Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 176–181

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

The fatigue strength of bidirectionally bent steel cord used in tyres

T
Robert Kruzel, Malgorzata Ulewicz
⁎

Czestochowa University of Technology, Dabrowskiego 69 Street, 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The article provides the results of fatigue life testing of steel ropes responsible for carrying
Fatigue strength longitudinal and transverse loads, used in construction machine tyres. The fatigue life of such a
Steel cord steel rope depends on factors associated with its construction, execution quality, as well as on
Crack propagation wire patenting conditions. The fatigue strength of steel ropes under bidirectional bending con-
Heat treatment
ditions was compared for different cord constructions and for cords made of different steel grades
on a specially designed, innovative testing machine for steel ropes. Moreover, the effect of heat
treatment on a patenting line on the properties of cord wires was determined.

1. Introduction

Recent years have witnessed a steady increase in demand for more and more advanced tyres that would effectively carry vertical
loads and provide a good asphalt pavement adhesion and an adequate transfer of driving and braking torques. Indeed, it is the
construction and properties of tyres that the safe operation of a vehicle depends on. The contemporary tyre consists of a load-bearing
structure (built of several layers of cord) and a surrounding rubber coating, known as the tyre tread. Cords used as tyre body material
are most commonly made of steel, though they may also be made of glass fibre, polyester, viscose or polyamide [1–3]. The greatest
influence on the life and load capacity of tyres, used in all types of vehicles, is shown by the load-bearing structure and the type of
reinforcement used. For reinforcing tyres, either steel wire or its products in the form of strands or ropes are used, which are called
steel cord [4–7], which, embedded in an elastomer, is intended to make the construction more rigid, while imparting to it the
appropriate resistance to tensile forces. Single steel wires have a diameter ranging from 0.15 to 0.38 mm and are most commonly
manufactured as brass- or zinc-coated wires [8]. With the aim of improving their properties, research is being conducted into the use
of other coatings [9] and other methods of patenting, which will enable good plastic properties of the material and high strength to be
obtained [10,11].
The functional properties of steel cord are influenced by the chemical composition of steel used, as well as the wire drawing and
cord winding technologies [12]. Wires intended for the production of steel cord, made of pearlitic steel, containing from 0.70 to
0.95% of carbon, belong to a group of unalloyed steels of a quality class designed for drawing or cold rolling [13–15]. Chemical
composition and mechanical properties should conform to standard PN-EN 10323:2006 - Steel wire and wire products - Wire for
tyres. The fatigue strength of those wires largely depends on the metallurgical purity of the material and particularly on the contents
of oxygen, silicon and sulphur. The presence of non-metallic inclusions in steel strongly reduces its fatigue strength, because a high
stress concentration occurs around impurities, leading, as a consequence, to material fracture [8,14–16]. In addition, the high
contests of steel components, especially chromium, silicon and manganese, reduce the tensile strength of the wire [17]. The cause of
cracking of pearlitic steel undergoing plastic working can be the segregation of carbide precipitates at interfaces [18–21]. Cementite
lamella cracking may also occur during the dislocation pile-up at the interface between ferrite and cementite precipitates. As a result

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ulewicz@bud.pcz.pl (M. Ulewicz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.06.038
Received 15 December 2018; Received in revised form 10 June 2019
Available online 24 June 2019
1350-6307/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Kruzel and M. Ulewicz Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 176–181

of the applied force, the movement of edge dislocations within ferrite precipitates and the displacement of crystal fragments along the
slip planes take place, and as each ferrite lamella has a different crystallographic orientation, the dislocations cross on the cementite
lamellas, thus initiating the formation of micro-cracks [22,23].
The problem of the fracture of products made of pearlitic steel being subjected to plastic working or being in operation, has been
arousing interest among many researchers for a number of years now, since the fatigue strength of steel cord affects the life of tyres
and, as a consequence, the safety of their operation [8,16,24–30]. As the fatigue properties of cord have a decisive effect on the cord
behaviour in different working conditions, the understanding and determination of these properties is crucial, especially as the cord
constitutes up to 25% of the tyre weight [2]. Due to the fact that steel cord is covered with a layer of rubber, the identification of
possible adverse phenomena and cord degradation during tyre operation is difficult. Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods can be
used for this purpose, which are commonly used in the diagnostics of steel cord ropes in transmission belts [31,32], though it is more
effective to carry out fatigue testing of the cord to optimize the selection of a product with good mechanical parameters for pro-
duction.
Each of the tyre manufacturers has his own proven tyre manufacturing procedure, starting from the selection of raw materials
through to the production quality management system [33,34]. Steel cords used for production of passenger car tyres have strands of
two to five fibres (e.g. 2 + 2 × 0.25; 2 + 1 × 0.30 - the number first means the number of middle wires and the second number of
braided wires with adequate their diameter), while cords used for tyres intended for trucks and special construction machines are of
multi-wire constructions (e.g. 2 × 0.30; 3 × 0.25 + 6 × 0.35) [35–37]. Currently, wishing to reduce their tyre manufacturing cost,
instead of large-size steel cords of (such as 4 × 0.28), companies increasingly often use cords with a smaller number of wires (e.g.
2 × 0.30). Such an approach is acceptable, provided that the cord reinforcement has the appropriate strength parameters. In relation
with the above, the present study has made an attempt to evaluate the effect of the fatigue of steel cord on its strength properties,
depending on its design, the type of steel used and the wire patenting method employed.

2. Materials and methods

The tests were conducted using steel cords made of steel D76, of the following constructions: 3 × 0.25 + 6 × 0.35 (cord A);
2 × 0.25 + 2 × 0.25 (cord B) and 2 × 0.30 (cord C) and cords made of steels C86D2, C82D2, C80K and C72DP (cords D, E, F, G) of
construction 2 × 0.30. Chemical composition of the cords tested is shown in Table 1. All the cords tested were made in the Cord
Production Plant (Železárny a drátovny Bohumín) in the Czech Republic.
The cords were subjected to testing for the force of breaking the cord as a whole (on a ZWICK Z/100 testing machine adapted specially for
this purpose) in accordance with standard PN-EN ISO 6892-1:2010, after having previously been fatigued on a universal testing machine
constructed at the Czestochowa University of Technology (Fig. 1). The above-mentioned machine enables tests to be conducted in bidir-
ectional cord bending conditions and its principle of operation is depicted schematically in Fig. 2. The complete bidirectional bending is
understood as transition from a bent state to a straightened state and then to an oppositely bent state. The frequency of variations in fatigue
machine loading is the number of cycles, N, per minute, i.e. the complete motions of the cord to and from.
Tests to investigate the quality improvement of cord wires through the modification of the patenting line process were also carried
out. To this end, drawn 1.65 mm-diameter wires of chemical composition as shown in Table 1 were subjected to heat treatment under
industrial conditions in a patenting and brass plating line, for two different furnace heating and lead bath temperatures. The
parameters of the standard heat treatment technology and the new patenting technology are shown in Table 2.

3. Results and discussion

At the first stage of investigation, steel cords A, B and C were cut into 800 mm-long sections and appropriate loads were selected.
For the cord A, a load of 0.40 kN was applied; for the cord B, a load of 0.30 kN; while for the cord C a load of 0.20 kN. After mounting
a respective load, steel cord was put in a universal fatigue life testing machine that enabled a bidirectional bending processes. In
bidirectional bending, in a single cycle, a specimen undergoes very large plastic deformation in two directions, alternately. The
fatigue effect is obtained in a much shorter time, compared to unidirectional bending. In this study, each steel cord was put to a

Table 1
Chemical composition of steel used for cords A-G.
Cord (material type) Content of the chemical element, %

C Mn Si K S Cr Ni Cu Al Mo N

Cord A-C 0.76 0.61 0.19 0.007 0.011 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.002 0.005 0.025
(D76)
Cord D (C86D2) 0.87 0.66 0.21 0.006 0.015 0.052 0.043 0.041 0.004 0.007 0.015
Cord E 0.81 0.62 0.18 0.007 0.021 0.064 0.039 0.054 0.006 0.009 0.016
(C82D2)
Cord F 0.79 0.67 0.22 0.006 0.019 0.056 0.056 0.087 0.009 0.006 0.018
(C80K)
Cord G 0.73 0.59 0.28 0.005 0.016 0.071 0.049 0.077 0.005 0.008 0.026
(C72DP)

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R. Kruzel and M. Ulewicz Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 176–181

Fig. 1. The fatigue testing machine of the authors' design.

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the machine for cord fatigue testing on the test section, hm for tests performed under bidirectional bending conditions;
where: R - bending roller radius, α - bending arc span, A, B - beginning and end of specimen contact with the bending roller, hm - test specimen
length.

Table 2
Heat treatment parameters.
Parameters ST - standard technology HT - new patenting technology

Line speed, m/min. 26 26

Furnace temperature, oC 1 zone 930 990
2 zone 940 1020
3 zone 950 1030
4 zone 960 1030
5 zone 960 1030
Lead bath temperature, oC 1 zone 560 610
2 zone 560 610

fatigue test that lasted, respectively, 15, 30, 60 and 120 min. During the course of tests, the number of cycles was determined (675,
1350, 2700 and 5400), which is to be understood as the number of complete bidirectional bends. During the tests, the number of
bends was counted several times in relation to an assumed time unit, namely 60 s, to obtain a result of 45 complete bends/min. The
cord was bent bidirectionally with cyclically varying tensile loads and the rope rotating around its own axis. The obtained test results
are provided in Fig. 3. During the bending, variable (tensile, bending and compressive) cyclic stresses occurred in the cord, which
caused a cord fatigue that manifested itself in a wire cracking with a characteristic fatigue fracture surface and growing specimen
elongation. As shown by the data in Fig. 3, for test cords made of high-carbon steel D76, regardless of the cord construction, a
reduction in cord tensile strength was observed with increasing number of bends. The decrease of steel cord strength under the effect
of variable bending stress is not a linear relationship. After 675 fatigue cycles, regardless of the examined cord construction, a slight,
statistically insignificant decrease in breaking force by approx. 0.22% was observed, compared to the control specimen. After 5400
fatigue cycles, the greatest drop in the cord strength (by 12.95%) relative to the control specimen was observed for the cord C (of
construction 2 × 0.30) in spite of applying the smallest load, while the least, for the cord A (a decrease by 5.60%). The obtained
results confirm that the cord winding method, as well as the number of wires and their diameter, have a major effect on the fatigue
resistance of cord. The fatigue life of steel cord is also influenced by splice making technology (either rotor or rotorless), work-
manship and the material grade used. The process of steel cord elongation proceeds differently from the wire crack build-up process.
For cords of a construction having a larger number of wires, a slight elongation of specimens subjected to fatigue testing was
observed. Specimens of the A type cord with an initial length of 800 mm and construction 3 × 0.25 + 6 × 0.35 after the bidirectional

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Fig. 3. Dependence of the decrease in the tensile strength of cord A-C on the number of fatigue cycles.

bending process had a length of about 802 mm, which constitutes an increment in length by 0.2%, relative to specimens with a
smaller number of wires in their constructions. For the C type cords of construction 2 × 0.30, no increment in total specimen length
was observed, which remained at 800 mm. This was probably caused by the wires arranging relative to one another in multi-wire
constructions, stretching of complete cords and a slight elongation of splices in the cords, or their straightening.
The fatigue strength of steel wire depends largely on the metallurgical purity of the material and especially on its contents of non-metallic
inclusions (silicon, sulphur and nitrogen), because it is around those impurities that high stress concentrations form, which result in wire
cracking. Therefore, in the subsequent part of investigation, the strength parameters were determined for cords made of different steel grades
(cords D-G) of construction 2 × 0.30, while considering the fact that for this type of construction (cord C), the greatest difference in strength
decrease after the bending process was observed. Subjected to testing was wire of a diameter of ∅1.60 mm, from which, after the drawing
process, ∅0.30 mm - diameter wires were used for splicing the cord under consideration are obtained. The mechanical and fatigue properties
of the wire with a diameter of Ø1.60 mm after heat treatment (patenting) and fatigue test (bending arc length with a radius of 5 mm and 180o
bending as a bidirectionally bending of 2x90o) and after the test of twisting around the axis of the wire (samples with a length of 160 mm) are
given in Table 3. The mechanical properties of the wire are given in Table 3. For the examined wires, the tensile strength increases in the
order steels: C72DP < C80K < C82D2 < C86D2. The highest tensile strength obtained for ∅1.60 mm-diameter wire C86D2 after heat
treatment was equal to 1335 MPa. The bidirectional bending test was performed in accordance with the standard PN-ISO 7801: 1996
applicable to determining the resistance of wire to plastic deformation; whereas, the fatigue properties of cords made from the above wires
are shown in Table 4. For the examined 2 × 0.30 construction cords, the breaking force (for the sample after fatigue test) increases in the
order: G < E < F, D. The lowest breaking force obtained for cord D was equal to 390 N, whereas, the highest breaking force was observed
for cords F and D and it amounted to 410 N.
As demonstrated by the data in Table 5, cords D-G of construction 2 × 0.30 with the use of load of a magnitude of 0.20 kN showed
a gradual decrease in strength after subjecting them to a specified fatigue. After 675 fatigue cycles, a slight (< 0.3%) decrease in
breaking force was observed for all of the examined cords (D-G). By contrast, after 5400 fatigue cycles, the highest percentage drop
(12.73%) in tensile strength was observed for cord D and the lowest (5.43%) for cord G. Cord D contained higher contents of non-
metallic inclusions (0.87% C, 0.021% Si and 0.015% S), compared to cord G (0.73% C, 0.28% Si and 0.016% S). The presence of such
a large amount of non-metallic inclusions, especially in the form of oxides, may cause a reduction in material ductility, thereby
making technological processes difficult and, in extreme cases, even leading to wires rupturing during the operation of the product.
At the next investigation stage, an attempt was made to explore the possibility of improving the quality of cord wires through
modification of the patenting line. The standard technology of patenting wire intended for steel cord consists in heating the steel in

Table 3
The mechanical properties of respective ∅1.60 mm-diameter wires after heat treatment.
Steel wire Strength [MPa] Number of twists [100 × d] Number of bends (on a shaft with bending radius equal 5 mm) [mm]

Rm-average Min.-Max. Average Min.-Max. Average Min.-Max.

C86D2 1335 1300–1340 33 26–39 10 8–12

C82D2 1285 1280–1300 30 24–36 10 8–12
C80K 1255 1240–1260 40 32–44 10 9–11
C72DP 1175 1150–1190 31 28–36 10 9–11

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R. Kruzel and M. Ulewicz Engineering Failure Analysis 105 (2019) 176–181

Table 4
The mechanical and fatigue properties of finished 2 × 0.30 construction cords.
Cord Breaking force after fatigue test, [N] Test time - related to the number of Number of fatigue Length of sample, Load with initial force
fatigue cycles [min.] cycles [mm] [kN]
Average Min.-Max.

D 410 405–415 290 13,824 1270 0.20

E 400 395–405 280 13,200 1300 0.20
F 410 400–420 270 12,076 1320 0.20
G 390 385–400 250 11,904 1330 0.20

Table 5
The decrease in the strength of 2 × 0.30 construction steel cords D – G, depending on the number of fatigue cycles applied.
Cord Percentage decrease in the strength/number of cycles

%/675 %/1350 %/2700 %/5400

D 0.28 2.35 8.86 12.73

E 0.22 1.88 4.76 10.21
F 0.19 1.22 3.81 7.29
G 0.14 0.51 1.93 5.43

particular zones up to a temperature of 960 °C, followed by cooling it at a temperature of 560 °C. The standard heat treatment
(Variant ST) enables a pearlitic-bainitic structure to be obtained (with an upper bainite content of up to 15%). By contrast, the
proposed new patenting technology (Variant HT) involves heating the wire up to a temperature of 1030 °C in the standard continuous
furnace, soaking it at this temperature and then rapid cooling in a lead bath tank at a temperature of 610 °C. This type of steel wire
heat treatment has been termed ‘high-temperature process’ by the authors. The purpose of patenting was to obtain the structure of
troostite, a fine-dispersion pearlite, providing good plastic properties of the material and its very high strength. The test results for the
properties of patented 1.65 mm-diameter wires are given in Table 6. After passing the patenting line, the 1.65 mm-diameter wire was
subjected to surface treatment and then wet drawn in 19 draws into a diameter of 0.3 mm under industrial conditions. Then, steel
cord of the construction of 2 × 0.30 was made from this wire. This cord is commonly used in the manufacture of car tyres.
To establish the influence of heat treatment on the mechanical properties of the steel cord, tests for mechanical and engineering
properties were carried out within the study. The subject of testing was patented 1.65 mm-diameter stock wire, as well as 0.3 mm-
diameter wires directly after drawing and wires unplaited from the steel cord. A rupture test was performed on a ZWICK 100 testing
machine in fixtures specially designed and made for that fine cord, in conformance with the standard for 10 specimens of each cord
type; while engineering tests of the wire were carried out on a ZKZE 01/1 torsion test machine and on a ZOZP 01/04 device,
respectively. The tests were performed by bidirectional bending up to the breaking point. The results of the mechanical tests of wet-
drawn 0.30 mm-diameter wires are provided in Table 7. As can be seen from the test results shown in Table 7, the parameters of the
heat treatment in the wire patenting line significantly influence the mechanical and engineering properties of the wire. Wires after
the high-temperature heat treatment (Variant HT) show much higher mechanical properties, compared to the wires after standard
heat treatment (Variant ST), as confirmed by their ultimate tensile strength being higher by 21.9%. The modified heat treatment also
favourably contributed to the engineering properties of the wire. Wires from Variant HT, as compared to wires from Variant ST,
showed a number of twists greater by 15.8% and a number of bends greater by 20.5%. The obtained results suggest that high‑carbon
pearlitic-structure steel wires drawn with a large total reduction, exhibit a higher strain hardening capability, compared to similar
wires with a pearlitic-bainitic structure: an increase in Rm by 535 MPa (with a similar tensile strength of the patented 1.65 mm-
diameter stock wire). And what is more, the increase in the mechanical properties of wires after high-temperature heat treatment
(Variant HT) did not impair their engineering properties.

4. Conclusions

As shown by the tests, the main sign of the fatigue wear of high‑carbon steel cords is a reduction in their strength caused by wire
cracking, with the distribution of fatigue cracks being dependent on the number of bends. The fatigue of steel cord, caused by
bidirectional bending, results in a decrease in mechanical properties of the steel cord, regardless of the cord construction. The greatest

Table 6
Mechanical properties of ø 1.65 mm-diameter wire after patenting.
Parameters Variant ST Variant HT Change -R, %

Rm -ultimate tensile strength, MPa 1200 1220 1.6

Nt -number of twists 41.5 43.0 3.6
Nb -number of bends 12.4 12.9 4.0

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Table 7
Mechanical properties of ø 0.30 mm-diameter wire after wet drawing according to Variant ST and HT, respectively.
Parameters Variant ST Variant HT Change -R, %

Rm -ultimate tensile strength, MPa 2440 2975 21.9

Nt -number of twists 95 110 15.8
Nb -number of bends 39 47 20.5

drop in the cord strength, relative to the number of fatigue cycles, occurred in the case of cord of construction 2 × 0.30 and a lower
carbon concentration in the steel (0.73%). By contrast, the least effect on the cord strength was shown by a test performed on the
3 × 0.25 + 6 × 0.35 construction cord, which confirms that the cord winding method, as well as the number of wires and their
diameter have a key effect on the behaviour of steel cord. The modification of the standard parameters of wire patenting line heat
treatment significantly contributes to an improvement in steel cord properties. Wires after the high-temperature heat treatment, as
compared to standard heat treated wires, show tensile strength higher by 21.9%, a number of twists greater by 15.8% and a number
of bends greater by 20.5%.

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