research Wheel
ers are often very sensitive to this, and getting it wrong
Conceptual can cause business problems and even be commercially
Framework
(theory, literature) disastrous. As engineering managers, we might survey
Research some customers to find out their views on expected
Data questions/
Proposition
Analysis hypothesis prices; however, this approach lacks explanations, so we
Empirical might utilise more open questions to give us some
observation
insights.
Data
Collection Source: Rudestam and Newton, 2001, p5
The Research Wheel is a reference model that helps us
by illustrating the research cycle we may utilise for
research studies concerning engineering management
We will now introduce the Research Wheel model, which products, processes, and systems. There are two main
shows that primary research may start with observations research approaches: firstly, the Deductive approach.
(as shown at the bottom) where, as engineering manag- This requires a research topic where a wealth of litera-
ers, we study people’s activities and behaviours concern- ture is available so that theory can be formulated and
ing engineering systems, projects, or applications. From hypotheses derived to test the theory. Secondly, the
this we may start to notice patterns (of behaviour) that Inductive approach involves collecting data first and
may then lead to a follow-on research phase where the developing a theory from data analysed. This is most
situation is examined further. Alternatively, we may start appropriate for a new topic where there is little litera-
by reviewing previous studies and literature from which ture. To support your studies, a pdf file is available for
hypotheses are developed (as shown at the top) that you to download that shows this research cycle, intro-
may be tested in the field. duces some terminology, and summarises some of the
main concepts and learning points.
Using the Research Wheel, we can start to plan how we
might go about conducting research on behalf of an
engineering organisation such as a manufacturing firm.
The Research Wheel

Conceptual
Framework Deductive
The Demand Curve (theory, literature)

Research
Data questions/
Proposition
Analysis hypothesis
£
Empirical
Price As the price increases... observation
per unit ‘Demand’ drops Inductive
Data
Collection Source: Rudestam and Newton, 2001, p5

Demand (or Quantity, Q)

We can see from the figure that a project that starts with
making observations (as shown at the bottom) is using a
form of Inductive research (shown on the left side) that
may be followed by another research phase using
Deductive research (shown on the right side). It is not
unusual to conduct a follow-on phase to further one’s
understanding. For example, following Deductive
research (such as a survey, for example), we may use
Example Curves
Inductive research to explore some of the patterns seen
in the survey results. The Inductive approach is recog- Curve 1: Mean (m) = 0, σ = 0.3
Curve 2: Mean (m) = 0, σ = 2.4
nised as allowing the ‘voice’ of participants to be heard Curve 1
Curve 3: Mean (m) = 1.5, σ = 0.8
and allowing greater interpretation of people’s attitudes
Curve 3
or actions.

Each of the research approaches has its benefits and also Frequency
Curve 2
its limitations. As engineering managers involved with
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
research, we should be aware of these. For example,
Inductive research is recognised as conducting research
in the appropriate context, it’s flexible, and it supports
the generation of new theory. The difficulty for students
An example is shown for three market samples, where
is that it can be challenging to analyse these situations
the three data curves have different shapes, as indicated
(to avoid bias, for example) and difficult to write up (for
by their mean values and Standard Deviations. The
a project report).
Standard Deviation is a measure of the spread of a curve
and is often represented by sigma (σ).
Deductive research, on the other hand, enables testing of
a pre-determined theory, explanation, or hypothesis by
We can analyse the overall data set to see the Population
using statistical tests to determine whether a relationship
Variance (denoted by σ2), which is a measure of how far
exists to explain events. However, Deductive research is
each data point is from the mean.
recognised as not being a good research approach in
terms of understanding the context (or setting) in which
data is collected. It also lacks flexibility. Another down-
side is that it usually requires a larger data sample, which Population Variance Formula
for a student may require additional time and effort that
puts them under pressure to meet their study deadlines.
n
One advantage of using surveys is that researchers can
more easily obtain a large data set, which can then
Population Variance (σ ) =
1
n
2
∑
i=1
(xi-m)2

enable a more extensive data analysis. This is particularly

useful when we are conducting research amongst Where,
consumers where the different market groups (or x is the value of a particular data point (or case)
m is the data set mean (average)
segments) are likely to have different patterns of interest n is the number of cases
and buying behaviours.

The Population Variance is calculated by taking the

differences between each number in the data set and the
mean, squaring the differences (to make them positive),
and dividing the sum of the squares by the number of
values in the data set. Note that the square root of this
resulting value is the Standard Deviation (or σ).
 Sample Variance Formula

n
Sample Variance (s2) =
1
n-1 ∑
i=1
(xi-x)2

Where,
x is the value of a particular data point (or case)
x is the sample mean (average)
n is the number of cases

When examining each of the various market groups (the

segment samples), we can take a similar approach,
although the formula varies slightly, as the value is calcu-
lated by dividing by the sample size (of n) less 1 rather
than dividing by n, as we did for the full data set (or
population). This Sample Variance may be denoted by s2
to differentiate it from the Population Variance.
5 Key Points
1. The Research Wheel was introduced as a way of
showing the different research approaches and how
Summary they may be used during a project as a research
cycle.

There are two main research approaches that as

engineering managers we should be familiar with when
planning primary research. Firstly, the Deductive
approach, which requires a research topic that has been
previously studied and available literature from which a
theory can be formulated and hypotheses made to test
the theory. Secondly, the Inductive approach, which is
more explorative and involves collecting data first
(perhaps through observation) and developing a theory
from the data analysed. It’s important to have a clear
understanding of some of the advantages and challenges
associated with using either Inductive or Deductive
research approaches. In some research studies, one
research approach is used followed by the other in a later
phase of the study, time and resource permitting.
2. Deductive research often involves testing hypotheses
on a large scale (with a large number of consumers,
for example). Surveys may be used for this, as they
are relatively easy to distribute and the responses can
be statistically examined.
3. Deductive research may be viewed as advantageous
in that hypotheses can be statistically tested and
causal factors examined. However, it may not provide
a researcher with flexibility or insights into a situation.
4. Inductive research starts with field research, which is
usually qualitative in nature (such as making observa-
tions of users) and requires a researcher with some
field experience.
5. Inductive research is considered advantageous in
that it provides context; however, it can be difficult to
analyse (to avoid bias, for example), and also to write
up.
Qualitative vs.
Quantitative Part 1

Once the researcher has decided on a research idea, the

title of the research project or dissertation needs to be
created. The research idea itself can become the title.
However, some consideration needs to be given to if
the researcher is conducting qualitative or quantitative
research.

Both qualitative and quantitative research will explore a

specific research idea with the main purpose of
collecting, analysing, interpreting, and discussing data.
There are some elements that are different in qualitative
research compared to quantitative research, and the
researcher needs to be mindful of them.

In quantitative research, a slightly more specific research

question must be formulated. In quantitative research,
the researcher needs to formulate specific hypotheses as
well. Once these hypotheses are formulated, the
researcher needs to pay special attention to the variables
of interest and how they will be measured. The
researcher can start thinking of what words they would
like to use in the hypotheses to link the variables and
what statistical tests they would like to use. More details
on different types of variables and statistical tests are
presented in Units 2 and 3.

In qualitative research, the research can formulate a

broader research question than in quantitative
research.
For both qualitative and quantitative research, the
researcher needs to start thinking of how the data is
going to be collected and analysed and who will take
part in the research. Of course, special consideration
should be given to the Ethical Approval process as well.
Summary
Regardless of whether the researcher is conducting
qualitative or quantitative research, planning ahead is
essential. Once a research idea has been formulated, the
researcher needs to think of the types of participants
who will take part in the research. They should also
consider how they will be collecting and analysing data.
For quantitative research, the researcher will also have
to formulate specific hypotheses to be tested out.
5 Key Points
1. The research project/dissertation needs to
have a meaningful title, whether it is a
qualitative or quantitative research project
and/or dissertation.
2. In quantitative research, specific hypotheses
need to be formulated.
3. Once the hypotheses are formulated, the
researcher can start thinking of how to
measure and test out the variables specified in
the hypotheses.
4. The researcher needs to think of how to collect
and analyse data and who may take part in the
research as participants.
5. The research project/dissertation does not
need to be exclusively qualitative or
quantitative. The researcher can run a
mixed-methods research project/dissertation.
Research
Process Structure

A good research project will have a series of sections

representing stages of the research process. These
sections need to be interlinked in order for the
researcher to narrate the research story in a coherent,
meaningful, and logical way. Good connections
between all of these sections add inestimable value to
the research project or dissertation and give the
research process additional quality.

Looking at the structure of a research project and

having a strong and measurable research question is
primordial as this will dictate the structure and quality The research process will then continue with the
of the remaining sections of the project or dissertation. researcher running an investigation or experiment in
The research question does not need to be completely order to test out their hypotheses.
new or inventive, but it does need to be innovative.
Reviewing the existing literature extensively before
establishing the final research question is essential. This
will help the researcher to establish what theoretical
and methodological gaps are in the literature with
regards to the research question. This will also help to
establish the rationale for exploring a specific research
question.

However, in some cases the researcher will have to

collect further data.

Once the researcher has established a research

question, specific hypotheses need to be established in
order for the researcher to test them, especially in
quantitative research.
The data will then be analysed, interpreted, and
reported. This can be done either manually or with the
help of software such as SPSS, R, STATA, and SAS (for
quantitative research), or NVivo and QDA Data Miner
(for qualitative research).
Having a justifiable research question is
essential. It will certainly have an impact on the
quality of all sections of the research project or
dissertation. Having a strong meaningful link between all
sections of the research process is also extremely
important as this will add to the quality of the research.

A good research
project will have a
series of sections
Once the analysis is complete, this will help the
representing stages
researcher to establish whether the tested hypotheses
can be accepted or rejected. This is applicable only for
of the research
process.
quantitative research as the researcher does not
normally work with hypotheses in qualitative research
but rather with research aims and objectives.

5 Key Points
1. The literature review search will help with
establishing whether there are any gaps in the
literature regarding the initial research
question.

2. Based on the literature review, the initial

research question can be refined.

3. Once the final research question is established,

specific hypotheses need to be formulated
when doing quantitative research.

The full circle of the research process goes from

establishing an idea to investigate, which leads to
4. In qualitative research, research aims and
objectives are used rather than hypotheses.

developing specific hypotheses, to then collecting,

analysing, and interpreting data, and finally to accepting 5. The full research process circle moves from
formulating research questions and
or rejecting the initially proposed hypotheses. hypotheses to collecting, analysing, and
Summary interpreting data that aids in either accepting
or rejecting the proposed hypotheses.