AIR POLLUTION • The effect of water pollution can have a huge impact on the food chain.
• The effect of water pollution can have a huge impact on the food chain. It disrupts the food
“Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological molecules, etc. into
the air that is harmful to human health and the environment.”
Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination
of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically.
There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease
in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous
composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global
warming.
TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS:
• Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide
emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.
• Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as
secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary
pollutant.
CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
Following are the important causes of air pollution:
• Burning of Fossil Fuels
The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide
released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.
• Automobiles
The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment.
These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.
• Agricultural Activities
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The
insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate
it.
• Factories and Industries
Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds,
hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.
• Mining Activities
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of
equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also
deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.
• Domestic Sources
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air.
The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not
only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:
• Diseases
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The
cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted areas
are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or
indirect effects of air pollution.
• Global Warming
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of
the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s
temperature is known as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an
increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.
• Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in
the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain
which damages human, animal and plant life.
• Ozone Layer Depletion
The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is
the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the
harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among
individuals.
• Effect on Animals
The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also compels the
animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also led
to the extinction of a large number of animal species.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:
• Avoid Using Vehicles
People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public
modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also
conserves energy.
• Energy Conservation
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch
off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the
individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such as CFLs also controls pollution to a greater
level.
USE OF CLEAN ENERGY RESOURCES
The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various
countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a
cleaner environment.
WATER POLLUTION AND CONTROL
Water is one of the most vital natural resources on earth and has been around for a long time. In
fact, the same water which we drink has been around in one form or the other since the time of
the dinosaurs.
The earth has more than two-thirds of its surface covered with water. This translates to just over 1
octillion litres (1,260,000,000,000,000,000,000 litres) of water distributed in the oceans, rivers,
lakes and streams.
That is a lot of water, however, less than 0.3% is accessible for human consumption. As
commercialization and industrialization have progressed, that number continues to dwindle down.
Furthermore, inefficient and outdated practices, lack of awareness and a plethora of other
circumstances have led to water pollution.
WHAT IS WATER POLLUTION?
Water pollution can be defined as the contamination of water bodies. Water pollution is caused
when water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater and aquifers get contaminated
with industrial and agricultural effluents.
When water gets polluted, it adversely affects all lifeforms that directly or indirectly depend on this
source. The effects of water contamination can be felt for years to come.
SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
The key causative of water pollution are:
• Social and Religious Practices.
• Urbanization.
• Use of Detergents and Fertilizers.
• Deforestation. • Agricultural run-offs- Use of
• Industrial effluents.
insecticides and pesticides.
Water Pollution – A Modern Epidemic
CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION
One of the primary causes of water pollution is the contamination of water bodies by toxic
chemicals.
As seen in the example mentioned above, the dumped plastic bottles, tins, water cans and other
wastes pollute the water bodies. These result in water pollution, which harms not just humans,
but the whole ecosystem. Toxins drained from these pollutants, travel up to the food chain and
eventually affect humans. In most cases, the outcome is destructive to only the local population
and species, but it can have an impact on a global scale too.
Nearly 6 billion kilograms of garbage is dumped every year in the oceans. Apart from industrial
effluents and untreated sewage, other forms of unwanted materials are dumped into various
water bodies. These can range from nuclear waste to oil spills – the latter of which can render vast
areas uninhabitable.
EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION
The effect of water pollution depends upon the type of pollutants and their concentration. Also,
the location of water bodies is an important factor to determine the levels of pollution.
• Water bodies in the vicinity of urban areas are extremely polluted. This is the result of
dumping garbage and toxic chemicals by industrial and commercial establishments.
• Water pollution drastically affects aquatic life. It affects their metabolism, and behavior,
and causes illness and eventual death. Dioxin is a chemical that causes a lot of problems
from reproduction to uncontrolled cell growth or cancer. This chemical is bioaccumulated
in fish, chicken and meat. Chemicals such as this travel up the food chain before entering
the human body.
chain. Cadmium and lead are some toxic substances, these pollutants upon entering the
food chain through animals (fish when consumed by animals, humans) can continue to
disrupt at higher levels.
• Humans are affected by pollution and can contract diseases such as hepatitis through
faecal matter in water sources. Poor drinking water treatment and unfit water can always
cause an outbreak of infectious diseases such as cholera, etc.
• The ecosystem can be critically affected, modified and destructured because of water
pollution.
Minamata Incident
The Minamata Incident marked one of the worst cases of water pollution.
In 1932, a factory in Minamata City, Japan began dumping its industrial effluent –
Methylmercury, into the surrounding bay and the sea. Methylmercury is incredibly toxic to
humans and animals alike, causing a wide range of neurological disorders.
Its ill effects were not immediately noticeable. However, this all changed as
methylmercury started to bioaccumulate inside shellfish and fish in Minamata Bay. These
affected organisms were then caught and consumed by the local population. Soon, the ill effects
of methylmercury were becoming apparent.
Initially, animals such as cats and dogs were affected by this. The city’s cats would often
convulse and make strange noises before dying – hence, the term “dancing cat disease” was
coined. Soon, the same symptoms were observed in people, though the cause was not apparent
at the time.
Other affected people showed symptoms of acute mercury poisoning such as ataxia,
muscle weakness, loss of motor coordination, damage to speech and hearing etc. In severe
cases, paralysis occurred, which was followed by coma and death.
These diseases and deaths continued for almost 36 years before they could be officially
acknowledged by the government and the organization.
Since then, various control measures for water pollution have been adopted by the
government of Japan to curb such environmental disasters in the future.
CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution, to a larger extent, can be controlled by a variety of methods. Rather than
releasing sewage waste into water bodies, it is better to treat them before discharge. Practising
this can reduce the initial toxicity and the remaining substances can be degraded and rendered
harmless by the water body itself.
If the secondary treatment of water has been carried out, then this can be reused in
sanitary systems and agricultural fields.
A very special plant, the Water Hyacinth can absorb dissolved toxic chemicals such as
cadmium and other such elements. Establishing these in regions prone to such kinds of
pollutants will reduce the adverse effects to a large extent.
Some chemical methods that help in the control of water pollution are precipitation, the ion
exchange process, reverse osmosis, and coagulation.
As an individual, reusing, reducing, and recycling wherever possible will advance a long
way in overcoming the effects of water pollution.
WHAT IS SOIL POLLUTION?
Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with anomalous concentrations of toxic
substances.
It is a serious environmental concern since it harbours many health hazards.
For example, exposure to soil containing high concentrations of benzene increases the risk of
contracting leukemia.
An image detailing the discoloration of soil due to soil pollution is provided below.
It is important to understand that all soils contain compounds that are harmful/toxic to
human beings and other living organisms.
However, the concentration of such substances in unpolluted soil is low enough that they do
not pose any threat to the surrounding ecosystem.
When the concentration of one or more such toxic substances is high enough to cause
damage to living organisms, the soil is said to be contaminated.
The root cause of soil pollution is often one of the following:
• Agriculture (excessive/improper use of pesticides)
• Excessive industrial activity
• Poor management or inefficient disposal of waste
The challenges faced in soil remediation (decontamination of soil) are closely related to the
extent of soil pollution. The greater the contamination, the greater the requirement for resources
for remediation.
What are the Pollutants that Contaminate Soil?
Some of the most hazardous soil pollutants are xenobiotics – substances that are not
naturally found in nature and are synthesized by human beings.
The term ‘xenobiotic’ has Greek roots – ‘Xenos’ (foreigner), and ‘Bios’ (life).
Several xenobiotics are known to be carcinogens. An illustration detailing major soil pollutants is
provided below.
• Other 7%
• Heavy metals 31%
• Hydrocarbons 42%
• Mineral oil 20%
The different types of pollutants that are found in contaminated soil are listed in this subsection.
Heavy Metals
The presence of heavy metals (such as lead and mercury, in abnormally high concentrations) in
soils can cause it to become highly toxic to human beings. Some metals that can be classified as
soil pollutants are tabulated below.
Toxic Metals that Cause Soil Pollution
Arsenic – Mercury – Lead Cadmium – Selenium – Beryllium
Antimony – Zinc – Nickel Thallium – Chromium - Copper
These metals can originate from several sources such as mining activities, agricultural activities,
and electronic waste (e-waste), and medical waste.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (often abbreviated to PAHs) are organic compounds that
• Contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
• Contain more than one aromatic ring in their chemical structures.
Common examples of PAHs include naphthalene, anthracene, and phenalene. Exposure to
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons has been linked to several forms of cancer. These organic
compounds can also cause cardiovascular diseases in humans.
Soil pollution due to PAHs can be sourced to coke (coal) processing, vehicle emissions,
cigarette smoke, and the extraction of shale oil.
Industrial Waste
The discharge of industrial waste into soils can result in soil pollution. Some common soil
pollutants that can be sourced from industrial waste are listed below.
• Chlorinated industrial solvents
• Dioxins are produced from the manufacture of pesticides and the incineration of waste.
• Plasticizers/dispersants
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
The petroleum industry creates many petroleum hydrocarbon waste products. Some of these
wastes, such as benzene and methylbenzene, are known to be carcinogenic in nature.
Pesticides
Pesticides are substances (or mixtures of substances) that are used to kill or inhibit the growth of
pests. Common types of pesticides used in agriculture include:
• Herbicides – used to kill/control weeds and other unwanted plants.
• Insecticides – used to kill insects.
• Fungicides – used to kill parasitic fungi or inhibit their growth.
However, the unintentional diffusion of pesticides into the environment (commonly known as
‘pesticide drift’) poses a variety of environmental concerns such as water pollution and soil
pollution. Some important soil contaminants found in pesticides are listed below.
Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides
-Triazines -Organophosphates -Mercury-containing compounds
-Carbamates -Chlorinated hydrocarbons -Thiocarbamates
-Amides -Arsenic-containing compounds -Copper sulfate
-Phenoxyalkyl acids -Pyrethrum
-Aliphatic acids
These chemicals pose several health risks to humans. Examples of health hazards related to
pesticides include diseases of the central nervous system, immune system diseases, cancer, and
birth defects.
What are the Processes that Cause Soil Pollution?
Soil pollution can be broadly classified into two categories –
• Naturally caused soil pollution
• Anthropogenic soil pollution (caused by human activity)
Natural Pollution of Soil
In some extremely rare processes, some pollutants naturally accumulate in soils. This can
occur due to the differential deposition of soil by the atmosphere. Another manner in which this
type of soil pollution can occur is via the transportation of soil pollutants with precipitation water.
An example of natural soil pollution is the accumulation of compounds containing the perchlorate
anion (ClO4–) in some dry, arid ecosystems. It is important to note that some contaminants can
be naturally produced in the soil under the effect of certain environmental conditions. For example,
perchlorates can be formed in soils containing chlorine and certain metals during a thunderstorm.
Anthropogenic Soil Pollution
Almost all cases of soil pollution are anthropogenic in nature. A variety of human activities There are two common types of pluvial flooding:
can lead to the contamination of soil. Some such processes are listed below. 1. Surface water floods- occur when an urban drainage system is overwhelmed, and water flows
• The demolition of old buildings can involve the contamination of nearby soil with asbestos. out into streets and nearby structures. It occurs gradually, which provides people time to move to
• Usage of lead-based paint during construction activities can also pollute the soil with safe locations, and the level of water is usually shallow (rarely more than 1 meter deep).
hazardous concentrations of lead. 2. Flash floods - are characterized by an intense, high velocity torrent of water triggered by
• Spillage of petrol and diesel during transportation can contaminate soils with the torrential rain falling within a short amount of time within the vicinity or on nearby elevated terrain.
hydrocarbons found in petroleum. 3. Coastal flood (storm surge) - Coastal flooding is the inundation of land areas along the coast
• Activities associated with metal casting factories (foundries) often cause the dispersion of by seawater. Common causes of coastal flooding are intense windstorm events occurring at the
metallic contaminants into the nearby soils. same time as high tide (storm surge), and tsunamis.
• Underground mining activities can cause the contamination of land with heavy metals.
Storm surge is created when high winds from a windstorm force water onshore - this is the
• Improper disposal of highly toxic industrial/chemical waste can severely pollute the soil.
leading cause of coastal flooding and often the greatest threat associated with a hurricane or
For example, the storage of toxic wastes in landfills can result in the seepage of the waste
typhoon.
into the soil. This waste can go on to pollute groundwater as well.
• Chemical pesticides contain several hazardous substances. Excessive and inefficient use
CAUSES OF FLOODS
of chemical pesticides can result in severe soil pollution.
a. Heavy rainfall resulting from tropical weather disturbances
• Sewage produced in urbanized areas can also contaminate soil (if not disposed of b. Deforestation
correctly). These wastes may also contain several carcinogenic substances. c. Inadequate design of drainage channels and structures
Other forms of waste that can pollute soil include nuclear waste, e-waste, and coal ash. d. Inadequate maintenance of drainage facilities, blockage by debris brought by flood waters
e. Construction of settlements in flood plains
What are the Negative Consequences of Soil Pollution?
Soil pollution harbours a broad spectrum of negative consequences that affect plants, animals, Areas most likely to be worst affected by flooding are:
humans, and the ecosystem as a whole. Since children are more susceptible to diseases, a. Low-lying coastal areas
polluted soil poses a greater threat to them. Some important effects of soil pollution are detailed b. Flood plains of major rivers
in this subsection. c. Areas vulnerable to landslides
d. Low-lying coastal towns and villages
Effects on Human Beings
Soil contaminants can exist in all three phases (solid, liquid, and gaseous). Therefore, these Persons who live close to these areas are urged to be on the alert in case of a disaster as they
contaminants can find their way into the human body via several channels such as direct contact are most vulnerable to flooding.
with the skin or through the inhalation of contaminated soil dust.
The following are some of the major effects of floods:
The short-term effects of human exposure to polluted soil include: 1. Loss of lives
• Headaches, nausea, and vomiting. 2. Decreased purchasing and production power
• Coughing, pain in the chest, and wheezing. 3. Mass Relocation
• Irritation of the skin and the eyes. 4. Psychosocial effects
• Fatigue and weakness. 5. Political implications
6. Hindering economic growth and development
A variety of long-term ailments have been linked to soil pollution. Some such diseases are listed 7. Soil erosion
below. 8. Diseases and epidemics
• Exposure to high levels of lead can result in permanent damage to the nervous system. 9. Structural damage to bridges and roadways
Children are particularly vulnerable to lead. 10. Damage to property
• Depression of the CNS (Central Nervous System).
• Damage to vital organs such as the kidney and the liver. Floods can be mitigated by structural, water control and non-structural measures such as:
• Higher risk of developing cancer. 1. Structural methods include building dams, reservoirs, and retarding basins, channel
management and embankments.
It can be noted that many soil pollutants such as petroleum hydrocarbons and industrial solvents 2. Water control methods: include increasing forest and vegetation cover, watershed
have been linked to congenital disorders in humans. Thus, soil pollution can have several management, flood proofing and catchment modifications.
negative effects on human health. 3. Non-structural methods: flood forecasting, flood warning and emergency preparedness
systems, flood insurance, public information and education, and flood relief.
Effects on Plants and Animals
Since soil pollution is often accompanied by a decrease in the availability of nutrients, plant What is an EARTHQUAKE?
life ceases to thrive in such soils. Soils contaminated with inorganic aluminium can prove toxic to =An Earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the
plants. Also, this type of pollution often increases the salinity of the soil, making it inhospitable for Earth, with sudden release of energy in the form of seismic waves on the surface of the earth.
the growth of plant life. =The point inside the crust where the pressure is released is called the focus.
Plants that are grown in polluted soil may accumulate high concentrations of soil pollutants =The point on the Earth's surface above the focus is called the epicenter.
through a process known as bioaccumulation. When these plants are consumed by herbivores, =When earthquake occurs beneath the sea it causes tsunami.
all the accumulated pollutants are passed up the food chain. This can result in the loss/extinction =The study of earthquakes is called seismology and the instrument used to measure seismic
of many desirable animal species. Also, these pollutants can eventually make their way to the top waves is called a seismometer or seismograph.
of the food chain and manifest as diseases in human beings. =The magnitude of earthquake is measured by Richter scale and intensity by Mercalli scale
(Table).
Effects on the Ecosystem
• Since the volatile contaminants in the soil can be carried away into the atmosphere by
winds or can seep into underground water reserves, soil pollution can be a direct
contributor to air and water pollution.
• It can also contribute to acid rain (by releasing huge quantities of ammonia into the
atmosphere).
• Acidic soils are inhospitable to several microorganisms that improve soil texture and help
in the decomposition of organic matter. Thus, the negative effects of soil pollution also
impact soil quality and texture.
• Crop yield is greatly affected by this form of pollution. In China, over 12 million tons of
grain (worth approximately 2.6 billion USD) is found to be unfit for human consumption
due to contamination with heavy metals (as per studies conducted by the China
Dialogue).

How can Soil Pollution be Controlled?

Several technologies have been developed to tackle soil remediation. Some important strategies
followed for the decontamination of polluted soil are listed below.
• Excavation and subsequent transportation of polluted soils to remote, uninhabited
locations.
• Extraction of pollutants via thermal remediation – the temperature is raised in order to force
the contaminants into the vapour phase, after which they can be collected through vapour
extraction.
•
• Bioremediation or phytoremediation involves the use of microorganisms and plants for the
decontamination of soil.
• Mycoremediation involves the use of fungi for the accumulation of heavy metal
contaminants.

DISASTEER MANAGEMENT: FLOODS, EARTHQUAKE AND LANDSLIDE & THEMATIC

AREAS OF R.A 10121
What is Disaster?
=A disaster is a sudden, severe, and often catastrophic event that causes significant harm to
human life, property, or the environment.
=It is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread
human, material, economic or environmental loss and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the
affected community to cope using its own resources.
=Disasters can be natural, or human made. It can take many forms, such as natural disasters like
earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, wildfires.
What is Disaster Management?
=is the creation of plans through which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope
with disasters.
=Disaster Management is a process of effectively preparing for and responding to disasters.
=It involves strategically organizing resources to lessen the harm that disasters cause.
=It also involves a systematic approach to managing the responsibilities of disaster prevention,
preparedness, response, and recovery.
Disaster management does not avert or eliminate the threats; instead, it focuses on creating
plans to decrease the effect of disasters.

OBJECTIVES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Basically, the main objective of disaster management is to reduce the damage. However, there
are several objectives are integrated with it specifically;

1. Identifying the hazard and its cause.

2. Reducing vulnerability and potential losses of hazard.
3. Assessing, reviewing and controlling the risk.
4. Applying efficient, effective, sustainable relief (food, shelter and money), medical and other
facilities in disaster affected people thus they can survive.
5. Reducing the damage, death, sufferings and destruction of any natural and human induced
disaster.

Disaster management comprises six elements:

= the pre-disaster phase includes prevention, mitigation and preparedness, while the post
disaster phase includes response, rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery.

Disaster Management FLOOD

Water, one of the most common substances known to man has become. through the years, a
precious commodity. Water is required in practically all facets of human activities and the need
water is enormous.
Flood is an overflow of water (or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry.
In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
Earthquakes are generally caused by a mismatch in the earth’s crust. Several causes have been
THREE COMMON FLOOD TYPES linked to disturbed equilibrium or isostatic imbalances in the earth’s crust.
1. fluvial floods, also known as river floods;
2. pluvial or flash floods; and Natural Reasons: THE FEW MOST COMMON NATURAL REASONS ARE:
3. coastal floods, which are often called storm surge. • Volcanic Eruptions
• Tectonic Plate Movements
1. Fluvial floods (river floods) -A fluvial, or river flood, occurs when the water level in a river, lake • Isostatic Adjustments
or stream rises and overflows onto the neighboring land. Cause by heavy rains. • Gaseous expansion and contraction inside the earth
2. Pluvial floods (flash floods and surface water) - A pluvial flood occurs when an extreme rainfall Man-made/Anthropogenic Reasons
event creates a flood independent of an overflowing water body. A common misconception about • Mining
flood is that you must be located near a body of water to be at risk. Yet pluvial flooding can • Explosions
• Dams • Hydrostatic Pressures
happen in any location, urban or rural, even in areas with no nearby bodies of water. • Construction
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE Advantages
An earthquake can cause all sorts of damage to infrastructure and human life. The most 1. The animals are provided with longer time and breeding activity.
widespread form of damage caused by earthquakes is building collapse. 2. The species bred in captivity can be reintroduced in the wild
3. Genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered species.
Let us go through some effects of Earthquake:
• Soil Liquefaction Species Diversity
• Landslides and avalanche “Species diversity is defined as the number of different species present in an ecosystem and
• Tsunamis relative abundance of each of those species.”
• Floods
• Fires Why Is Species Diversity Important?
• Destabilization -It is important due to the interconnectedness of species in their respective ecosystems. Within a
• Loss of life and property specified area, there is a network of predators and prey and the loss of one species leads to
imbalances in others. Without predation, deer populations can skyrocket, with the deer devouring
MANAGEMENT AND MITIGATIONS OF EARTHQUAKE all available vegetation before members of the population begin to die of starvation.
Earthquakes cannot be stopped or predicted accurately but certain management techniques Species Examples in the Plant and Animal Kingdoms:
could be followed to minimize its effect:
1. Construction of buildings which can tolerate earthquakes. This can be done by: Animal
Plant
a) By keeping weak spots in building to absorb vibrations. • Vertebrate
b) To keep pads or floats beneath buildings • Baby rose- Rosa multiflora
- Pig-Sus scrofa • Black Alder- Alnus glutinosa
c) Wooden house to be preferred in earthquake prone area. • Marine Invertebrate
2. Soil testing should be done so that stability of building is assured. • Blue Oak- Quercus douglasii
3. Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them more
- Brine shrimp-Artemia salina
resistant to seismic activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes. • Insect
4. Preparedness and safe building construction can reduce extent of damage and loss. - Japanese beetle- Popillia japonica
5. Establishment of GPS station in the earthquake prone region to assess future crustal
movements. Fungi
What is LANDSLIDE? • Field mushroom- Agaricus campestris
=A landslide/landslip is primarily a combination of several geological processes that include earth • Honey mushroom- Armillaria ostoyae
movements like extensive slope failure, rocks falling, and debris flowing under the action of • Pig's ear- Gomphus clavatus
gravity.
=Landslides occur when gravitational and other types of shear stresses within a slope exceed the ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
shear strength (resistance to shearing) of the materials that form the slope. An Ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with nonliving components of
their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system.
TYPES OF LANDSLIDES
There are four different types of Landslides, and they are all caused by different effects on the • Forest System- is a community of organisms that lives within a forest. A forest is
slope. usually defined as a large group of trees.
1. Soil Creep is a very slow movement, and it is so hard to notice and any damage is done to the • Ocean Ecosystem- also called marine ecosystems. It is made up of a community of
area. living and nonliving things found in a localized area in any ocean.
2. Slumping is a faster movement than Soil Creep and the land will slip down the slope this time. • Grassland Ecosystem- is a community of creatures such as various types of
3. Debris Flow happens when the slope becomes saturated with water, this then triggers a grasses, insects, animals etc. living together within a grassy space.
landslide of water-soaked mass of rock and soil that slides down the slope. • Wetland Ecosystem- a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or
4. Rock Fall landslides are sudden slides caused by heavy rain the rock on the slope loosens and seasonally. The main wetland types include swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens.
then slides down the slope. • Desert Ecosystem- is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs
and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life.
NATURAL CAUSES OF LANDLSIDE HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT CAN CAUSE
INCLUDE: LANDLSIDE INCLUDE: VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
• Heavy rainfall or snowmelt • Deforestation it encompasses all living things from single-celled organisms to lush trees to giant ocean-dwelling
• Earthquakes • Construction animals and everything in between. It might call the " library of life".
• Erosion • Mining
• Volcanic eruptions BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL LEVEL
-refers to the incredible variety of life forms and ecosystems found across the entire planet. It
EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDE encompasses the richness and abundance of species, genetic diversity within species, and the
Short-term impacts: intricate interconnections between different organisms and their environments.
a. The natural beauty of the area is damaged.
b. Loss of life and property Biodiversity at the global level is characterized by a vast array of species and ecosystems found
c. Roadblocks across the world. Here are some examples of the remarkable biodiversity observed at the global
d. Destruction of railway lines scale:
e. Channel blocking because of the falling rocks. • AMAZON RAINFOREST
f. It leads to the diversion of river water, which can cause floods as well. • GREAT BARRIER REEF
• SERENGETI NATIONAL PARK
R.A 10121
• GALAPOS ISLAND
Republic Act 10121, also known as the "Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Act of 2010," establishes the legal framework for disaster risk reduction and management in the • SURDABANS MANGROVE FOREST
Philippines. • CORAL TRIANGLE

THEMATIC AREAS COVERED BY R.A 10121 the Philippines, located in southeast Asia, is known for its exceptional biodiversity and is
• Prevention and Mitigation considered one of the world's biodiversity hotspots.
Prevention measures seek to eliminate the impact of hazards and/or reduce susceptibility to
the biogeographic classification of the Philippines reveals distinct regions and ecosystems, each
them.
Mitigation measures accept that the event will occur and seek to reduce the inevitable with its own characteristic species composition. these classifications are based on factors such
as geological history, landform, climate, and the presence of barriers that shape the distribution of
impact. Key points to consider: Prevention aims to decrease or remove the negative
consequences of hazards. species.

Major biogeographic regions in the Philippines

Disaster Response: It includes search and rescue operations, emergency medical services,
provision of relief goods, and coordination of response efforts among various stakeholders. • LUZON
• MINDANAO
Disaster Preparedness: It covers early warning systems, evacuation planning, emergency • VISAYAS
response training, and the development of contingency plans. • PALAWAN
• MINDORO
Disaster Recovery and Rehabilitation: It includes livelihood support, housing assistance,
infrastructure repair, and psychosocial support for affected individuals and communities. Luzon-Visayas Faunal Region
-The Luzon-Visayas Faunal Region -encompasses both the Luzon and Visayas Faunal regions. It
GROUP 3: BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION represents the northern and central parts of the Philippines and includes the major islands of
Luzon, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte and Samar.
Biodiversity- originates from the Greek word BIOS = LIFE and Latin DIVERSITAS = VARIETY or
DIFFERENCE. The whole word BIODIVERSITY means VARIETY OF LIFE. Notable species
•Philippine freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis)
Biodiversity or also called biological diversity, refers to the variety of life on Earth, including all •Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis)
living organisms and their interactions with each other and their environment. It encompasses •Philippine sailfin lizard (Hydrosaurus pustulatus)
diversity at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels, and is an important measure of the health
and resilience of an ecosystem. Mindanao Faunal Region- represents the southern part of the Philippines comprings the island of
Mindanao. Characterized by diverse ecosystems including tropical rai forests, mountain ranges,
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY freshwater habitats, and coastal areas. It is recognized as one of the world's biodiversity hotspots
- It supports the functioning of ecosystems and the services they provide, such as due to its high levels of species endemism.
nutrient cycling, pollination, and climate regulation.
These are the iconic species found in Mindanao Faunal Region:
- It provides a source of food, medicine and other resources that are important for
• Mindanaon pygmy fruit bat (Alionycteris paucidentata)
human well-being.
• Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi)
- It contributes to cultural, spiritual, and aesthetic values that enrich human life. • Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia)
- It supports scientific research and innovation, as many new technologies and
products are derived from natural compounds and processes. BIODIVERSITY AT LOCAL LEVEL INCLUDING THE BIOGEOGRAPHICALLY CLASSIFICATION OF THE
PHILIPPINES
- It has also intrinsic value, as every species has a unique evolutionary history and
ecological role that contributes to the diversity of life on Earth. Luzon Faunal Region
-Luzon, the largest island in the Philippines, is characterized by a range of ecosystems, including
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY mountains, forests, plains, and coastal areas. It is home to various endemic species, including
It is current under threat from a range of human activities, such as habitat destruction, pollution, the:
overexploitation of resources, and climate change. These threats can lead to the loss of species
• critically endangered Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), which is considered
and ecosystems, which can have far-reaching impacts on human well-being and the functioning
the country's national bird.
of the planet.
• Other notable species found in this region are the Luzon bleeding-heart dove
WAYS TO MEASURE BIODIVERSITY (Gallicolumba luzonica),
1. SPECIES RICHNESS (ENTIRE REGION)-total number of species within the area • Luzon hornbill (Penelopides manillae),
2. GENETIC DIVERSITY-total variety of genes within a single species • Luzon forest mouse (Apomys sp.).
3. ENDEMIC SPECIES- species that occur here and nowhere else in the world Visayas Faunal Region
4. ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY-total number of ecosystems in the region The Visayas Faunal Region comprises the group of islands in the central part of the Philippines,
5. UNIQUE ECOSYSTEMS- ecosystems that occur here and nowhere else in the such as Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, and Samar.
world (an aspect of ecosystem diversity) The Visayas Faunal Region is known for its rich marine biodiversity, as well as diverse terrestrial
ecosystems including rainforests, mangroves, and limestone forests. Notable species in this
COSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY region include the:
Biodiversity conservation has three main objectives: • Visayan warty pig (Sus cebifrons)
1. To preserve the diversity of species • Visayan hornbill (Penelopides panini),
2. Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem • Visayan spotted deer (Rusa alfredi),
3. To maintain life supporting systems and essential ecological processes. • and the critically endangered Visayan leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis rabori).

It can be conserved in the following ways: Mindanao Faunal Region

Mindanao, the second-largest island in the Philippines, is home to the Mindanao Faunal Region.
In-situ Conservation This region showcases immense biodiversity due to its diverse topography, which includes
It is the conservation of species within their natural habitat and in the method the natural mountain ranges, lowland forests, freshwater ecosystems, and coastal areas. It harbors
ecosystem is maintain and protected. numerous endemic species, making it a biodiversity hotspot. Notable species in this region
include the
Advantages: • Philippine tarsier (Carlito syrichta)
1. It is a cost effective and convenient method of conserving biodiversity. • Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis),
2. A large number of living organisms can be conserved simultaneously. • Philippine eagle-owl (Bubo philippensis),
3. Since the organism is in the natural ecosystem they can evolve better and can • Mindanao bleeding-heart dove (Gallicolumba crinigera).
easily adjust to different environmental conditions.
Certain protected areas where in situ conservation takes place include national parks, wildlife and MEGA DIVERSITY AND HOTSPOT OF BIODIVERSITY
biosphere reserves. MEGADIVERSITY refers to the immense variety of life forms on Earth, particularly within a
specific region or country. The term is often used to describe countries or regions with an
Ex-situ Conservation exceptional level of biodiversity, including high levels of endemism. Endemism refers to the
-involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered species artificial ecosystems such as occurrence of species, genera, or families that are found only in a particular geographic area and
zoos, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc. There is less competition for food and space among are not naturally found anywhere else. To be considered a megadiverse country, a nation must
the organisms. have at least 5,000 species of plants that are unique to that country.
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT is a geographic area that has an unusually high concentration of
plant and animal species, many of which are found nowhere else on earth. These regions are
usually characterized by high levels of endemism, meaning that a large proportion of the species
found there are unique to that particular location. Biodiversity hotspots are also under threat from
human activities, such as deforestation, overfishing, and pollution, which can cause the loss of
species and habitats. These areas are often prioritized for conservation efforts because of their
high biodiversity and the urgent need to protect them from further degradation.

PHILIPPINES as a HOTSPOT OF BIODIVERSITY and a MEGA DIVERSITY COUNTRY

-The Philippines is a country with high levels of biodiversity and endemism, making it a hotspot of
biodiversity and a mega- diversity area. It is estimated to be home to 18,000 plant species, 6,000
of which are endemic. The Coral Triangle, of which the Philippines is a part, is the global center
of marine biodiversity, with over 2,000 fish species and 75% of the world's coral species.
However, the Philippines faces threats to its biodiversity from habitat loss, overexploitation of
natural resources, pollution, and climate change.

MEGA DIVERSITY AND HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY INCLUDING RARE SPECIES IN THE

PHILIPPINES
• Philippine Eagle- The country's national bird, is the second largest eagle in the
world and is known for its unique brown and white feathers. It is a top predator that
feeds on flying squirrels, monkeys, and bats. Due to habitat loss and urbanization,
the Philippine Eagle is now critically endangered, and its population has drastically
declined.
• Philippine tarsier- The Tarsiers, the world's second-smallest primate with
captivating golden round eyes, can be found in the provinces of Leyte, Samar, and
Bohol. They are nocturnal and sleep during the day due to their sensitive eyesight.
Their strong auditory senses allow them to endure high frequencies exceeding
those of humans. However, the Tarsiers are facing extinction.
• Hawksbill Sea Turtle- Locally known as Pawikan, the Hawksbill Sea Turtle is
frequently chased by illegal hunters. This marine life is ruthlessly caught for its
yellow-colored shell and juicy meat. The shells are often sold in other countries as
home decorations while their meat is being eaten by locals.
MEGA DIVERSITY AND HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY INCLUDING ENDANGERED
SPECIES IN THE PHILIPPINES

Tamaraw
• Often interchanged with the native carabao, the dwarf water buffalo called Tamaraw
is now listed as a critically endangered species only found in Mindoro. The truth is,
Tamaraw is a rare mammal that is slightly hairier than those of a local carabao.
They have light markings on the face, have a V- shaped horn (not letter C), and are
proven to be not sociable to humans. It has a short temper that can attack you
anytime when it feels threatened or provoked.
• Before, the Tamaraws had a wide population of 10,000, but only a hundred of them
are seen right now. Hopefully, illegal hunting and illegal fresh trade will stop, so
tamaraws can live for another century.

The Visayan Warty Pig

• A pig that used to freely roam around the central Philippines is now in trouble. Due
to agricultural land destruction, the Visayan warty pig can only be found in Negros
and Panay. Before there were plenty of them in the province of Cebu and Guimaras
but they disappeared because of habitat loss. Their natural habitat was turned into
rice fields so there is no way for them to stay in the same place.
• Its body features are bristly dark hairs and small yet sharp hooked tusks. The
female warty pigs can weigh up to 20 – 35 kilograms while male warty pigs can
weigh up to 35 – 40 kilograms. Nonetheless, both can have long tails that can
expand up to 23 centimeters. It is just unfortunate to think that they are now slowly
losing their numbers.

The Philippine Spotted Deer

• Thriving in the rainforests, the Philippine Spotted Deer is one of the most beautiful deers that ever
existed. It can be found in the regions of Negros and Panay but it used to be widespread in the
provinces of Cebu, Leyte, Masbate, and Samar. It has the physical characteristics of being short-
legged with brown and black backsides. Its body can grow up to 51 inches in length and 31 inches in
height.
• They can also weigh up to 80 kilograms! If you are unfamiliar with the kinds of deers, you will not be
lost when identifying a Philippine spotted deer. Resembling a letter ‘A’, the deer has a beige spot at
its back and a cream under part. Its lifespan ranges from 15 – to 20 years

MEGA DIVERSITY AND HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY INCLUDING VULNERABLE SPECIES IN THE

PHILIPPINES
• Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), also known as the Philippine red-vented cockatoo or
locally known as "katala" or "abukay" in the Philippines, is a species of parrot endemic to the
Philippines. They are found on the islands of Palawan, Calauit, Culion, Busuanga, and Mindoro in
the western part of the country.This bird species is listed as vulnerable due to habitat loss and
capture for the illegal pet trade.
• Philippine duck (Anasluzonica)- is a species of duck that is native to the Philippines. It is a medium-
sized duck, measuring around 48 to 58 centimeters in length and weighing approximately 700 to 900
grams. This duck species is considered vulnerable due to habitat loss, hunting, and egg collection.
• Philippine naked-backed fruit bat (Dobsonia chapmani)- It is named after Frank Michler Chapman,
an American ornithologist who was an early collector of bird specimens from the Philippines.The
Philippine naked-backed fruit bat is considered vulnerable due to habitat loss and hunting. They are
known to roost in caves and feed on fruit, flowers, and nectar. However, their habitat is being
destroyed due to human activities such as deforestation and conversion of land for agriculture and
urbanization.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY-refers to factors or actions that contribute to the decline, destruction, or loss of
biological diversity in a particular ecosystem or across the planet.

Biggest Threats to Biodiversity

Climate Change, Pollution, Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

Ways in Conserving Biodiversity

Conserving biodiversity is essential for the well-being of our planet and its inhabitants. It provides vital ecosystem
services, maintains ecological stability, has cultural and aesthetic value, drives economic prosperity, and carries an
ethical imperative.

Here are some key approaches to conserving biodiversity:

• protect natural habitats
• habitat restoration
• practice sustainable fisheries
• raising awareness and education